AIR OF INJUSTICEHow Air Pollution Affects the Health of Hispanics and Latinos

July 2004 League of United Latin American Citizens.

League of United Latin American Citizens2000 L Street, NW Suite 610Washington, DC 20036202 833-6130

Clear the Air provided research, financial and technicalassistance in the writing of the report. This report wasmade possible with funding from The Pew CharitableTrusts. The opinions expressed in the report are thoseof the authors and do not necessarily reflect the viewsof The Pew Charitable Trusts.

Clear the Air1200 18th Street, NW, 5th floorWashington, DC 20036202-887-1341

Written by: Martha Keating, Clean Air Task ForceEdited by: Maya Bassford, Angela Ledford, Clear

the Air, Gabriela D. Lemus, Ph.D., LULAC

Technical Assistance: MSB Associates

Special thanks to: Dr. Cecilio Ortiz-García, AssistantProfessor at The University of Texas-Permian Basin,Odessa, Congressman Raúl Grijalva (7thCongressional District of Arizona), Roger Rivera,President, National Hispanic Environmental Counciland New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson for theircontributions to the report.

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June 2004

Estimado lector:

I am honored to present the foreword to this important report.

I share the environmental concern that members of Clear the Air and the League of UnitedLatin American Citizens address every day.

This report confirms what many have feared: Hispanic communities disproportionately sufferhealth problems that result from living with pollution from power plants. Low-income andminority populations are subject to elevated environmental risks throughout the country, sothis finding may not be surprising. But it is factual information that can provide a foundationfor change.

Our nation needs to provide better protection for people who are affected by these environ-mental factors. And we need to require the implementation of clean new technologies that willprevent much of the pollution our communities experience today.

By doing so — by embracing new approaches and new technologies — we will pass on a safer,cleaner world to future generations. We will help address serious health problems facing people today. We will continue to strengthen the world’s most dynamic economy.

Many in the Hispanic world come from families whose connections to land and water go backfor generations and generations. Others have moved into the Hispanic community in recentyears. Whoever is affected, and wherever they come from, it is critical for us to put clean air,clean water, and healthy land back at the top of the nation’s list of priorities.

I welcome the information in this report. And I will help make sure that this information ispart of the national policy dialogue.

Thank you for giving me the opportunity to participate in your important work.

Atentamente,

Bill RichardsonGovernor of New Mexico

Foreword

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H ispanic families suffer serioushealth effects caused by air pol-lution. Studies show that the veryair breathed by Hispanic Americans

is likely to be harmful to their health.1 Latino chil-dren and adults living in polluted areas are morelikely to suffer adverse health effects, such as asthmaattacks. For many, the situation is worsened by a lackof health insurance and by language barriers.

Air pollution from power plant smokestacks,cars and trucks, construction equipment, andother sources includes fine particle “soot” pollu-tion, ozone smog and dangerous air toxics such asmercury. The health effects of these pollutantsinclude breathing problems, stunted lung growth,and babies that are born with low birth weight,among many other serious health effects. Airpollution is keeping children with asthma homefrom school, as the incidence of asthma in Latinofamilies reaches epidemic proportions.

The air in Latino communities violates airquality standards. More than half of the U.S. pop-ulation (55 percent) lives in areas with unhealthylevels of ozone or particle pollution.2 Hispanicsmake up 13 percent of the U.S. population, yet in2002 more than seven out of ten Hispanics (71 per-

cent) lived in counties that violated federal air pollu-tion standards for one or more pollutants.3

Hispanics are exposed to high levels of pollution. More than 13.5 million, or 35 percentof Hispanics, live in areas that violate the federal airpollution standard for particulate matter, knowncommonly as soot, which causes premature deathand other serious health effects. More than 19 million, or 50 percent of Hispanics, live in areasthat violate the federal air pollution standard forozone, one of the major triggers for asthma attacks.

Thirty-nine percent of the Latino populationlives within 30 miles of a power plant – the distance within which the maximum effects of fineparticle soot from the smokestack plume areexpected to occur.4

Hispanics living below the poverty level aremore likely to be vulnerable to the effects of airpollution. High poverty rates restrict housing optionsfor Latino families, and lack of health insurance limitsaccess to quality health care. These economic factorsexacerbate the impact air pollution has on low-incomefamilies. About 52 percent of Hispanics under the ageof 65 do not have insurance and overall Hispanicsaccount for an alarming one-quarter of the nation’s 74

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How Air Pollution Affects the Health of

Hispanics and Latinos

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Executive Summary

Recommendations

million uninsured people.5 Poverty and uninsuredrates are even higher for Spanish-speaking Hispanics.

Power plant emissions of mercury contaminatefish, posing a major health threat to the Latinocommunity. 1.3 million Hispanics nationwide active-ly participate in fishing as a recreational, social, orfamily activity.6 However, much of the Latino com-munity is unaware that invisible toxic chemicals, suchas mercury, PCBs and pesticides, might be present inthe water that they fish in or in the fish that they eat.In a number of studies it has been shown that Latinosport and commercial anglers catch a variety of sport-fish and consume fish more frequently, than whiteconsumers. At the same time, Hispanics and otherminorities are less likely than whites to be aware offish consumption advisories.

Global warming could seriously affect thehealth, economic and social well being ofHispanics.7 Warming of the planet together withmore drought conditions in some regions and flood-ing in others could induce crop failures, famines,flooding and other environmental, economic andsocial problems.8 At highest risk are communitiesthat have the fewest technical and social resources.9

Hispanics are regularly excluded from federalresearch activities and data collection efforts.The exclusion of Hispanics from these criticalnational data systems means that environmentalhealth issues affecting Hispanics are going undoc-umented. Although many Latino communities arein close proximity to power plants, they have theleast amount of representation with the healthresearchers who inform our nation’s policymakers.

The EPA must ensure environmental justicefor Hispanics. In 1994, President Clinton issuedExecutive Order 12898, “Federal Action to AddressEnvironmental Justice in Minority Populations andLow-income Populations.” The Executive Orderdirects federal agencies to pay attention to the envi-ronmental and human health conditions in minorityand low-income populations with the goal of achiev-ing environmental justice by making certain thatsuch populations are not subjected to a dispropor-tionately high level of environmental risk. However,the EPA has not identified populations addressed inthe Executive Order, nor developed criteria fordetermining disproportionately impacted communi-ties, thereby prohibiting the Agency from imple-menting the Executive Order as it was intended.

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Though the nation’s clean air laws have succeeded in reducingair pollution over the last few decades, more must be done.

Together, we in the Latino community should challenge ourpolicymakers, media in both Spanish and English, and elect-ed officials that serve us to recognize the significance of airpollution from power plants and other sources, the harm itis having on the health of our families, and to stand up anddemand action to reduce air pollution.

This report demonstrates that, as a community, we mustcall upon our leaders to do the following:

• Strictly implement clean air laws. Aggressive enforce-ment is essential to protect our communities. Powerplants and other pollution sources must reduce theiremissions of smog- and soot-forming pollutants asquickly as possible in order to enable communities tomeet national air quality standards. In addition, EPAmust require all power plants to reduce their mercury

emissions to the maximum extent possible using the lat-est technology by 2008 as required by current law.

• Close the Clean Air Act’s 30 year-old loophole for old, dirtypower plants and require all coal-fired power plants, both newand old, to comply with modern emission control standards.

• Require power plants to reduce their carbon dioxidepollution.

• Include Hispanics in health research that providesthe basis for critical national data systems.

• Urge EPA to develop a comprehensive strategic planto ensure appropriate training is provided, clearly definethe mission of the Office of Environmental Justice,determine if adequate resources are being applied toenvironmental justice, and develop a systematicapproach to gathering information related to environmental justice.

T he confluence of social justice considerations and environmentalconcerns has brought home therealization that minority commu-

nities across the United States disproportionatelybear the impact of environmental risks associatedwith a number of human activities. In fact thisparadigm arguably has risen to a prominent placeon the United States environmental policy agen-da in the last 20 years. Riding on the coattails ofthe first and second waves of environmental concern in the United States and the Civil RightsMovement, this “third wave” of American environmentalism10 has concentrated on:

• The relationship between the location ofLULUs (Locally Undesirable Land Uses,including landfills, incinerators and other polluting industries) and the environmentalhealth of minority populations,

• The exclusion of politically unorganized communities of color from the environmentalpolicy process, and

• The exploration of a whole array of factors

that make minority populations vulnerable toenvironmental injustices.

Analysis has expanded to show that minoritycommunities often do not equally enjoy the bene-fits associated with environmental enforcementand are consistently left out of environmentaldecision making.

These developments in the area of environmentalpolicy have fueled the growth of what is now calledthe Environmental Justice Movement (EJ). Over theyears, EJ has entered the public policy arena at alllevels of the governmental apparatus, raising aware-ness over the relationship between environmentalpolicy and social justice issues.

In 1994, President Clinton issued Executive Order12898 directing federal agencies to make EJ consid-erations a priority, and in 1995 the EnvironmentalProtection Agency promulgated its EnvironmentalJustice Strategy delineating the agency’s EJ program.Moreover, EJ has opened the door for grassroots

Dr. Ortiz-García is an Assistant Professor atUniversity of Texas-Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas.

Our Shifting BordersChanges in Hispanic/Latino DemographicPatterns and their Environmental Justice

Implications

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by Dr. Cecilio Ortiz-García

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involvement by minority communities in the deci-sion-making processes that bring about changes inthe way we “socially construct” environmental policy.

Since the events surrounding the efforts to stopthe site of a landfill in the mostly African Americancommunity of Warren County, North Carolina inthe early 1980’s, numerous case studies have beenundertaken to analyze systematically both thedynamics, plight and grassroots efforts of politically,economically, and socially vulnerable minority popu-lations to fight the unequal distribution of environ-mental goods and bads in their communities. Placessuch as Kettleman City in California,11 Smeltertownin El Paso,12 or Cataño in Puerto Rico13 evoke mem-ories of bitter fights with both industry and govern-mental agencies over community control of theirenvironmental health and prosperity and, moreover,symbolize the efforts of minority communities togain a place at the decision making table when itcomes to environmental policy decisions being taken“in their own backyard.”

Hispanics/Latinos in particular, present us with anopportunity to analyze the relationship between cur-rent demographic changes in this minority popula-tion, and the risk factors associated with the propen-sity for environmental justice issues to emerge intheir communities. By analyzing data from the 2000

Census regarding the Hispanic/Latino populationwe see that, in fact, demographic boundaries of this“majority minority” need to be redrawn.

Hispanics/Latinos ShiftingDemographics

Hispanics/Latinos are a people in motion.14 Therapid growth of the Hispanic/Latino population hasprofound implications for the localities where it isconcentrated. Because the Latino population isyoung, along with becoming the nation’s largest eth-nic minority group in the U.S., Hispanics/Latinosstill denote signs of a very vulnerable population. Itis widely known that access to a quality education isincreasingly important for finding well paying andrewarding jobs in the current information/technolo-gy intensive economy. These factors also determinewhere families live and work. Jobs that require moreeducation and pay more often bring with them lessenvironmental risk at the workplace and can allowfamilies the economic freedom to live in neighbor-hoods with fewer environmental problems.

Low educational attainment, exemplified mostvividly by double-digit high school dropout rates,continue to mire the Hispanic/Latino population.Nationally in 2000, 28 percent of Hispanic/Latinos16–24 years of age drop out of high school withoutearning a diploma or completing a GED, com-pared to only 13 percent of African Americans andseven percent of whites.15 Similarly,Hispanics/Latinos continue to be underrepresentedamong bachelor degree recipients.16 In 2000, onlysix percent of bachelor degrees were awarded toHispanics/Latinos, despite the fact that they consti-tute more than 13 percent of the college age popu-lation.17 Therefore a correlation is found betweeneducational attainment and high poverty rates. In1999 the earnings advantage of the male collegegraduate over his high school graduate and dropout counterparts were 68 and 147 percent respec-tively up from 29 and 57 percent in 1979.18

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Factors such as access to education help determine where a population lives and works.

The largest Hispanic/Latinopopulation in the United Statesaccording to the 2000 Censuslives in “maritime ring” or “bor-der” states (California, Texas,New York, Florida, Illinois,Arizona, New Jersey, Coloradoand Washington). Recent censusdata has begun to present a dif-ferent picture that points to a sig-nificant demographic shift in thepopulation to places other thanborder or maritime ring states(see graph right).19

The states with the largestchange in the number ofHispanic/Latino residentsbetween 1990 and 2000 areshown right.

Two notable additions to thislist, namely Georgia and NorthCarolina, begin to paint a pictureof the changing Hispanic/Latinodemographic landscape.Furthermore, the graph (right)shows the ten states (NorthCarolina, Arkansas, Georgia,Tennessee, Nevada, SouthCarolina, Alabama, Kentucky,Minnesota and Nebraska) with thehighest changes in proportion oftheir Hispanic/Latino residents inthat same decade, demonstratingthe shifting nature of our borders.

These states are emerging asnew “border states” whereHispanic/Latino populations arequickly adapting to existingsocial, economic, political andenvironmental conditions. But,are these new states equipped

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Percent of Population that is Hispanic/Latino:United States and Ten States with Largest

Proportion of Hispanic/Latino Residents, 2000

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Change in Number of Hispanic/LatinoResidents between 1990 and 2000:

Ten States with Largest Change

Change in Proportion of Hispanic/LatinoResidents between 1990 and 2000;

Ten States with Largest Change

with the institutional, technical, administrativeand political capacity to deal with environmentaljustice issues that might affect these still vulnera-ble populations? If that capacity is not there,Hispanics/Latinos could find themselves on theshort end of the stick in terms of suffering a dis-proportionate impact from environmental harmsrelated to energy generation, agricultural activity,industrial processes, urbanization patterns, etc.

From this discussion the realization emerges thatthe same level of concern placed on the vulnera-ble condition of Hispanics/Latinos should beplaced on the vulnerabilities of the environmentalpolicy apparatus of these new Border States toenforce environmental justice directives and pro-tect the environmental well-being ofHispanics/Latinos.

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Hispanics in the U.S. face a dispropor-tionate risk of exposure to environ-mental hazards because of where theylive and work and because of the types

of occupations in which they are engaged. In 1990, theScience Advisory Board of the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) determined the top environ-mental threats to human health. The top threats wereidentified as ambient (outdoor) air pollution, workerexposure to chemicals in industry and agriculture,indoor air pollution and contaminated drinking water.In terms of risk of exposure, Hispanics face significantthreats to health from each of these four factors, andoften fare the worst of any ethnic group.20

While this report focuses on power plant airpollution and its impact on the health of theLatino community, its purpose is also to raiseawareness of significant related issues facing theLatino community. As each of these problems isentwined with another, so are the solutions.

Hispanics Face DisproportionateEnvironmental Health Risks

The Latino community is threatened by:

• Exposure to multiple environmentalthreats. Occupational exposure to chemicals,indoor air pollution and contaminated drink-ing water put the Latino community at risk.These exposures, in combination with expo-sure to outdoor air pollution, make Hispanicsoverall more susceptible to health risks.

• Poverty. More than 20 percent of Hispanics(including 30 percent of Latino children) areliving in poverty. This level of poverty affectshousing choices and whether families are ableto afford medical insurance. In general, thiscommunity has limited access to health care;Hispanics with limited English proficiency areamong the most underserved.

• Lack of information. Surprisingly, little isknown about the impacts of environmentalpollution on Hispanics. The Latino communi-ty is essentially excluded from federal researchand data collection activities because the meth-ods used to collect the information do not ade-quately sample Latino subgroups.

Hispanics are disproportionately sufferingfrom the health effects caused by air pollution,such as asthma. Much of the reason is due to alack of insurance because of low socio-economicstatus, combined with barriers to health care thatinclude a lack of linguistically and culturallyresponsible medical facilities. Approximately 20percent of Hispanics who forego health care doso because of language issues. Those with limit-ed English proficiency are among the mostunderserved, making them the most susceptibleto health complications from the power plant-produced pollutants.

A March 2003 report released by the RobertWood Johnson Foundation found that 18.5 mil-lion or 52 percent of all Hispanics under the age

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Lack of Data CollectionMeans Impacts on Latino

Health Go LargelyUndocumented21

A number of national health data collection sys-tems exist to assess the health of the U.S.population. Policymakers use the collected

information to respond to health and environmentalproblems. Unfortunately, Hispanics are regularlyexcluded from federal research activities and datacollection efforts. The methods used to collect thedata neither require the identification of different eth-nic groups nor collect enough data on Hispanics sothat the information can be broken out into differentethnic subgroups. Field researchers, not trainedinterpreters, typically conduct interviews. Accordingto the General Accounting Office, no existing data-base currently provides accurate, complete and avail-able information on the entire Latino population,including subgroups, residing in the U.S.

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The U.S. Department of Health and Human Serviceshas 21 national data collection systems. Seventeenof the 21 do not collect enough data on Hispanicsfor the information to be broken out by subgroup.Six do not collect any data on Hispanics. Only one,the National Vital Statistics System, collects datafor all Latino subpopulations. The exclusion ofHispanics from these critical national data systemsmeans that environmental health issues affectingHispanics are undocumented. Many Latino commu-nities live in close proximity to power plants and inturn have the least amount of representation withthe health researchers who inform our local andnational policymakers.

of 65 did not have health insurance coverage in2001–2002.23 Hispanics represent 25 percent ofthe total number of uninsured people in thecountry, a disproportionate number when com-pared with the total percentage of the Latinopopulation, which stands at 13 percent.24

Latino Families Face HealthProblems from Air Pollution

The Latino community is an ethnically diversepopulation, representing approximately 17 differ-ent groups. According to the 2000 U.S. census,66.1 percent of Hispanics residing in the U.S. areof Mexican descent, 14.5 percent are from Centraland South America, nine percent from PuertoRico, four percent from Cuba and over six percentof other Latino origins.25 These distinctive sub-groups are important because there is considerablevariability within the Latino population in terms ofwhere people live, their income and even their sus-ceptibility to disease, among other factors.

Power plants populate the eastern seaboard,where they can be found in or next to every singlemajor metropolitan city. In the Midwest, dozens

of these coal-burning power plants are located inthe middle of heavily Latino communities. Thesame is true for power plants in the Southwest —specifically in Arizona, New Mexico and Colorado.

The air in Latino communities violates airquality standards. More than half of the U.S. pop-ulation (55 percent) lives in areas with unhealthylevels of ozone or particle pollution.26 Hispanicsmake up 13 percent of the U.S. population. In2002, 71 percent of Hispanics lived in counties thatviolated federal air pollution standards for one ormore pollutants.27 The map on the opposite pagepresents the counties that are in “non-attainment”for federal air pollution standards and the percent ofthe county population represented by Hispanics.

Latinos are exposed to high levels of particu-late matter pollution. More than 13.5 millionLatinos, or 35 percent of the Latino population, livein areas that violate the federal air pollution stan-dard for particulate matter (either PM10 or PM2.5).

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Latinos are exposed to high levels of ozonepollution. More than 19 million Hispanics, or 50percent of the Latino population, live in areas thatviolate the federal air pollution standard for ozone.29

Smog, Asthma, and HispanicsPollution from power plants, cars and trucks, con-

struction equipment, and other sources form particu-late matter, ozone smog and air toxics. Some partic-ulate matter is emitted directly as soot; however, themost dangerous particles are formed when the sulfurdioxide gas from power plants and other sources istransformed into tiny acidic sulfate particles in theatmosphere. All of these pollutants have been associ-ated in some way with respiratory hospitalizations,lost school days due to asthma attacks, low birthweight, stunted lung growth and even infant death.In particular, the incidence of asthma in the Latinocommunity is reaching epidemic proportions.

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Poverty and Uninsured Status by Race

Under age 65

Asthma is the most common chronic diseaseamong children.30 Between 1980 and 1994, theprevalence of asthma increased 74 percent amongchildren five to 14 years of age.31

The incidence of asthma in children of Latinomothers is two-and-a-half times that of non-Latino white children.32 A recent study foundthat Hispanic, African-American, andAsian/Pacific Islander mothers experienced high-er levels of air pollution and were over twice aslikely to live in the most polluted counties com-pared to white mothers.33

The highest rates of asthma in the U.S. havebeen reported among inner city Puerto Ricans. As

many as 20 percent of Puerto Rican children agedsix months to 11-years-old are afflicted – a greaterpercentage of children than any other ethnicgroup.34 In Chicago, a health survey of six com-munities found that 34 percent of Puerto Ricanchildren (aged 0 –12) had been diagnosed withasthma compared to 20 percent of non-Hispanicwhite children in the same communities.35

The age-adjusted asthma mortality rate forHispanics between 1990 and 1995 was 15.3 permillion people. Puerto Ricans had the highestmortality rate from asthma of any ethnic group(40.9 deaths per million people). Mexican-Americans had the lowest mortality rate among theLatino groups (9.2 deaths per million people).36

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Percent of Population in Non-Attainment Areas Represented by Latinos

Hispanics includes the diverse community of Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans, Central and South Americans.

Non-attainment means the area exceeds federal air pollution standards for one or more of the following pollutants: lead, carbonmonoxide, SO2, particulate matter (PM10), 1-hour ozone standard, 8-hour ozone standard and PM2.5. Based on August 2003U.S. EPA Green Book and Fall 2003 determination of 2000-2002 values for 8-hour ozone standard and PM2.5.

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Asthma rates in minority children overall are dou-bling every ten years. The New York Departmentof Health reports levels of asthma of up to 30 per-cent in minority populations of children.37

When ozone levels were high, the rate of hospi-talization for African Americans and Latinos wastwice that of whites over the time period studied.Latinos and African Americans without healthinsurance were admitted to the hospital more thanthose with insurance, which reflects the lack ofaccess to preventative health care by the uninsured.

Air Pollution and ChildrenEmergency room visits for asthmatic children

are strongly linked to ozone levels. Especiallyduring the summer months, daily hospital admis-sions and emergency room visits increase asozone levels increase. These trends have beenshown in the U.S., Mexico and Canada.38, 39

While scientists have documented that childrenare generally more susceptible to ozone pollutionthan adults, asthmatic children are more vulnera-ble and some subgroups of asthmatic childrenappear to have heightened susceptibility. A recentstudy suggests that asthmatic children born pre-term and/or with low birth weights are at greaterrisk from ozone exposures.40,41 Affluence may playa role as well; children in homes without air condi-tioners suffered higher exposures than those inhomes with them because air conditioners areeffective in reducing indoor ozone levels.42

A growing body of evidence supports thepotential association between ozone and prema-ture death in adults.43 A Mexico City study linksexposure to ozone and nitrogen oxides to infantdeath.44 The study also found that the relation-ship between air pollution and infant death waseven stronger when particulate matter levels wereconsidered in the analysis.

The children’s health study in California suggeststhat particulate matter may slow lung functiongrowth in children. Children examined in a dozencommunities near Los Angeles experienced a threeto five percent relative reduction in lung functiongrowth between the most polluted and least pollutedcities as a result of exposure to particulate matter.45

When children moved to communities with cleanerair, lung function growth rates increased.46

Power Plants: The Biggest Industrial Source ofDangerous Air Pollution

Exposure to pollution from power plants occurs intwo main ways: direct and indirect. Direct exposuremeans actual inhalation of air pollutants. Indirectexposure includes eating food or drinking water thathas been contaminated by air emissions deposited onthe earth and accumulated in the food chain. Somepower plant air toxics may be absorbed through the

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Health Effects of Power Plant PollutantsPollutant What is it? How is it produced? Health effects Most vulnerable

populations

Ozone is a highly corrosive, invisible gas.

Ozone is formed whennitrogen oxides (NOx)react with other pollutants in the presence of sunlight.

Rapid shallow breathing,airway irritation, cough-ing, wheezing, shortnessof breath. Makes asth-ma worse. May be relat-ed to premature birth,cardiac birth defects,low birth weight andstunted lung growth.

Children, elderly, peoplewith asthma or otherrespiratory disease.People who exerciseoutdoors.

Ozone

SO2 is a highly corro-sive, invisible gas.Sulfur occurs naturallyin coal.

SO2 is formed in thegases when coal isburned. SO2 reacts inthe air to form sulfuricacid, sulfates, and incombination with NOx,acidic particles.

Coughing, wheezing, short-ness of breath, nasal con-gestion and inflammation.Makes asthma worse.SO2 gas can de-stabilizeheart rhythms. Low birthweight, increased risk ofinfant death.

Children and adults withasthma or other respira-tory disease.

Sulfur Dioxide(SO2)

A mixture of small solidparticles (soot) and tinysulfuric acid droplets.Small particles are com-plex and harmful mix-tures of sulfur, nitrogen,carbon, acids, metalsand airborne toxics.

Directly emitted fromcoal burning. Formedfrom SO2 and NOx inthe atmosphere.

PM crosses from the lunginto the blood streamresulting in inflammation ofthe cardiac system, a rootcause of cardiac diseaseincluding heart attack andstroke leading to prema-ture death. PM exposureis also linked to low birthweight, premature birth,chronic airway obstructionand remodeling, and sudden infant death.

Elderly, children, people with asthma.

Particulate Matter(PM)

A family of chemicalcompounds includingnitrogen oxide andnitrogen dioxide.Nitrogen occurs natural-ly in coal.

NOx is formed whencoal is burned. In theatmosphere can con-vert to nitrates andform fine acidic parti-cles. Reacts in thepresence of sunlight toform ozone smog.

NOx decreases lungfunction and is associat-ed with respiratory dis-ease in children.Converts to ozone andacidic PM particles inthe atmosphere.

Elderly, children, people with asthma.

Nitrogen Oxides(NOx)

A metal that occurs nat-urally in coal.

Mercury is releasedwhen coal is burned.

Developmental effects inbabies that are born tomothers who ate contami-nated fish while pregnant.Poor performance on testsof the nervous system andlearning. In adults mayaffect blood pressure regu-lation and heart rate.

Fetuses and childrenare directly at risk.Pregnant women, chil-dren and women ofchildbearing age needto avoid mercury expo-sure.

Mercury

Coal has the highestcarbon content of anyfossil fuel.

Carbon dioxide isformed when coal isburned.

Indirect health effectsmay be associated withclimate change includingthe spread of infectiousdisease, higher atmos-pheric ozone levels andincreased heat and cold-related illnesses.

People of Color, children, people withasthma.

Carbon Dioxide

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skin from direct contact with contaminated water orsoil. Children can be exposed to power plant toxicsby ingesting contaminated soil while playing.

Power plants are major sources of some of themost common and harmful pollutants:

Sulfur dioxide (SO2). On a national basis, powerplants emit 68 percent of SO2.

47 The SO2 gas emit-ted from power plants is a strong respiratory irritantthat is inhaled by people living near the plant. Inaddition, SO2 forms sulfate particles that mix withother particles to form “fine particulate matter”downwind of the plant, which can have serious healthimpacts even at great distances from the source.Power plants are responsible for about half of the fineparticulate matter in the eastern part of the U.S. andcontribute a significant portion in the West.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx). Power plants areresponsible for 23 percent of the nation’s emis-sions of NOx.

48 NOx and hydrocarbons react in

sunlight to form ozone smog. While ozone inthe upper levels of the atmosphere provides aprotective layer from ultraviolet radiation, ozonesmog is a pollutant at ground level and is harmfulto lungs. NOx also forms nitrate, which is amajor constituent of fine particulate matter.

Mercury. Power plants are the largest industrialsource of mercury emissions, emitting 41 percent ofthe nation’s total mercury emissions.49 When mercu-ry enters a water body, it can be converted to a moretoxic form that is concentrated in fish. Fish con-sumption advisories in 43 states warn against eatingcertain types or sizes of fish to protect against mercu-ry exposure. Mercury is most dangerous for thedeveloping brain and nervous system of the fetus.

Air toxics. Coal-fired power plants are thelargest source of hazardous air toxics, includingmercury. Emission tests at coal-fired power plantshave detected 67 different air toxics.50 Of these, 55are known to be either neurotoxic (toxic to thenervous system) or developmental toxins (poisonousto the human development process).51 In addition,24 have been characterized as known, possible, orprobable human carcinogens.52 In just one year(1999), power plants released 78 million pounds ofdevelopmental and neurological toxins to the airand surface waters.53 Currently, power plants arenot required to limit their toxic air emissions.

Greenhouse gases. When carbon dioxide andother greenhouse gases build up in the atmosphere,they trap heat, causing increased temperature andaltered precipitation patterns (or global warming).Power plants release 38 percent of all of the carbondioxide emitted from burning fossil fuels in the U.S.54

As a result of human activities, global average surfacetemperatures may increase by three to ten degrees (F)by the end of the century.55 This increase in tempera-ture is predicted to speed the spread of infectious dis-eases, increase heat and cold-related stress, and, undermany conditions, increase ozone smog (the formationof which depends, in part, on heat and sunlight).

Percent Contribution of Coal-Fired Power Plant Emissions

to National Total

Percent of Population in Counties with Coal-Fired Power Plants Represented by Latinos

Mercury Pollution Affects HispanicAmericans

In 2001, there were 1.3 million licensed Latinoanglers.56 Together, these fishermen spent morethan $695 million on fishing trips and equipment.57

However, much of the Latino community isunaware that invisible toxic chemicals, such as mer-cury, PCBs and pesticides, might be present in thewater that they fish in or in the fish that they eat.

Coal-fired power plants are the largest unregu-lated industrial source of mercury, producingmore than 40 percent of all mercury pollution inthe U.S.58 Airborne mercury eventually deposits

in water bodies, where it is converted tomethylmercury and accumulates in fish tissue. Aslarger fish eat smaller ones, mercury concentra-tions increase in the bigger fish, a process knownas bioaccumulation. Consequently, larger preda-tor fish have higher mercury concentrations as aresult of eating contaminated prey.59

Mercury contamination in fish across the U.S. isso widespread that health departments in 43 stateshave issued fish consumption advisories.60 Ofthese, 19 states have consumption advisories forevery inland water body for at least one fish species;ten states have consumption advisories for cannedtuna, and eight have statewide coastal marine advi-

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This shows the percent of population represented by Latinos in counties containing a coal-fired power plant. As you can see this isparticularly true in NM, AZ, CA, CO, FL, Boston, Chicago, Tampa. Nearly every power plant has Latino neighbors. In thegreen areas, Latinos are heavily over represented.

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sories for king mackerel. The U.S. Food and DrugAdministration (FDA) also has issued a consumeradvisory for pregnant women, women of childbear-ing age, nursing mothers and young children.These groups are advised not to eat swordfish, tile-fish, shark and king mackerel because of high mer-cury levels.61 In July 2002, an independent com-

mittee of food safety advisors convened by FDArecommended that consumption advisories also beissued for canned tuna. In March 2004, the FDAissued a new advisory adding canned albacore tunato the list of fish that should not be eaten morethan once a week by sensitive populations. Canned“chunk light” tuna was added to the list of fish thatshould not be eaten more than twice a week bythese populations.62 However, the SpecialSupplemental Nutrition Program for Women,Infants and Children, which provides food assis-tance to low-income women, infants, and childrenwho are at nutritional risk, provides canned tunafish in their food packages.

Research suggests that Latino anglers tend tobelieve that consuming fish poses few risks, unless thefish are visibly sick or there are obvious sources ofwater pollution. According to one study, whichspecifically evaluated Latino anglers, participants werenot aware that toxic chemicals – such as mercury,PCBs and pesticides – might be present in the fish, letalone that those chemicals could affect their health.63

A number of studies show that Latino anglers eat avariety of sport-fish and eat fish more frequentlythan white consumers.64 At the same time,Hispanics and other minorities are less likely thanwhites to be aware of fish consumption advisories.65

State-sponsored advisories are minimally effectivebecause of their limited distribution and complexwording. Advisories are often distributed with fish-ing licenses, which not all anglers obtain. In onestudy, only 30 percent of Latino anglers werelicensed, and the state agencies made little effort toshare advisory information with unlicensed anglers.66

Also, advisories are usually written in English, whichSpanish-speaking anglers may not be able to trans-late. Thus, Latino anglers and their families mayunknowingly consume contaminated fish.

Greenhouse Gases and GlobalWarming

Global warming could seriously affect the health,

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Health Effects of Mercury

Methylmercury interferes with the development andfunction of the central nervous system. Pre-natalexposure from maternal consumption of fish cancause later impairments in children. Infants mayappear normal during the first few months of life butlater display subtle health effects, such as poor per-formance on neurobehavioral tests, particularly ontests of attention, fine motor function, language, visu-al-spatial abilities (e.g., drawing) and memory. Thesechildren will likely have to struggle to keep up inschool and might require remedial classes or specialeducation.

67

Children and developing fetuses are most vulnerableto mercury exposure. Fish tainted by methylmercuryconsumed by the mother passes through the placentato the developing fetus. Mercury exposure prior topregnancy is as critical as exposure during pregnancybecause mercury is stored in tissues and is slowlyexcreted from the body. The first weeks of pregnan-cy also represent a critical time for fetal development.Nursing mothers, pregnant women, women of child-bearing age (i.e., 15 to 44 years of age) and childrenshould avoid mercury exposure.

68

economic and social well being of Hispanics.69

Changes in the Earth’s atmosphere are occurring dueto the buildup of greenhouse gases. As shown below,power plants account for nearly 50 percent of carbonemissions emitted from fossil fuel use in the U.S.

Warming of the planet together with more droughtconditions in some regions and flooding in otherscould induce crop failures, famines, flooding and otherenvironmental, economic and social problems.70 Athighest risk are communities that are the most exposedand have the fewest technical and social resources.Other consequences of climate change include:

Higher Levels of Ozone Smog. Globalwarming could enhance ozone formation, whichcould, in turn, exacerbate ozone-related healthproblems such as asthma attacks.71

More Natural Disasters. A warming climate hasadverse affects on seasonal river flows, flood levels,droughts, fisheries, food security/supply, and loss ofbiodiversity. If global warming trends continue,floods and droughts will become more persistent.

The number of tropical hurricanes is expected to rise,increasing risks to humans, property and ecosystemsfrom heavy rain, flooding, storm surges and highwinds. The health impacts of these natural disastersinclude physical injury; poorer nutritional status (par-ticularly among children); increases in respiratory anddiarrheal diseases due to overcrowding of survivorsand limited access to potable water; increased risk ofwater-related diseases due to disruption of water sup-ply or sewage systems; and release of chemicals orwaste from storage sites into flood waters.72

El Niño and La Niña (weather events resultingfrom changes in ocean circulation) are projected tooccur more frequently due to global warming. LaNiña is mostly responsible for heavy precipitationand flooding, particularly in Columbia. In con-trast, some areas including Southern Brazil experi-ence severe droughts during La Niña events. If ElNiño events increase, so will forest decay, resultingin the release of large amounts of carbon that willadd to CO2 accumulation. El Niño events in thepast have also spawned widespread and severefires. Since these events are projected to increase

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Contribution of Power Plants to U.S. Carbon Emissions

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with global warming, more catastrophic fires mayoccur, especially when combined with an increasein forest flammability from logging.

Increases in Infectious Disease. A warmer cli-mate means that more areas of the U.S. will be hos-pitable to insects and the diseases they spread (likemalaria, St. Louis encephalitis, Lyme disease, andDengue fever) and rodents (carriers of the hantavirus). The map below shows areas of the U.S. thatmay see increases in the incidence of Dengue fevercases. Many of these diseases cause flu-like symp-toms and can be treated when caught early. ElNiño and La Niña events also influence the spreadof diseases by increasing the habitat range of vectorslike mosquitoes. For example, vector-borne diseasesare expected to increase, at higher elevations, in par-ticular diseases such as malaria and dengue fever inBrazil, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Venezuela.

At the World Climate Change Conference inMoscow in September 2003, scientists said thatnearly 160,000 people die each year from side effectsof global warming ranging from malaria to malnutri-tion. The scientists from the World Health

Organization and the London School of Hygieneand Tropical Medicine predicted that this numbercould double by 2020 and that children would be thehardest hit. In addition, most deaths would be indeveloping nations in Africa, Latin America andSoutheast Asia, which would be hardest hit by thespread of malnutrition, diarrhea and malaria in thewake of warmer temperatures, floods and droughts.73

Global Warming Impact on LatinosAt highest risk from global warming are commu-

nities that are the most exposed and have thefewest technical and social resources.74 The pover-ty rate of Latinos75 certainly suggests that many inthe Latino community are particularly vulnerableto exposure and consequent health problems.

Latino families rank among the poorest ofAmerican families. In 1999, one out of five Latinofamilies was poor (20.2 percent) while the povertyrate of white non-Latino families was 5.5 percent.

A significant proportion of Latino childrenis poor. About three in ten (30 percent) Latino

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Potential Dengue Transmission in Case of Temperature Rise

children lived in poverty compared with 9.4 per-cent of white non-Latino children.

Puerto Ricans have the highest poverty rateof all Latinos. In 1998, 31 percent of PuertoRicans lived in poverty, followed by Mexicans (27percent), Central and South Americans (20 per-cent) and Cubans (14 percent).

These high poverty rates indicate that such commu-nities and families are more likely to have poor accessto health insurance and medical care. As noted above,the potential health impacts of climate change includeincreased prevalence of infectious disease such asDengue fever and West Nile virus, more heat-relatedstress and illness, and more asthma attacks from high-er levels of ozone smog.76, 77 These diseases can befatal when not treated, particularly for seniors andpeople with compromised immune systems.Unfortunately, individuals without health insurancewill be hit the hardest; the uninsured rate for English-speaking Latinos is one and a half that of whites.78

For Spanish-speaking Latinos, the uninsured rate isnearly four times greater than that of whites.79

Global Warming Impacts on LatinAmerica

Power plants operating today are the number oneindustrial source of several major air pollutants,including carbon dioxide which is a major cause ofglobal warming. The Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC) special report on regionalimpacts of climate change has also predicted specific

impacts of global warming on South America.80

Mexico will have warmer and drier conditions –a shift in weather patterns which is expected toadd further hardship to an agricultural economyalready stressed by low and variable rainfall.

A case study in Belize, looking at a range oftemperature and precipitation changes on maize,red kidney beans, and rice production, concludedthat Belizean farmers might well see their liveli-hoods destroyed as a result of reduced rainfalland increased temperatures.

Under current climate conditions in LatinAmerica, banana crops are already adverselyaffected by flooding. Increases in storm frequen-cy and heavy precipitation could add additionalstress and lead to lower crop yields.

Modeling studies of wheat, maize, barley, soy-beans, potatoes, and grapes in Uruguay, Argentina,Brazil, Mexico and Chile show crop yields declin-ing in nine of 12 studies, as a result of increasedtemperature and changes to water regimes. Themost at-risk farmers would be low-income farmerswho may suffer serious financial loss from evensmall changes in crop yield and productivity.

Increased temperatures, ultraviolet radiation,sea-level rise and changes in pest ecology maythreaten Argentina, in particular.

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Hispanics are demanding greater progresson air pollution to improve the quality of

life for our families and communities.

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U.S./Mexico Border Air QualityCase Study

T he U.S./Mexico border faces anumber of environmental chal-lenges of significant magnitude.Air quality issues, in transnation-

al settings such as this one, represent some ofthe most complex environmental issues involv-ing climate, geography, economics, politics andenvironmental justice, just to name a few.Large numbers of border residents reside inareas of non-attainment under both Mexicanand American environmental air quality stan-

dards. The Paso del Norte air basin, forexample, is an area of non-attainmentfor EPA ozone, carbon monoxide and

particulate matter air quality stan-dards. While the impact of industri-

al emissions associated with the Maquiladoraindustry (US multinational companies that setsubsidiary operations in Mexico) are significantother sources also contribute to poor air qualityat the U.S./Mexico border (i.e., unpaved roads,idling lines of cars and diesel trucks sitting forhours at a time at the international bridges, theburning of debris including tires in the brick-making process in Ciudad Juarez).

While significant progress has been made inthe establishment of collaborative partnershipagreements between Border communities tomanage their air sheds along the border, a lotremains to be done. Residents in colonias (sub-standard housing settlements many times lackingwater, sewer and electric infrastructure com-

monly found in unincorporated areas onboth sides of the US/Mexico Border) of

El Paso County Texas face seriousproblems with the dust in their

neighborhoods due to unpavedroads. This lack of infrastructure

points to the lack of distributivejustice when it comes to

environmental risks.Lack of coordination

between federal

by Dr. Cecilio Ortiz-GarcíaAssistant Professor at University of Texas-Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas.

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agencies at the international bridges when itcomes to the flow of goods and humans is a fac-tor in the amount of border traffic. In fact,research shows the international bridges are hotspots for the accumulation of “bad ozone”affecting the border population.81

The industrial activity and population boomthe border has seen in the past 20 years is rapidlyoutstripping the electrical generation capacity ofthe area. It is estimated that between 2001 and2011 the border will need an additional generat-ing capacity of approximately 60,000 megawattsfor ten Mexican and U.S. states that comprisethe border.82 While a number of NGO’s andother policy actors continue to press for the useof renewable energy sources as part of the mix ofenergy sources, reality suggests most of this elec-tricity will be generated by the fossil fuels uti-lized by thermoelectric plants. Conservativeestimates suggest that this increase in emissionsfrom thermoelectric plants will dump 56,000additional tons of NOX, 83,000 additional tonsof SO2, and 144,000 additional tons of CO2 ayear on an air basin already at risk.83 The conse-quences and impact on human health, the envi-ronment and other natural resources such aswater sources could be disastrous.

Despite this bleak picture, binational institu-tions are reaching out in a more formal fashionto address these issues. In 1993, leaders in ElPaso-Juarez region along the Texas-Mexico bor-der, with help from the Environmental DefenseFund, established the Paso del Norte AirQuality Task Force to inform the internationalcommunity about air quality problems and toinitiate joint pollution reduction projects. Thetask force’s binational activities included work-ing with Juarez officials to improve Mexican

vehicle inspection and maintenance programsand to set up emission diagnostic centers andtraining programs for mechanics to help themcomply with Mexican environmental laws.Mexican instructors were trained at Universityof Texas-El Paso and Colorado State Universityand, in turn, trained more inspectors in Mexico.

The task force also has worked with federalagencies to speed up the use of alternative fuelvehicles and address traffic congestion at bordercrossings. The task force further recommend-ed the creation of an International Air QualityManagement District to provide a method toconduct local activities including data collec-tion, pollution prevention, public education,technology transfers, and the development ofcross-border pollution control strategies.84

Much more needs to be done to address the airquality issues affecting the very vulnerableminority populations at the U.S./Mexico bor-der. This is truly an issue of justice.

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Hispanics Fighting Power PlantPollution in Illinois

Case Study

A s Hispanic residents of Chicago,Gladys and Miguel Martinezunderstand the effects of powerplant pollution firsthand.

Highlighted in an article in the Chicago Readerthey explained that all three of their children suf-fer from asthma and occasional pneumonia. Fora time, Michael, their four-year-old was going to the emer-gency room twice a week.85

Their case is not unique forresidents living near powerplants. Research by theHarvard School of PublicHealth showed that the Fiskand Crawford power plants,located in predominantlyLatino neighborhoods ofChicago, cause 40 prematuredeaths, 2800 asthma attacks,and 550 emergency room visits every year.86

In response to these challenges, several com-munities have been active in trying to drawattention to and reduce the pollution emittedfrom these power plants. The Little VillageEnvironmental Justice Organization, located inthe Latino neighborhood of Little Village, hasbeen organizing against Chicago’s power plantpollution for years. Several Latino groups havestaged demonstrations against the adjacentCrawford plant, which continues to operate with

old, out-of-date pollution control equipment.One demonstration took place in front of MayorRichard Daley’s office.

In February of 2002, The Little VillageEnvironmental Justice Organization joined withother community groups to pass a referendum in

two predominantly LatinoChicago precincts supportinga proposed city ordinance thatcalls for reductions in emis-sions of sulfur dioxide, nitro-gen oxides, mercury, and car-bon dioxide from theseChicago power plants. Whilethe resolution is currentlystalled in the City Council, ithas sent a message to all law-makers that local residents willnot tolerate the injustice ofpower plant pollution.87

Hispanics now compose 13percent of the total U.S. pop-ulation, and this number is

growing quickly. As new Latino communitiesemerge, many of them will be forced to confrontthe health effects caused by pollution frompower plants. The activism in Chicago is notunique. Many communities are beginning tomobilize against the threat toxic emitting powerplants have to their livelihood and, in the future,many more are likely to join the fight.

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The Urban Forest of the NewMillennium

Case Study

T he words of César Chávez showthe realistic understanding of the“political rationality” that manytimes dominates the decision-mak-

ing framework of our institutions of governmentunder a pluralistic liberal democracy.Alternatively, the lyrics of Puerto Rico’s “nationalanthem” present us with an exemplary metaphorto symbolize what the relationship between publicadministration and the “island’’ ecological environ-ment should be. The words in Fernandez Juncos’version of “La Borinqueña,” speak about an islandcharacterized by “gardens” of magical beauty, setupon a background of clear blue skies and cradledby the placid lullaby of the deep blue seas sur-rounding her. Politicians, public administratorsand particularly those involved in environmentalpolicymaking; as operating arms of the state, andguardians of the public interest, have a particularduty to act as stewards of the environment. Inparticular reference to the above captioned lyrics,Puerto Rican public administrators dealing withenvironmental policy in the island need to act as

“gardeners” of the alluded “garden of magicalbeauty”; always vigilant of the invading forces thatmight threaten its livelihood and survival.

But what happens when the same institutionentrusted with protection of this garden are con-sistently found to be its worst enemy? Such isthe case in Puerto Rico where according to theEPA Toxic Releases Inventory for the year 2000,four of the top five facilities in Puerto Rico withthe highest amount of chemical releases into the

Hispanics Preserving the “Lungs of San Juan”89

“La tierra de Borínquen donde henacido yo, es un jardin florido demágico primor. Un cielo siempre

nítido le sirve de docel, y dan arrullosplácidos las olas a sus pies…”

— “La Borinqueña,”M. Fernandez Juncos

AIR OF INJUSTICE

“The day will arrive in which thepoliticians will do the just thing forour people out of political necessity.”

— César Chávez

by Dr. Cecilio Ortiz-GarcíaAssistant Professor at University of Texas-Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas.

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local environment were all power generationplants operated by the Puerto Rico ElectricPower Authority (PREPA). The EPA suggeststhat that year as much as 10.4 million pounds oftoxic releases could be attributed to PREPA’spower generating plants. Puerto Rico’s programsof economic development, which at one timeafforded the island accolades as “America’sShowcase in the Caribbean” for most of the ’50’sand ’60’s with Operation Bootstrap, continue todemand the need for major infrastructure invest-ments that are now tolling a hefty price on theisland’s environment. This put public adminis-trators and policymakers dealing with environ-mental protection on the island in the precariousposition of having to face the quintessential envi-ronment vs. development paradox.

These infrastructure investments started tothreaten the very life of the last forest areas insidethe city of San Juan. Lately, there has been anemphasis on the importance urban vegetation canhave directly and indirectly on local air quality.From temperature reduction to removal of airpollutants and the reduction building energy use,thus reducing emissions from power plants aresome of the natural benefits of urban forests inmetropolitan areas such as the city of San Juan. A400-acre wooded area adjoining the University ofPuerto Rico’s Botanical Gardens became the tar-get for destruction of an infrastructure project inthe island. The Department of Transportationand Public Works eyed part of the forest for asection of Route 66 between the towns of RioPiedras and Rio Grande. In addition, 17 con-struction permits had been issued by the planningboard for sites within the forest’s perimeters. Theforest became the center of a debate betweenSenate President Charlie Rodriguez andGovernor Pedro Rosello, who have different ideasabout how the land should be used. A bill co-

authored by Rodriguez designated the area forconservation as the Urban Forest of the NewMillennium but was effectively killed by Rosellodescribing it as “having deficiencies.”

An unlikely mixture of policy actors came to therescue of the “lungs of San Juan.” Professor JoseMolinelli, Department Chair of EnvironmentalSciences at the University of Puerto Rico, becamethe forest’s staunchest supporter. Before the con-servation bill was re-written, Molinelli made hiscase to legislators using aerial photographs, mapsand hydrological charts that outline the forest’sperimeters and the encroaching developmentsthat surround it. He took over the media in edu-cating the public about the natural air filteringeffects of the forest and many of its other attrib-utes. Furthermore, he joined forces with the U.S.Forest Service to develop a tree inventory of theforest. By utilizing his students in collaborationwith Forest Service personnel, the university pro-fessor played a leading role in the development ofscientific evidence about the ecological impor-tance of the forest, and gained political momen-tum to present that evidence to the governor.

Ultimately politicians did what they did because itwas politically expedient to do so, echoing the wordsof César Chávez captioned at the beginning of thissegment. Puerto Rican civil society showed thepotential of becoming an effective policy entrepre-neur in the area of environmental protection bycoming to the rescue of the urban forest. By devel-oping linkages with intermediary sectors of societysuch as academia, these groups are opening theirown space for effective policymaking increasingtheir level of protest and contestation against stateprojects considered harmful to the “garden” so emu-lated by Fernandez Juncos, and precious to allPuerto Ricans.

Case Study (cont.)

A s this report has shown, air pollu-tion from power plants and othersources imposes a serious publichealth and environmental burden

on the Latino community and society at large.The nation’s clean air laws have succeeded inreducing air pollution over the last few decades,but much more must be done.

Early in 2002, President Bush announced hisversion of a power plant clean-up plan called the“Clear Skies Initiative.” This proposal, unfortu-nately, offers too little, too late. The “streamlin-ing” of the existing Clean Air Act under this planwould result in more pollution being emittedthan the Clean Air Act currently allows. In addi-tion to weakening or eliminating portions of theClean Air Act, the President’s plan would delaypollution reductions by up to a decade fromwhen they would occur if the Clean Air Act weresimply enforced as written. Unlike other pro-posed plans to cleanup power plants, the Bushplan also fails to address emissions of carbondioxide.

Enforce the Law, Don’t Weaken ItBecause the President’s air pollution plan has gar-

nered little support in Congress, the Administra-tion is now seeking to implement “Clear Skies”through the regulatory process, essentially bypass-ing Congress. The Administration has:

• Finalized regulations which allow old, dirtypower plants to avoid installing modern pollu-tion controls when making life-prolongingmodifications;

• Proposed weak regulations that would delayand dilute much needed reductions in toxicmercury pollution; and

• Proposed regulations governing transportedair pollution that contain unnecessary delaysand weak emission standards.

Each action is a rollback of the Clean Air Act.

First Step Backward: The Bush administrationallows old, dirty power plants to stay dirty

On New Years Eve 2002 and Labor Day 2003,the Bush administration finalized two sets of regu-lations that essentially made obsolete a key provi-sion of the Clean Air Act known as New SourceReview. New Source Review is a provisiondesigned to protect the health and welfare of localcommunities surrounding nearly 17,000 industrialfacilities throughout the country, including powerplants. These provisions kick in whenever indus-trial facilities make major modifications that sub-stantially increase pollution, requiring installationof modern pollution controls.

When Congress passed the Clean Air Actmore than 30 years ago, it gave existing facili-ties a “grandfather” exemption. This loopholeallows older facilities to avoid modern pollu-tion control standards on the theory that theold plants will “retire” and be replaced by newcleaner technologies. If the plants do notretire but remain in operation, they arerequired to install modern pollution equipmentif they change or upgrade the plant in any waythat significantly increases emissions.Consequently, the New Source Review pro-

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A National Solution to Power PlantPollution

AIR OF INJUSTICE

gram is the primary backstop against disasterfor many communities that face an unrelentingincrease in toxic emissions.

The Bush administration’s attempt to dramati-cally weaken this critical component of the CleanAir Act suffered a major setback recently whenthe U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that powerplants and other industrial polluters cannot takeadvantage of these new regulatory loopholes.The court will continue to stay the effect of theloopholes pending litigation over its legality.

Second Step Backward: Mercury safeguards aredelayed for more than a decade

The Bush administration also issued a mercuryproposal that sets aside more than a decade of workto curb toxic mercury emissions from the largestunregulated source of mercury pollution, the elec-tric power industry. In amending the Clean Air Actin 1990, Congress included mercury on a list of 188hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) for which EPA wasto identify sources and impose the most stringentcontrol standards possible, known as MaximumAchievable Control Technology (MACT) standards.

In order to justify such stringent controls, EPAwas required to undertake two studies of mercuryemissions and other HAPs from power plantsbefore deciding whether to impose MACT stan-dards. After lengthy delay, EPA submitted therequired reports to Congress in 1997 and 1998,and, on December 20, 2000, issued a formal findingthat regulation of mercury from utilities is appropri-ate and necessary, thereby setting into motion thedevelopment of strong mercury standards.

However, in the summer of 2003, the Bushadministration abandoned the consensus buildingprocess that EPA had set up to design the mercu-ry regulations. Instead, the Administration begandeveloping proposals that mirrored thePresident’s Clear Skies proposal. The proposedregulations put forth in December 2003 allow for

more than 600 percent more mercury pollutionfor the next decade than what EPA said was pos-sible just two years ago.88

Third Step Backward: Lenient fine particulate rulemeans Americans will breathe unhealthy air foryears to come

Finally, the Bush administration has proposedregulations dealing with fine particle pollution thatfall far short of what is necessary to both protectpublic health and the environment. The reduc-tions announced in EPA’s fine particle transportrule also known as the CAIR proposal, are virtuallyidentical to those envisioned in the President’s airpollution initiative. EPA promises a six million tonreduction in sulfur dioxide, leaving unabated morethan 3.2 million tons per year of emissions in theeastern U.S. This is in contrast to EPA’s originalClear Skies “Straw proposal,” which allowed onlytwo million tons of sulfur dioxide to be emitted inthe entire nation (At the request of the WhiteHouse in 2001, EPA began to develop three-pollu-tant legislation that would couple nationwide capson nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and mercurywith the repeal most of the Clean Air Act require-ments relating to power plant emissions). TheStraw proposal would have coupled nationwidecaps on nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and mercu-ry with the repeal of all or most of the Clean AirAct requirements relating to power plant emis-sions. The additional sulfur dioxide will, by 2020,lead to an additional 4,000 avoidable deaths peryear, and $34 billion per year in avoidable healthdamages.89

The Federal Environmental PolicyFramework for EnvironmentalJustice

As previously mentioned in this report, in 1994,President Clinton issued Executive Order 12898,“Federal Action to Address Environmental Justicein Minority Populations and Low-income

2 6

Populations,” to ensure such populations are notsubjected to a disproportionately high level ofenvironmental risk. In 1995, the EPA promulgat-ed its Environmental Justice Strategy delineatingthe agency’s EJ program. Executive Order 12898and the EPA’s Environmental JusticeImplementation strategy have formally recog-nized EJ as a legitimate public issue and pushed itonto the federal government’s agenda.

The Executive Order focuses federal agenciesattention on the environmental and human healthconditions in minority and low-income popula-tions with the goal of achieving environmentaljustice. However, an evaluation report by theOffice of Inspector General (OIG) found theEPA has not fully implemented Executive Order12898 nor consistently integrated environmentaljustice into its day-to-day operations.

The EPA has not identified minority and low-income, nor identified populations addressed inthe Executive Order, and has neither defined nordeveloped criteria for determining disproportion-ately impacted communities. Moreover, in 2001,the Agency restated its commitment to environ-mental justice in a manner that does not empha-size minority and low-income populations, con-trary to the intent of the Executive Order.

The EPA responded to the OIG’s report bystating that it does not take into account theinclusion of the minority and low-income popula-tion because it is attempting to provide environ-mental justice for everyone. However, the OIGreminded the EPA that while providing adequateenvironmental justice to the entire population iscommendable, doing so had already been EPA’smission prior to implementation of the ExecutiveOrder and it was not the intent of the ExecutiveOrder to simply reiterate that mission.

The OIG further found that although the Agencyhas been actively involved in implementing

Executive Order 12898 for ten years, it “has notdeveloped a clear vision or a comprehensive strate-gic plan, and has not established values, goals,expectations, and performance measurements.” Inthe absence of environmental justice definitions,criteria, or standards from the Agency, manyregional and program offices have taken steps, indi-vidually, to implement environmental justice poli-cies. This has resulted in inconsistent approachesby the regional offices. Thus, the OIG found that“the implementation of environmental justiceactions is dependent not only on minority andincome status but on the EPA region in which theperson resides.” In fact, the OIG’s comparison ofhow environmental justice protocols used by threedifferent regions would apply to the same cityshowed a wide disparity in protected populations.

The OIG concluded that the Agency is boundby the requirements of Executive Order 12898and does not have the authority to reinterpret theorder. The OIG recommended that EPA shouldaffirm that Executive Order 12898 applies specifi-cally to minority and low-income populationsthat are disproportionately impacted. The OIGfound that after ten years, there is an urgent needfor the Agency to standardize environmental jus-tice definitions, goals, and measurements for theconsistent implementation and integration ofenvironmental justice at EPA.90

Despite this spotty policy picture, it’s importantto note that simply because groups are vulnerabledoes not mean they have remained passive or inac-tive. Several policy actors within civil society pur-suing EJ concerns have emerged as significantstakeholders in these heavily contested policy are-nas. Against considerable odds these community-based, non-governmental organizations continueto contest state and private actions threatening theenvironment “in their backyard.” In majority-minority communities such as the U.S./Mexicoborder and Puerto Rico, grassroots organizationshave skillfully utilized identity politics to rack up

2 7

AIR OF INJUSTICE

2 8

• The air in Latino communities violates air quality standards.Hispanics make up 13 percent of the U.S. population, yet in 2002more than seven out of ten Hispanics (71 percent) lived in coun-ties that violated federal air pollution standards for one or morepollutants. That’s compared to 58 percent of the white population.

• Nearly every power plant has Latino neighbors. Thirty-ninepercent of the Latino population lives within 30 miles of apower plant – the distance within which the maximum effectsof SO2 from the smokestack plume are expected to occur.

• More than 20 percent of Hispanics (including 30 percent ofLatino children) are living in poverty.

1–101. Agency Responsibilities. Each Federal agency shallmake achieving environmental justice part of its mission byidentifying and addressing, as appropriate, disproportionatelyhigh and adverse human health or environmental effects of itsprograms, policies, and activities on minority populations andlow-income populations in the United States and its territoriesand possessions, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealthof Puerto Rico, and the Commonwealth of the Marian islands.

• Exposure to multiple environmental threats. Occupationalexposure to chemicals, indoor air pollution and contaminateddrinking water put the Latino community at risk, makingHispanics overall more susceptible to health risks.

The incidence of asthma in children of Latino mothers is two-and-a-half times that of non-Latino white children.

In New York City, Latinos and African Americans are moreadversely affected by air pollution as measured by the numberof persons per day admitted to the hospital when ozone levelswere high. The rate of hospitalization for these groups wastwice that of whites over the time period studied.

1–103. Development of Agency Strategies. (a) Each Federalagency shall develop an agency-wide environmental justicestrategy whenever practicable and appropriate, that identifiesand addresses disproportionately high and adverse humanhealth or environmental effects of its programs, policies, andactivities on minority populations and low-income populations.[T]hat should be revised to, at a minimum:

(1) promote enforcement of all health and environmentalstatutes in areas with minority populations and low-incomepopulations:

• The Hispanic community is essentially excluded from fed-eral research and data collection activities. The methodsused to collect the information do not adequately sampleLatino subgroups. The methods used to collect the data nei-ther require the identification of different ethnic groups, norcollect enough data on Hispanics so that the information canbe broken out into different ethnic subgroups.

According to the General Accounting Office, no existing data-base currently provides accurate, complete and available infor-mation on the entire Latino population, including subgroups,residing in the U.S.

Sec. 3 -3. Research, Data Collection, and Analysis3–301. (a) Environmental human health research... shall includediverse segments of the population in epidemiological and clinicalstudies, including segments at high risk from environmental hazards,such as minority populations, low-income populations and workerswho may be exposed to, substantial environmental hazards.

3–302. (a) each federal agency, whenever practicable and appro-priate, shall collect, maintain, and analyze information assessingand comparing environmental and human health risks borne bypopulations identified by race, national origin, or income.

(b)... each Federal agency, whenever practicable and appropriate, shallcollect, maintain and analyze information on the race, national origin,income level, and other readily accessible and appropriate informationfor areas surrounding facilities or sites expected to have substantialenvironmental, human health, or economic effect on the surroundingpopulations, when such facilities or sites become the subject of a sub-stantial Federal environmental administrative or judicial action.

• Latino families love to go fishing. 1.3 million Hispanics nationwideactively participate in fishing as a recreational, social, or family activity

In a number of studies it has been shown that Latino sport andcommercial anglers catch a variety of sport-fish and consumefish more frequently than white consumers.93

Sec. 4–4. Subsistence Consumption Of Fish And Wildlife.4–401. Consumption Patterns. Federal agencies, wheneverpracticable and appropriate, shall collect, maintain, and analyzeinformation on the consumption patterns of populations whoprincipally rely on fish and/or wildlife for subsistence.

Lack of information. However, much of the Latino communityis unaware that invisible toxic chemicals, such as mercury,PCBs and pesticides, might be present in the water that theyfish in, or even in the fish that they eat.

Also, advisories are usually written in English, which Spanish-speaking anglers may not be able to translate. Thus, Latinoanglers and their families may unknowingly consume contami-nated fish.

Studies have shown that Hispanics and other minorities areless likely than whites to be aware of fish consumption advi-sories.

4–402. Guidance. Federal agencies, whenever practicable andappropriate, shall work in a coordinated manner to publish guid-ance reflecting the latest scientific information available concerningmethods for evaluating the human health risks associated with theconsumption of pollutant-bearing fish or wildlife. Agencies shallconsider such guidance in developing their policies and rules.

Sec. 5–5. Public Participation and Access to Information(b) Each Federal agency may, whenever practicable and appro-priate, translate crucial public documents, notices, and hear-ings relating to human health or the environment for limitedEnglish speaking populations.

(c) Each Federal agency shall work to ensure that public documents,notices, and hearings relating to human health or the environmentare concise, understandable, and readily accessible to the public.

Air of Injustice Report Executive Order Language

some victories in recent years. Despite this, thehighly technical and scientific nature of environ-mental issues consistently requires experts to legit-imize community action from a scientific stand-point. It is in this light that the participation ofmultiple coalitions of policy actors such as academ-ics, activists, and environmental policy issue net-works becomes pivotal in winning EJ battles. Theenvironmental future of these shifting borders, andthe Hispanic/Latino communities that are makingthese states home, will depend in no small part onthe effectiveness of environmental justice programsand policies that can provide healthy environmentsfor these communities.

Air Pollution, Hispanics andExecutive Order 12898

As illustrated opposite, the findings in thisreport should trigger an investigation by the EPAas mandated by E.O. 12898, as the language inE.O. 12898 clearly mandates the EPA take actionto achieve environmental justice for low-incomeand minority populations.

RecommendationsTogether, we in the Latino community should

challenge our policymakers, media in bothSpanish and English, and elected officials thatserve us to recognize the significance of air pollu-tion from power plants and other sources, theharm it is having on the health of our families,and to stand up and demand action to reduce airpollution.

This report demonstrates that, as a community,we must call upon our leaders to do the following:

• Strict implementation of clean air laws.Aggressive enforcement is essential to protectour communities. Power plants and other pol-lution sources must be required to reduce their

smog- and soot-forming pollution to enablecommunities to meet national air quality stan-dards as quickly as possible. In addition, EPAmust require all power plants to reduce theirmercury emissions to the maximum extent pos-sible using the latest technology by 2008 asrequired by current law.

• Close the Clean Air Act’s 30 year-old loopholefor old, dirty power plants and require all coal-fired power plants, both new and old, to complywith modern emission control standards.

• For the future economic and public health ofour community, the government must takesteps to address the threat of global warming byrequiring power plants to reduce their carbondioxide pollution.

• Hispanics must be included in health researchthat provides the basis for critical national datasystems.

• The EPA must develop a comprehensivestrategic plan, ensure appropriate training isprovided, clearly define the mission of theOffice of Environmental Justice, determine ifadequate resources are being applied to envi-ronmental justice, and develop a systematicapproach to gathering information related toenvironmental justice.

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ENDNOTES1. The terms Latino and Hispanic are used interchangeablythroughout this report. As defined by the U.S. Census, origincan be viewed as the heritage, nationality group, lineage, orcountry of birth of a person or a person’s parents or ancestorsbefore their arrival to the United States. People who identifytheir origin as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race.2. American Lung Association, State of the Air: 2004, May2004.3. U.S. EPA Green Book http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/gbook/Data compiled by MSB Energy Associates.4. U.S. Census, 2000. Estimated using 1990 racial fractionsand 2000 census. Data compiled by MSB Energy Associates.5. The Robert Wood Foundation, 2003. Going without healthinsurance: nearly one in three non-elderly Americans. Preparedby Families USA for Cover the Uninsured Week. March.6. http://federalaid.fws.gov/surveys/surveys.html7. http://www.ejcc.org/releases/020128fact.html8. Miller, A. and P. Brown, 2000. A fair climate for all.Redefining Progress, Oakland, California.9. Noji, E., 1997. The nature of disaster: general characteristicsand public health effects. In: Noji. E. ed. The Public HealthConsequences of Disasters. New York, NY: Oxford Universitypress, 1997:3–20 as cited in Patz, J.A. and K. Mahmooda,2002. Global climate change and human health: challenges forfuture practitioners. JAMA, May 1, 2002 287 (17) p.2283.10. Tesh, Sylvia N. and Williams, Bruce A. (1996); “IdentityPolitics, Disinterested Politics and Environmental Justice”;Polity, volume XVIII, number 311. See David E. Camacho, Editor, “Environmental Injustices,Political Struggles: Race Class and the Environment.” DukeUniversity Press; 1998 and Cole, Luke W. and Foster SheilaR., “From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Riseof the Environmental Justice Movement.” New YorkUniversity Press; 200112. See Romero, Mary “The Death of Smeltertown,” in Bixler-Márquez, Ortega, Solorzano Torres, and La Farelle (1999)“Chicano Studies: Survey and Analysis”, Revised Printing, 199913. See Concepcion, Carmen M., “Environmental Policy andIndustrialization: The Politics of Regulation in Puerto Rico”.Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1990 and“Industrial development, pollution and public health: A histori-cal examination of environmental struggles in Cataño, PuertoRico,” (2004) Paper to be presented at the Public Health andthe Environment Conference, Washington D.C., AmericanPublic Health Association14. Suro, Roberto, (1998) Strangers Among Us: Latino Livesin a Changing America, Vintage Books, New York15. Zurita, Martha (2004) “Latino Population in Illinois andMetropolitan Chicago: Young and Growing Fast”; LatinoResearch @ ND, volume 1, number 1, University of NotreDame16. Ibid.17. Ibid.18. Ibid.19. “A Demographic and Health Snapshot of the U.S./LatinoPopulation,” (2002), Department of Health and Human

Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,Washington D.C. 20. Metzger, R. Delgado, J.L., Herrel, R., 1994. Environmentalhealth and Hispanic children. Presented at the symposium onPreventing Child Exposures to Environmental Hazards:Research and Policy Issues. March 18–19, Washington D.C.21. Metzger, R. Delgado, J.L., Herrel, R., 1994. Environmentalhealth and Hispanic children. Presented at the symposium onPreventing Child Exposures to Environmental Hazards:Research and Policy Issues. March 18–19, Washington D.C. 22. Metzger, R. Delgado, J.L., Herrel, R., 1994. Environmentalhealth and Hispanic children. Presented at the symposium onPreventing Child Exposures to Environmental Hazards:Research and Policy Issues. March 18–19, Washington D.C. 23. The Robert Wood Foundation, 2003. Going without healthinsurance: nearly one in three non-elderly Americans. Preparedby Families USA for Cover the Uninsured Week. March.24. The Robert Wood Foundation, 2003. Going without healthinsurance: nearly one in three non-elderly Americans. Preparedby Families USA for Cover the Uninsured Week. March.25. Therrien, M. and R. Ramirez, 2000. The Hispanic popula-tion in the United States: March 2000. Current PopulationReports, P20–535, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington D.C.26. American Lung Association, State of the Air: 2004, May2004.27. U.S. EPA Green Bookhttp://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/gbook/ Data compiled by MSBEnergy Associates.28. U.S. Census, 2002 and U.S. EPA Green Bookhttp://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/gbook/ Data compiled by MSBEnergy Associates.29. U.S. Census, 2002 and August 2003 U.S. EPA Green Bookhttp://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/gbook/ Data compiled by MSBEnergy Associates.30. Rob McConnell et al, “Asthma in Exercising ChildrenExposed to Ozone: A Cohort Study,” Lancet, 359, 386–391, 2February 2002.31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, NationalCenter for Environmental Health, Asthma’s Impact onChildren and Adolescents,www.cdc.gov/nceh/airpollution/astham/children.htm.32. Rubin, R.W.,2000. Lovelace Respiratory Research InstituteExamines High Rate of Respiratory Illnesses in Hispanics.http://www.naaonline.org/Newsletter/general%20interest.htm33. Woodruff, T. J., Parker, J.D., Kyle, A. D., and K.Schoendorf, 2003. Disparities in Exposure to Air PollutionDuring Pregnancy. 111 Environmental Health Perspectives 7.June.34. Rubin, R.W., 2000. Lovelace Respiratory ResearchInstitute Examines High Rate of Respiratory Illnesses inHispanics.http://www.naaonline.org/Newsletter/general%20interest.htm35. Whitman, S., C. Williams, Shah Ami M. Sinai HealthSystem’s Community Health Survey: Report 1. Chicago,Illinois: Sinai Health System, 2004.http://www.sinaiorg/urban/originalresearch/rwj/index.asp36. Rubin, R.W., 2000. Lovelace Respiratory Research

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Institute Examines High Rate of Respiratory Illnesses inHispanics. http://www.naaonline.org/Newsletter/general%20interest.htm37. Rubin, R.W., 2000. Lovelace Respiratory ResearchInstitute Examines High Rate of Respiratory Illnesses inHispanics. http://www.naaonline.org/Newsletter/general%20interest.htm38. Thurston, G.D. and Ito, K. 1999. Epidemiological studiesof ozone exposure effects. In Air Pollution and Health,Stephen T. Holgate et. al., Ed., Academic Press, London.39. Burnett, R., et. al. 2001. Association between ozone andhospitalization for acute respiratory diseases in children lessthan 2 years of age. American Journal of Epidemiology, vol.153, no. 5, p. 444–452.40. Mortimer, K.M., Tager, I.B., Dockery, D.W. Neas, L.M.,Redline S. 2000. The effect of ozone on inner city childrenwith asthma. Identification of susceptible subgroups.American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine,vol. 162, p. 1838–1845.41. The average ozone daily level during the study was 48 ppb.42. Mortimer, K.M., Tager, I.B., Dockery, D.W. Neas, L.M.,Redline S. 2000. The effect of ozone on inner city childrenwith asthma. Identification of susceptible subgroups.American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine,vol. 162, page 1843.43. Thurston, G.D. and Ito, K. 1999. Epidemiological studiesof ozone exposure effects. IN Air Pollution and Health,Stephen T. Holgate et. al., Ed., Academic Press, London44. Loomis, D., Castillejos, M., Gold, D., McDonnell, W. andBorja-Aburto, V.1999. Air pollution and infant mortality inMexico City. Epidemiology. vol. 10, no. 2, p. 118–123.45. Gauderman, W.J., McConnell, R., Gilliland, F., London,S., Thomas, D., Avol, E., Vora, H., Berhane, K., Rappaport,E., Lurmann, F., Margolis, H.G., and Peters, J. 2000.Association between air pollution and lung function growth inSouthern California children. American Journal of Respiratoryand Critical Care Medicine, vol. 162, no. 4, pp. 1–8.46. Avol, E.L., Guaderman, W.J., Tan S.M., London, S.J., andPeters, J.M. (2001). Respiratory effects of relocating to areasof differing air pollution levels. American Journal ofRespiratory and Critical Care Medicine v. 164 p. 2067–2072.47. U.S. EPA, 2001. National air quality and emissions trendsreport, 1999. EPA/454/R01–004, March 2001.http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/48. U.S. EPA, 2001. National air quality and emissions trendsreport, 1999. EPA/454/R01–004, March 2001.http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/49. U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.1999 National Emissions Inventory for Hazardous AirPollutants. http://www.wpa.gov/ttn/chief/net/1999inventory.html#fian13haps.50. U.S. EPA, 1998. Study of hazardous air pollutant emis-sions from electric utility steam generating units – final reportto Congress. February. EPA/453/R-98–004a.51. National Environmental Trust (NET), et al. 2000. PollutingOur Future: Chemical Pollution in the U.S. that Affects ChildDevelopment and Learning. September. www.environet.org

52. U.S. EPA, 1998. Study of hazardous air pollutant emis-sions from electric utility steam generating units – final reportto Congress. February. 453/R-98–004a.53. National Environmental Trust (NET), et al. 2000. PollutingOur Future: Chemical Pollution in the U.S. that Affects ChildDevelopment and Learning. September. www.environet.org54. From EPA Emissions of Greenhouse Gases. Data compiledby MSB Energy Associates.55. National Research Council, 2001. Climate change science.National Academy Press, Washington D.C. ISBN0–309–07574–2 56. http://federalaid.fws.gov/surveys/surveys.html57. Minority Boater and Anglers: Attitudes and Participation inFishing, Boating and Resource Stewardship. Prepared for theRecreational Boating and Fishing Foundation. January 2002.Roper number; CNT547.58. U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.1999 National Emissions Inventory for Hazardous AirPollutants. http://www.wpa.gov/ttn/chief/net/1999inventory.html#fian13haps.59. U.S. EPA, 1998. Study of hazardous air pollutant emis-sions from electric utility steam generating units – final reportto Congress. February. 453/R-98–004a.60. http://www.epa.gov/ost/fish61. FDA Consumer Advisory for Pregnant Women and Womenof Childbearing Age who may become Pregnant about theRisks of Mercury in Fish. March 2001.http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qa-pes1.html62. What you need to know about mercury in fish and shell-fish. Food and Drug Administration, March 19, 2004.http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html63. Beehler, G.P., McGuinness, B.M., Vena, J.E., 2003.Characterizing Latino anglers’ environmental risk perceptions,sport fish consumption and advisory awareness. MedicalAnthropology Quarterly 17(1)99–116.64. West, P.C. et al., 1992. Minority Anglers and Toxic FishConsumption: Evidence from a Statewide Survey of Michigan.In Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Timefor Discourse. Bunyan Bryant and Paul Mohai, eds. Pp.100–113. Boulder:Westview Press as cited in Beehler, G.P.,McGuinness, B.M., Vena, J.E., 2003. Characterizing Latinoanglers’ environmental risk perceptions, sport fish consump-tion and advisory awareness. Medical Anthropology Quarterly17(1)99–116.65. Beehler, G.P., McGuinness, B.M., Vena, J.E., 2003.Characterizing Latino anglers’ environmental risk perceptions,sport fish consumption and advisory awareness. MedicalAnthropology Quarterly 17(1)99–116.66. Beehler, G.P., McGuinness, B.M., Vena, J.E., 2003.Characterizing Latino anglers’ environmental risk perceptions,sport fish consumption and advisory awareness. MedicalAnthropology Quarterly 17(1)99–116.67. National Academy Press, 2000. Toxicological Effects ofMethylmercury. Washington, D.C. 68. U.S. EPA, 1997b. Mercury Study Report to Congress,Volume VII: Characterization of Human and Wildlife Risks fromMercury Exposure in the United States. EPA-452/R-97–009

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69. http://www.ejcc.org/releases/020128fact.html70. Miller, A. and P. Brown, 2000. A fair climate for all.Redefining Progress, Oakland, California.71. EPA states that “In much of the nation, a warming of 4degrees (F) could increase ozone concentrations by about 5percent.”http://yosemite.epa.gov/OAR/globalwarming.nsf/content/ImpactsHealth.html 72. McMichael, A.J. et al., 1996. Climate change and humanhealth: an assessment prepared by a task group on behalf ofthe World Health Organization, the World MeteorologicalOrganization and the United Nations Environment Programme.Geneva, Switzerland as cited in Patz, J.A. and K. Mahmooda,2002. Global climate change and human health: challenges forfuture practitioners. JAMA, May 1, 2002 287 (17) p.2283.73. Reuters, 2003, Alister Doyle. Thousands dying yearly fromglobal warming. September 30, 2003. 74. Noji, E., 1997. The nature of disaster: general characteris-tics and public health effects. In: Noji. E. ed. The PublicHealth Consequences of Disasters. New York, NY: OxfordUniversity press, 1997:3–20 as cited in Patz, J.A. and K.Mahmooda, 2002. Global climate change and human health:challenges for future practitioners. JAMA, May 1, 2002 287(17) p.2283.75. National Council of La Raza, Census Information Center.Hispanic Poverty Fact Sheet. November 2000.76. IPCC. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, adaptationand vulnerability; Summary for Policymakers.http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/wg2SPMfinal.pdf77. U.S. EPA. 2001. Global warming impacts summary .http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/impacts/health/index.html 78. The Robert Wood Foundation, 2003. Going without healthinsurance: nearly one in three non-elderly Americans. Preparedby Families USA for Cover the Uninsured Week. March.79. Doty, M.M., 2003. Hispanic patients’ double burden: lackof health insurance and limited English. The CommonwealthFund. February. 80. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1998. TheRegional Impacts of Climate Change. http://www.grida.no/cli-mate/ipcc/regional/index.htm81. Staudt, Kathleen and Coronado, Irasema (2004) “FronterasNo Más: Towards Social Justice at the U.S.-Mexico Border”,Palgrave/Macmillan, New York82. Staudt, Kathleen and Coronado, Irasema (2004) “FronterasNo Más: Towards Social Justice at the U.S.-Mexico Border”,Palgrave/Macmillan, New York83. Ibid.84. North American Institute, “Managing Air Quality In ThePaso del Norte Region”, by Peter M. Emerson, Carlos F.Angulo, Christine L. Shaver, and Carlos A. Rincon (Santa Fe,New Mexico, October 1, 1996), p. 13.85. Lydersen, Kari, “Something in the Air” from the Reader,March 28, 2003.86. Harvard School of Public Health “Estimated Public HealthImpacts of Criteria Pollutant Air Emissions from Nine FossilFueled Power Plants in Illinois” December 2000. As summa-rized in Risk in Perspective, April 2001.

87. Lydersen, Kari, “Something in the Air” from the Reader,

March 28, 2003

88. U.S. EPA presentation to Edison Electric Institute.

December 4, 2001.

89. Clear the Air, 2004. “Dirty Air, Dirty Power: Mortality

and Health Damage Due to Air Pollution from Power Plants.

90. Office of Inspector General Evaluation Report “EPA Needs

to Consistently Implement the Intent of the Executive Order

on Environmental Justice.” March 1, 2004.

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LULAC – A Proud HistoryFounded in 1928, LULAC is the oldest Latino civil rights organization. Over the last 70years, LULAC has continued to grow and work hard to bring about many of the positivesocial, economic and political changes that Hispanic Americans enjoy today. No otherHispanic civil rights organization, with an all volunteer membership base can matchLULAC’s record of achievements and services to Hispanic Americans.

Today, LULAC represents not only Mexicans Americans from the Southwest, it also repre-sents Hispanics in most of the United States, including Puerto Rico and Guam.Membership has expanded to include all men and women of Hispanic origin.

LULAC is the cornerstone of some of the most successful Hispanic national organizations.LULAC formed The American GI Forum (AGIF) to address the rights of Hispanic veter-ans. The Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF) as the legalarm of the Hispanic community. SER - Jobs for Progress, Inc., has trained, and retrained,and found jobs for thousands of Hispanic Americans. In addition, LULAC has developedthousands of low income housing units through the Southwest.

LULAC has become an important influence in national policy making with a permanentnational office in Washington, D. C. While the many successes of LULAC should be cele-brated, its work is far from over.

LULAC continues to work for the betterment of Hispanic Americans. It continues to fightdiscrimination, poverty, educational inequalities, disparities in political representation, theHispanic student high dropout rate, immigration issues, language issues, Hispanic healthissues, etc. LULAC will forever address those issues that impact the lives and future of allHispanic Americans. It will continue to work to assure that future Hispanic American gen-erations receive all the constitutional rights inherit by them as citizens of the United Statesof North America.

LULAC has fought for voting rights and full access to the political process, and equal edu-cational opportunity for Hispanic children. The struggle has been long and difficult, butLULAC’s record of activism continues to this day. LULAC councils across the nation con-tinue to hold voter registration drives and citizenship awareness sessions, sponsor healthfairs and tutorial programs, and raise scholarship money for the LULAC NationalScholarship Fund. This fund, in conjunction with the LNESC (LULAC NationalEducational Service Centers), has assisted almost 10 percent of the 2.1 million studentswho have gone to college.