air quality in asiaair quality in asia: status and trends 2010 edition april 2010 clean air...

Air Quality in Asia: Status and Trends2010 Edition

Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center

Air Quality in Asia:

Status and Trends 2010 Edition

April 2010


Unit 3510, 35th

Floor, Robinsons-Equitable Tower

ADB, Avenue, Pasig City, Metro Manila, Philippines

.

© 2010 Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center. All rights reserved.

Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2010. “Air Quality in Asia: Status and Trends - 2010

Edition”. Pasig City, Philippines.

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for educational or non-profit purposes

without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgment of the source is made. The

CAI-Asia Center would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this CAI-Asia Center

publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial

purpose whatsoever, without prior permission in writing from the CAI-Asia Center.

Disclaimer

The views expressed in this publication are those of CAI-Asia staff, consultants and management, and do not

necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Trustees of the CAI-Asia Center. The CAI-Asia Center does not

guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and does not accept responsibility for

consequence of their use.

Acknowledgment

This publication makes use of information published on the Clean Air Portal (www.cleanairinitiative.org) that

was developed with support from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) through the Japan Special Fund

together with CAI-Asia Partnership members.

Contact

CAI-Asia Center

Unit 3510, Robinsons-Equitable Tower, ADB Avenue,

Pasig City, 1605, Metro Manila, Philippines

Tel +63 2 395 2843

Fax +63 2 395 2846

[email protected]

www.cleanairninitiative.org

Introduction … 1

Status of Air Quality … 2

PM10 Concentrations in Asia – 2008 … 2

SO2 Concentrations in Asia – 2008 … 4

NO2 Concentrations in Asia – 2008 … 6

Trends of Air Quality … 8

Status of Air Quality Standards … 9

Development of National Ambient Air Quality Standards … 9

Air Quality Monitoring and Reporting … 9

World Health Organization Ambient Air Quality Guidelines … 10

Existence of NAAQS in Asia … 11

Comparison of NAAQS with WHO AQG, US EPA NAAQS and EU AQ Standards … 13

P

ho

to ©

CA

I-A

sia

Ce

nte

r

1

Introduction

Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia)’s mission is to “Promote better air quality and livable

cities by translating knowledge to policies and actions that reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas

emissions from transport, energy and other sectors.”

CAI-Asia recognizes that while information and knowledge on air quality management are increasingly

generated in Asia, they are fragmented in different documents and websites. To ensure that decision-makers

have better access to knowledge on clean air management that can assist in policy development, CAI-Asia has

been releasing publications and presentations that provide a comprehensive and comparative assessment of

the status and challenges of air quality management in Asia. Starting with only 20 cities in 2003, CAI-Asia now

has compiled information on air quality and pollutant levels from over 200 Asian cities.1

“Air Quality in Asia: Status and Trends, 2010 edition” is now composed of two parts

• Status and Trends of Air Quality, which provides a snapshot of air quality levels in 2008 and trends of

air quality from 1993 to 2008.

• Status of Air Quality Standards, which provides an overview of the ambient air quality standards

adopted by developing Asian countries.

Analysis of air quality levels and ambient air quality standards in Asian cities, indicate that

• While some improvements in air quality have been achieved, levels of PM10 and SO2 continue to

exceed World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines (AQG).

• There is not enough air quality data to assess PM2.5 and ozone.

• Most Asian countries have already adopted National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for

criteria pollutants (except for PM2.5).

• Ambient air quality standards of most countries lag behind WHO AQG and US EPA (Environmental

Protection Agency) NAAQS.

Based on this study, CAI-Asia advocates

• That countries without NAAQS, adopt ambient air quality standards to protect public health

• That cities monitor air quality levels to monitor compliance to NAAQS

• That air quality information be made widely available to public

• For a process of developing a roadmap on air quality standards in Asia moving towards achieving

WHO guidelines

For more information, contact:


3510 Robinson’s Equitable Tower, ADB Avenue,

Ortigas Center, Pasig City, 1605 Philippines

Tel: (63-2) 395-2843/(63-2) 395-2845

Fax: (63-2) 395-2846

Email: [email protected]

1 The efforts in collecting air quality data from the different cities commenced during the implementation of the Air

Pollution in the Major and Mega-cities of Asia project in 2003, in cooperation with UNEP and WHO. As of April 2010, CAI-

Asia now has air quality data for 234 Asian cities.

2

Status of Air Quality

PM10 Concentrations in Asia – 2008

In 2008, CAI-Asia was able to collect annual average PM10 concentrations for 230 Asian cities. Monitoring

results reflects PM10 as a critical pollutant for most Asian cities.

From these 230 cities, only two had annual average PM10 concentrations within the WHO AQG (20 µg/m3)

while about 58% of these cities had annual PM10 levels exceeding even WHO Interim Target-1 (IT-1) of

70 µg/m3.

The average of annual average PM10 concentrations of 230 cities is 89.5 µg/m3—about 4.5 times higher than

WHO AQG.

Figure 1 Annual Particulate Matter (PM10) concentrations in 230 cities in Asia.

Note: Annual PM10 concentrations range from 11 (minimum) to 375 (maximum) micrograms per cubic meter

(µg/m3). PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less.

Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010.

Each dot represents annual average PM10 concentrations

for 2008.

11 µg/m3

375 µg/m3

3


Figure 2 Distribution of Asian Cities relative to 2008 PM10 concentration.

WHO = World Health Organization; AQG = air quality guideline; IT = interim target; µg/m3 = microgram per cubic

meter; PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less.


0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Above

250

250

200

150

100

70

50

30

20

Number of Cities (Total: 230 cities)

PM

10

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

(µg

/m

3)

2 cities (1%)

6 cities

(3%)

13 cities (6%)

55 cities (24%)

59 cities (26%)

49 cities (21%)

38 cities (17%)

2 cities (1%)

6 cities

(3%)

WHO AQG, 20µg/m3

WHO IT-2, 50µg/m3

WHO IT-1, 70µg/m3

WHO IT-3, 30µg/m3

4


SO2 Concentrations in Asia – 2008

SO2 monitoring data for 213 Asian cities show that SO2 levels are still a problem for some Asian cities,

particularly those in or are within the vicinity of industries.

Average of annual average SO2 concentrations of 213 Asian cities is 18.7 µg/m3. The WHO does prescribe an

annual guideline for SO2, but rather, prescribes a 24-hour AQG – 20 µg/m3. Based on the 2005 Global Update

of AQG by WHO, an annual AQG for SO2 was not established because the 24-hr AQG is already low and

achieving the 24-hr AQG ensures that the annual average SO2 concentration will even be lower.

About 40% of the cities had annual average SO2 levels equal or lower than 10 µg/m3. However, 24% of cities’

annual average SO2 concentrations do not meet even the 24-hr WHO AQG.

Figure 3 Annual Sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations in 213 cities in Asia.

Note: Annual SO2 concentrations range from 1.3 (minimum) to 105 (maximum) micrograms per cubic meter

(µg/m3). Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010.

Each dot represents annual average SO2 concentrations

for 2008.

1.3 µg/m3

105 µg/m3

5


Figure 4 Distribution of Asian Cities relative to 2008 SO2 concentration.

WHO = World Health Organization; AQG = air quality guideline; µg/m3 = microgram per cubic meter; SO2 = Sulfur

dioxide


0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Above 50

50

40

30

20

10


SO2

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

(µ

g/m

3)

18 cities (8%)

8 cities

(4%)

6 cities (3%)

19 cities (9%)

85 cities (40%)

WHO AQG (24-hr) 20µg/m3

77 cities (36%)

6


NO2 Concentrations in Asia – 2008

In 2008, annual average NO2 monitoring data for 234 Asian cities show that NO2 levels are relatively low and

well within the WHO AQG (40 µg/m3) for most cities. 73% of the 234 cities have annual average NO2

concentrations below the WHO AQG.

The average of annual average NO2 concentrations for 234 Asian cities is 30.7 µg/m3—within the WHO AQG.

Figure 5 Annual Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations in 234 cities in Asia.

Note: Annual NO2 concentrations range from 1.9 (minimum) to 77 (maximum) micrograms per cubic meter

(µg/m3).


Each dot represents annual average NO2 concentrations

for 2008.

1.9 µg/m3

77 µg/m3

7


Figure 6 Distribution of Asian Cities relative to 2008 NO2 concentration.

WHO = World Health Organization; AQG = air quality guideline; µg/m3 = microgram per cubic meter; NO2 =

Nitrogen dioxide


0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Above 80

80

70

60

50

40


NO

2C

on

cen

tra

tio

n (

µg

/m3)

WHO AQG, 40µg/m3

5 cities (2%)

9 cities (4%)

171 cities (73%)

30 cities (13%)

8

Air Quality Trends

Understanding the air quality trends/tendency for Asia is a difficult task—with one major challenge is the

limitations experienced by many Asian cities in air quality monitoring and reporting capacity. Nonetheless,

CAI-Asia Center has been collecting available air quality monitoring data for over 200 Asian cities over the

years to have an indication on the trend of air pollution in Asian cities. Upon analysis of these data, CAI-Asia

has found that—

� PM10 is still a major pollutant is Asian cities—with the average of annual average PM10

concentrations over three times above the WHO guidelines since 1993.

� Since 1995, most Asian cities have reported relatively low NO2 levels, with annual average

concentrations well within the WHO AQG.

� Regarding SO2 levels, although there has been a marked decrease from 1993 to 2000, a number of

Asian cities have annual average SO2 concentrations do not meet even the 24-hr WHO AQG.

Figure 7 Average of Annual Average Annual Ambient AQ in Selected Asian Cities (1993-2008).

AQ = air quality; µg/m3 = micrograms per cubic meter; US EPA = United Stated Environmental Protection Agency;

NAAQS = National Ambient Air Quality Standards; EU = European Union; WHO = World Health Organization; AQG =

air quality guidelines; PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less; NO2 =

Nitrogen dioxide; SO2 = Sulfur dioxide.

Source: CAI-Asia, 2010. [Note: Air quality data is compiled by CAI-Asia Center from official sources (publications,

personal communications) for 243 Asian cities – as of April 2010.]

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

19

93

19

95

19

97

19

99

20

01

20

03

20

05

20

07

19

93

19

95

19

97

19

99

20

01

20

03

20

05

20

07

19

93

19

95

19

97

19

99

20

01

20

03

20

05

20

07

PM10 NO2 SO2

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

ug

/m3

)

US EPA NAAQS (annual)

EU AQ Standard (annual)

WHO AQG (annual)

9

Status of Air Quality Standards

The adoption of ambient air quality standards and monitoring of their compliance is one of the main policy

tools to protect the health of public from the adverse effects of air pollution. In 2009, CAI-Asia Center

conducted a survey to understand the status of National Air Quality Standards in Asia.

Development of National Ambient Air Quality Standards

In Asia, governments, whether at country or city level, have adopted a range of air quality standards, most of

which are based on the prevailing international guidelines, such as WHO AQG and US EPA NAAQS, at the time

of development. Ideally, countries or cities should develop standards after considering prevailing exposure

levels, meteorological and topographical conditions, socio-economic levels, natural background

concentration, and population susceptibility, among others.

Ambient air quality standards are set to protect public health and the environment from the harmful effects

of air pollution. The standards come in different forms based on different factors. Short-term standards aim

to protect population from acute exposure to pollutant whereas long-term standards aim to protect

population from long-term exposure to the pollutant.

Air Quality Monitoring and Reporting

To monitor compliance to the standards, authorities often, at the city level, install air quality monitoring

systems. In addition, air quality monitoring systems also aid in assessing effectiveness of air quality policies.

Asia has seen improvements in capacities for air quality monitoring and reporting. More cities are now able

to report on their air quality levels. However, air quality reporting remains to be widely variable in Asian

cities. Some cities report actual air quality levels versus some which report with use of air quality indices.

Some cities also report air quality information real-time while others continue to do this on ad hoc basis.

P

ho

to ©

CA

I-A

sia

Ce

nte

r

PHOTO BELOW Mobile air quality monitoring station in Metro Manila.

This is operated by the Environmental Management Bureau – National

Capital Region (EMB-NCR).

PHOTO LEFT Automatic air quality monitoring station in Cebu City.

This is operated by EMB – Region 7.

P

ho

to ©

CA

I-A

sia

Ce

nte

r

10


World Health Organization Ambient Air Quality Guidelines

The WHO assists countries in reducing the health effects of air pollution by providing guidance to countries in

setting their NAAQS through the WHO Ambient AQG. The WHO AQG, first published in 1987, identify

pollutant levels below which exposure to a pollutant for a given averaging time either does not constitute a

health risk or the least health risk.

In 2005, the WHO updated the AQGs by setting guidelines for PM10 and PM2.5. The 2005 Global Update also

indicated that reducing levels of PM10 could decrease mortality in polluted cities by as much as 15% every

year. Interim targets were also provided for some pollutants. The ITs are targets which the countries can

adopt as they progressively move towards the WHO AQGs.

The 2005 version also lowered the recommended limits of many pollutants, including O3 and SO2, making

them much more stringent than the national standards currently applied in many parts of the world.

Pollutant Averaging Time WHO Guidelines US EPA NAAQSc

PM2.5 Annual mean 10

a 15

24-hour mean 25a 35

PM10 Annual mean 20

a -

24-hour mean 50a 150

Ozone (O3) 8-hour mean 100

a 147

d

1-hour mean - 235d

Nitrogen

(NO2)

Annual mean 40a 100

1-hour mean 200a -

Sulfur dioxide

(SO2)

Annual mean - 78e

24-hour mean 20a 365

e

10-minute mean 500a -

Lead (Pb) Annual mean 0.5

b -

3-month mean - 1.5

Carbon monoxide (CO) 1-hour mean 30,000

b 40,000

8-hour mean 10,000b 10,000

PM2.5= particles less than 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter; PM10= particles of 10 micrometers or less in

aerodynamic diameter; WHO=World Health Organization; EPA=Environmental Protection Agency;

NAAQS=National Ambient Air Quality Standards

aWHO, 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, Nitrogen dioxide and Sulfur dioxide. Global

Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment.

http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf bWHO, 2000. “Guidelines for Air Quality.” http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_00.02_pp1-104.pdf

cNational Ambient Air Quality Standards http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html

dConversion factor for ppb to µg/m

3: 1.962

eConversion factor for ppb to µg/m

3: 2.616

11


Existence of NAAQS in Asia

Most Asian countries have NAAQS, but there are still few without standards

Most Asian countries have already adopted NAAQS (Table 1), with some countries regularly reviewing and

updating their standards to take into account current conditions of the country and recent scientific

information.

Thailand, for instance, has updated their

standards for four times since they first

established their standards in 1981. India also

recently revised their standards wherein they

established PM2.5 and O3 standards.

Recent developments were also observed in

Viet Nam. Effective 2010, Viet Nam’s NAAQS

(TCVN) was revised into national technical

regulations (QCVN), making compliance

mandatory. Hong Kong Special Administrative

Region (SAR) is also currently undergoing review

of their Air Quality Objectives (AQO).

Nonetheless, there are a number of Asian

countries still without NAAQS—Afghanistan,

Bhutan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR)

and Pakistan (Table 1). There is currently no

information whether these countries are

planning to adopt NAAQS in the near future.

Asian countries slowly establishing PM2.5 standards

Countries have developed standards for a range of pollutants. With recent scientific findings highlighting the

significant health impacts of PM2.5, WHO and several developed countries, such as US and EU have

established PM2.5 guidelines (for WHO) and standards (for US and European Union [EU]).

Asian countries are slowly moving towards developing PM2.5 as well, but there is still a long way to go. Of 19

Asian countries included reviewed; four have PM2.5 standards (Table 1). Further, based on survey results, only

Thailand had concrete plans to develop PM2.5 standards in the next couple of years.

P

ho

to ©

ww

w.e

pd

.go

v.h

k

12


Table 1 Summary of Ambient Air Quality Standards in Select Asian Countries (µg/m3)

Countries

PM2.5 PM10 SO2 NO2 O3 CO (‘000) Pb

24

-Hr

An

nu

al

24

-Hr

An

nu

al

24

-Hr

An

nu

al

24

-Hr

An

nu

al

1-H

r

8-H

r

1-H

r

8-H

r

An

nu

al

Afghanistan - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Bangladesh 65 15 150 50 365 80 - 100 235 157 40 10 0.5

Bhutan - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Cambodia - - - - 300 100 100 - 200 - 40 20 -

China: Grade I - - 50 40 50 20 80 40 160 - 10 - 1

China: Grade II - - 150 100 150 60 120 80 200 - 10 - 1

China: Grade III - - 250 150 250 100 120 80 200 - 20 - 1

Hong Kong SAR - - 180 55 350 80 150 80 240 - 30 10 -

India* 60 40 100 60 80 50 80 40 180 100 4 2 0.5

India** 60 40 100 60 80 20 80 30 180 100 4 2 0.5

Indonesia - - 150 - 365 60 150 100 235 - 30 - 1

Lao PDR - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Malaysia - - 150 50 105 - 10 - 200 120 35 10 -

Mongolia - - - - 30 - 40 - 120 0 - - -

Nepal - - 120 - 70 50 80 40 - - - 10 0.5

Pakistan - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Philippines - - 150 60 180 80 150 - 140 60 35 10 1

Republic of Korea - - 100 50 131 52 113 56 196 118 28.6 10.3 0.5

Singapore 35 15 150 - 365 80 - 100 - 147 40 10 -

Sri Lanka 50 25 100 50 80 - 100 - 200 - 30 10 -

Thailand - - 120 50 300 100 - - 200 140 34.2 10.3 -

Viet Nam - - 150 50 125 50 - 40 - 120 30 10 0.5

China: Grade I = applies to specially protected areas, such as natural conservation areas, scenic spots, and

historical sites; China: Grade II = applies to residential areas, mixed commercial/residential areas, cultural,

industrial, and rural areas; China: Grade III = special industrial areas; India* = NAAQS for Industrial, Residential,

Rural and Other Areas; India** = NAAQS for Ecologically Sensitive Areas (notified by Central Government); SAR =

Special Administrative Region; PDR = People’s Democratic Republic; Pb = lead; PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic

particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less; PM2.5 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 2.5

micrometers or less

Ozone (O3) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.962

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 2.616

Carbon monoxide (CO) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.145

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.880

Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010. [Collected from various sources]

13


Comparison of NAAQS with WHO AQG, US EPA NAAQS and EU AQ Standards (Per Pollutant)

PM2.5

Only a few Asian countries have PM2.5 standards, and of these countries, none have standards equivalent to

the WHO AQG. Still, PM2.5 standards generally close to a WHO interim target. Annual PM2.5 standards of

Singapore and Bangladesh, for instance, are at WHO IT-3 (15 µg/m3).

PM10

All the surveyed Asian countries’ standards, including US EPA’s PM10 standards for 24-hour and annual

averaging period are more lenient than WHO guidelines with some even more lenient than WHO IT-1. A large

number of the countries meet WHO IT-1 for both 24-hour and annual averaging periods.

SO2

All the surveyed Asian countries, including US EPA and EU, have 24-hr average SO2 standards higher than

WHO AQG. About 64% of the countries surveyed were higher than WHO IT-1. Most of the countries have

annual SO2 standards despite WHO not having a guideline for this.

NO2

Only four of 18 countries surveyed had annual NO2 standards equivalent to the WHO AQG. Most of the

countries have 24-hour NO2 standards even though WHO does not have a guideline for this.

O3

Of the 19 Asian countries surveyed, two have 8-hr average O3 standards same with the WHO AQG. Remaining

countries with 8-Hr average O3 standard meet the WHO IT-1. Still, 59% of the countries do not have 8-hr

average O3 standards.

CO

Most of the surveyed Asian countries, including US EPA and EU, have CO standards for 1-hour and 8-hour

averaging period within WHO guidelines with a few being more stringent than the WHO AQG.

Pb

Around a third of the countries surveyed have Pb standards for annual averaging period similar to the

prescribed WHO AQG (0.5µg/m3), another third of the countries have more lenient standards and the last

third of the countries do not have Pb standards for the annual averaging period.

14


Figure 8 24-Hr PM2.5 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG and US EPA NAAQS.

Figure 9 Annual PM2.5 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Cambodia

China: Grade I

China: Grade II

China: Grade III

Hong Kong SAR

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Mongolia

Nepal

Pakistan

Philippines

Republic of Korea

Thailand

Viet Nam

Bangladesh

India*

India**

Sri Lanka

Singapore

24-Hr PM2.5 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

25 µg/m3

WHO IT-2

50 µg/m3

WHO IT-1

70 µg/m3

WHO IT-3

37.5 µg/m3

US EPA

35 µg/m3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Cambodia

China: Grade I

China: Grade II

China: Grade III

Hong Kong SAR

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Mongolia

Nepal

Pakistan

Philippines

Republic of Korea

Thailand

Viet Nam

India*

India**

Sri Lanka

Bangladesh

Singapore

Annual PM2.5 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

10 µg/m3

WHO IT-2

25 µg/m3

WHO IT-1

35 µg/m3

WHO IT-3

15 µg/m3

US EPA

15 µg/m3

EU

25 µg/m3

15


Figure 10 24-Hr PM10 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.

Figure 11 Annual PM10 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG and EU NAAQS.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Cambodia

Lao PDR

Mongolia

Pakistan

China: Grade III

Hong Kong SAR

Bangladesh

China: Grade II

Indonesia

Malaysia

Philippines

Singapore

Viet Nam

Nepal

Thailand

India*

India**

Republic of Korea

Sri Lanka

China: Grade I

24-Hr PM10Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

50 µg/m3

WHO IT-2

100 µg/m3

WHO IT-1

150 µg/m3

WHO IT-3

75 µg/m3

US EPA

150 µg/m3

EU

50 µg/m3

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Mongolia

Nepal

Pakistan

Singapore

China: Grade III

China: Grade II

India*

India**

Philippines

Hong Kong SAR

Bangladesh

Malaysia

Republic of Korea

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

China: Grade I

Annual PM10 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

20 µg/m3

WHO IT-2

50 µg/m3

WHO IT-1

70 µg/m3

WHO IT-3

30 µg/m3

EU

40 µg/m3

16


Figure 12 24-Hr SO2 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.

Figure 13 Annual SO2 Standards in Asian countries vs. US EPA NAAQS.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Lao PDR

Pakistan

Bangladesh

Indonesia

Singapore

Hong Kong SAR

Cambodia

Thailand

China: Grade III

Philippines

China: Grade II

Republic of Korea

Viet Nam

Malaysia

India*

India**

Sri Lanka

Nepal

China: Grade I

Mongolia

24-hr SO2 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

20 µg/m3

WHO IT-2

50 µg/m3

WHO IT-1

125 µg/m3 US EPA

365 µg/m3EU

125 µg/m3

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Mongolia

Pakistan

Sri Lanka

Cambodia

China: Grade III

Thailand

Bangladesh

Hong Kong SAR

Philippines

Singapore

China: Grade II

Indonesia

Republic of Korea

India*

Nepal

Viet Nam

China: Grade I

India**

Annual SO2 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

US EPA

78 µg/m3

17


Figure 14 24-Hr NO2 Standards in Asian countries.

Figure 15 Annual NO2 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Afghanistan

Bangladesh

Bhutan

Lao PDR

Pakistan

Singapore

Thailand

Viet Nam

Hong Kong SAR

Indonesia

Philippines

China: Grade II

China: Grade III

Republic of Korea

Cambodia

Sri Lanka

China: Grade I

India*

India**

Nepal

Mongolia

Malaysia

24-Hr NO2 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Cambodia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Mongolia

Pakistan

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Bangladesh

Indonesia

Singapore

China: Grade II

China: Grade III

Hong Kong SAR

Republic of Korea

China: Grade I

India*

Nepal

Viet Nam

India**

Annual NO2 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

40 µg/m3

US EPA

100 µg/m3

EU

40 µg/m3

18


Figure 16 1-Hr O3 Standards in Asian countries vs. US EPA NAAQS.

Figure 17 8-Hr O3 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Lao PDR

Nepal

Pakistan

Singapore

Viet Nam

Hong Kong SAR

Bangladesh

Indonesia

Cambodia

China: Grade II

China: Grade III

Malaysia

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Republic of Korea

India*

India**

China: Grade I

Philippines

Mongolia

1-Hr O3 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

sUS EPA

235 µg/m3

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Cambodia

China: Grade I

China: Grade II

China: Grade III

Hong Kong SAR

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Mongolia

Nepal

Pakistan

Sri Lanka

Bangladesh

Singapore

Thailand

Malaysia

Viet Nam

Republic of Korea

India*

India**

Philippines

8-Hr O3 Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

100 µg/m3

WHO IT-1

160 µg/m3

US EPA

147 µg/m3

EU

120 µg/m3

19


Figure 18 1-Hr CO Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG and US EPA NAAQS.

Figure 19 8-Hr CO Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Lao PDR

Mongolia

Nepal

Pakistan

Bangladesh

Cambodia

Singapore

Malaysia

Philippines

Thailand

Hong Kong SAR

Indonesia

Sri Lanka

Viet Nam

Republic of Korea

China: Grade III

China: Grade I

China: Grade II

India*

India**

1-Hr CO Standard (‘000) (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

30 µg/m3

US EPA

40 µg/m3

0 5 10 15 20 25

Afghanistan

Bhutan

China: Grade I

China: Grade II

China: Grade III

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Mongolia

Pakistan

Cambodia

Malaysia

Republic of Korea

Thailand

Bangladesh

Hong Kong SAR

Nepal

Philippines

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Viet Nam

India*

India**

8-Hr CO Standard (‘000) (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

10 µg/m3

US EPA

10 µg/m3

EU

10 µg/m3

20


Figure 20 Annual Pb Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG and EU NAAQS.

Notes for Figure 8 to Figure 20.

China: Grade I = applies to specially protected areas, such as natural conservation areas, scenic spots, and

historical sites; China: Grade II = applies to residential areas, mixed commercial/residential areas, cultural,

industrial, and rural areas; China: Grade III = special industrial areas; India* = NAAQS for Industrial, Residential,

Rural and Other Areas; India** = NAAQS for Ecologically Sensitive Areas (notified by Central Government); SAR =

Special Administrative Region; PDR = People’s Democratic Republic; Pb = lead; PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic

particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less; PM2.5 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 2.5

micrometers or less; µg/m3 = micrograms per cubic meter; WHO = World Health Organization; IT = interim target;

AQG = air quality guidelines; US EPA = United States Environmental Protection Agency; EU = European Union.

Ozone (O3) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.962

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 2.616

Carbon monoxide (CO) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.145

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.880

Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010. [Collected from various sources]

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Afghanistan

Bhutan

Cambodia

Hong Kong SAR

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Mongolia

Pakistan

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Thailand

China: Grade I

China: Grade II

China: Grade III

Indonesia

Philippines

Bangladesh

India*

India**

Nepal

Republic of Korea

Viet Nam

Annual Pb Standard (µg/m3)

Co

un

trie

s

WHO AQG

0.5 µg/m3

EU

0.5 µg/m3

©CAI-Asia Center,2010.

3510 Robinson’s Equitable Tower, ADB Avenue,

Ortigas Center, Pasig City, 1605 Philippines

Tel: (63-2) 395-2843/(63-2) 395-2845

Fax: (63-2) 395-2846

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.cleanairinitiative.org

air quality in asiaair quality in asia: status and trends 2010 edition april 2010 clean air...

Documents