agroforestry systems in the philippines
TRANSCRIPT
AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES: Experiences and Lessons Learned in Mt. Banahaw,
Hanunuo Mangyan and Some Connunity-based
Forestry Projects Cecilia N. Gascon Antonio F. Gascon Kazunori Takahashi (Eds.)
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences Southern Luzon Polytechnic College University of the Philippines Los Baños
1st Printing March 2006 ISBN 4-906635-10-5 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this book may be reproduced in whatever form or manner without permission in writing from JIRCAS.
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences 1-1, Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8686 Japan TEL +81 (29) 838-6340 FAX +81 (29) 838-6656 Southern Luzon Polytechnic College Brgy.Tinaman, Lucban, Quezon, 4238 Philippines TEL +63 (42) 540-7007 FAX +63 (42) 540-7650
University of the Philippines Los Baños Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR) College, Laguna, 4031 Philippines TEL +63 (49) 536-2557
Contents
Page
List of Figures List of Tables About the Authors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Glossary of Terms Abbreviations Review of the Reforestation Approaches and Experiences in the Philippines ············································································ 1-11 Biological and Physical Characteristics of Mt. Banahaw ······································································································ 12-23 Growth Performance of Reforestation Species in a Grassland Area of Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon ···································· 24-36 Characteristics of Some Indigenous Tree Species Planted in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon ······················································· 37-53 Simplified Pre-germination Treatments and Improved Direct Seeding Methods for Reforestation ························································· 54-71 Agroforestry Systems in Mt. Banahaw Quezon Province, Philippines ··········································································· 72-86 The Hanunuo Mangyan Agroforestry Systems And Associated Farming Practices ································································ 87-111 Typical Agroforestry Systems in the Philippines ······································ 112-119
List of Figures
Figure No. Page
1 The forest cover in the Philippines in 1900 and 1999 1 2a Geographical location of Mt. Banahaw 13
2b Contour map of Mt. Banahaw with the municipality location
in the vicinity 13 3a 3-Dimensional map of Mt. Banahaw facing to the northeastern side 14
3b 3-Dimensional map of Mt. Banahaw facing to the southwestern side 14 3c Perspective of Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon 15 3d Typical views of Mt. Banahaw; forest, grassland and farm 15 4 Watershed map of Mt. Banahaw National Park 17
5 Sources of water in Mt. Banahaw 18 6 Vegetable field and fruit plantation, the agricultural areas at
the foot of Mt. Banahaw 20 7 Distribution of floristic growth forms 21 8 Grassland and the reforestation site in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban,
Quezon 27 9 Leucaena + timber species combination at Mt. Banahaw
reforestation site 28 10 Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus 28 11 Leucaena leucocephala 28
12 Average height growth of various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw 30
13 Average diameter growth of various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw 30
14 Hot water treatment and sowing test on study of germination enhancement 56 15 Germination monitoring of Parkia roxburghii on study of
germination enhancement 57 16 Difference of seed germination rate and seedling growth on hot water seed soaking experiment 59-62 17 Experiment of direct seeding by grass burning 65 18 Germinated seedlings from seeds soaked in hot water 65 19 Germination rates of leguminous tree seeds on comparison of
hot water soaking treatments and fire heatings 68 20 Seedling growth performances of Leucaena species on
comparison with the recovering grasses 69 21 Seedling growth performances of timber use legumes on
comparison with the recovering grasses 69 22 Procedure flowcharts for leguminous direct seedings 70 23 Before and after of direct seeding reforestation by Leucaena leucocephala 70 24 Cropping calendar of upland farmers in Mt. Banahaw,
Lucban, Quezon 74 25 Marketing scheme of farm products 77 26 Average relative humidity in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon 79 27 Average monthly rainfall in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon 79
28 Average temperature in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon 79
29 Coconut + vegetable crops farm 82 30 Coconut + fruit trees farm 83
31 The land use systems of the Hanunuo Mangyan 88-91 32 The newly prepared area of the Hanunuos 95 33 The newly burned site for kaingin of the Hanunuos 96 34 Vertical and horizontal profile of a Hanunuo Mangyan’s Rice
farm, Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro 99 35 The swidden farm of the Hanunuo Mangyan 100 36 The multistory farm of the Hanunuo Mangyan 103 37 Average infiltration rates in the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro 106
38 Monthly runoff in the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro 107
39 Monthly sediment yield in the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro 109
List of Tables
Table No. Page
1 Quarterly height growths of various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw 31 2 Quarterly diameter growths of various reforestation
species in Mt. Banahaw 32 3 Tree heights of top ten species planted in Mt. Banahaw 33 4 Stem diameters of top ten species planted in Mt. Banahaw 34 5 Seed germination enhancement on hot water treatments and fire heatings 63 6 Agroforestry crops commonly planted under coconut trees 81 7 Cropping calendar of the Hanunuo Mangyan in Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro 97 8 Species of plants found in the kaingin site before planting
rice and corn 101-102 9 Infiltration rates in the three agroforestry systems in
Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro 105 10 Total runoff (liter) of the three agroforestry systems in
Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro 107 11 Total sediment yield (tons/ha) of the three agroforestry systems in
Sitio Dangkalan, bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro 109 12 Average sheet erosion of the different farming systems from August to December 1996 111
About the Authors Dr. Cecilia N. Gascon is a Professor at the Southern Luzon Polytechnic College in Lucban,
Quezon, Philippines. She holds a Ph.D. degree in Forestry from the University of the
Philippines Los Baños. Her specialized fields include Agroforestry, Silviculture, Forest
Influences and Environmental Science. She is at present the President of the College and the
Director of Mt. Banahaw Development Program.
Dr. Antonio F. Gascon is an Associate Professor of Silviculture and Forest Influences of the
Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, College of Forestry and Natural Resources,
University of the Philippines Los Baños. He worked as a research counterpart of the
collaborative projects on reforestation between JIRCAS and CFNR-UPLB with Mr. Osumi,
Mr. Okuda and Mr. Takahashi. He is presently the division head of the Environmental
Forestry Division of IRNR.
Mr. Kazunori Takahashi is a researcher of the Forestry and Forest Products Research
Institute, Japan. He worked as a vistiting scientist from JIRCAS assigned in the Philippines
for 4 years. He managed a collaborative research project entitled “Studies on the
Establishment of Cover Forest for the Logged-Over Tropical Forests in the Philippines” in
1999 in order to promote the technical development of reforestation methods for the
marginal and degraded mountainous logged-over area. This project was conducted in close
collaboration with the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources of the College of Forestry
and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and Southern
Luzon Polytechnic College (SLPC) in Lucban, Quezon.
Dr. Arturo S.A. Castillo is the Director of the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources
in the College of Forestry and Natural Resources. He is a Professor of Silviculture and
Agroforestry.
Forester Marife Abuel works as a Community Organizer at the Kaunlaran ng
Mangagawang Filipino (Workers Fund) .
Forester Lorelie delos Santos is a Forester and a community organizer at the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources in Region 5 (Bicol region),
Philippines.
Forester Fernando Alibuyog is a Forestry Specialist at the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources in Quezon Province, Philippines.
Forester Garret D. Ruiz is a university student of MS course in Canada after the graduation
of CFNR-UPLB. He worked as the JIRCAS project staff as the visiting term of Mr.
Takahashi.
Foreword
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS),
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and Southern Luzon Polytechnic College
(SLPC) jointly publish this book on Agroforestry Systems in the Philippines: Experiences
and Lessons Learned in Mt. Banahaw, Hanunuo Mangyan and some Community-based
Forestry Projects in an effort to introduce the research works conducted in reforestation
and agroforestry in the Philippines.
JIRCAS had initiated a collaborative research project entitled “Studies on the
Establishment of Cover Forest for the Logged-Over Tropical Forests in the Philippines” in
1999 in order to promote the technical development on the strategies for reforestation and
agroforestry in the mountainous area of the country. The project was conducted in close
collaboration with the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources of the College of Forestry
and Natural Resources of the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB). Southern
Luzon Polytechnic College (SLPC) also joined us by offering the grassland area at the foot
of Mt. Banahaw de Lucban where we established an experimental tree plantation for
reforestation.
This publication contains some practical studies that deal on the rehabilitation of
the country’s degraded forests mainly as products of our research project data. The
important objective of this book is to provide technical knowledge about reforestation and
agroforestry to new foresters, aspiring farmers and the ordinary citizens engaged in
forestry activities. Agroforestry must be closely weaved with forest management to
cultivate ruined fields and the environmental improvement to sustain farming production.
We intend that this book be used by many concerned people who would like to do
their share in the effort toward the development of the forests in the Philippines.
Shozo Nakamura Director
JIRCAS Forestry Division
Preface
Agroforestry is considered as a strategy to rehabilitate the denuded uplands and at
the same time improve the socio-economic condition of upland farmers. In the Philippines,
the oldest agroforestry system studied was swidden cultivation locally termed as “kaingin”.
This system was believed to be ecologically sound and was practiced mostly by indigenous
people. However, because of population growth of the country, even the lowlanders
engaged farming activities in the uplands that resulted to more pressures and upland
degradation. At present, to deal with those circumstances, several agroforestry systems are
being practiced by the indigenous people and lowlanders who depend their living to the
upland areas of the country.
This book presents the review of the government efforts and approaches on
reforestation, agroforesrty systems of the lowlanders in Mt. Banahaw, Quezon, Philippines,
the indigenous people of Oriental Mindoro (Hanunuo Mangyan), and the community-based
agroforestry projects in some areas of the country. Moreover, this also presents the result
of research in rehabilitating the grassland area of Mt. Banahaw with the use of indigenous
species, the characteristics of some of the species that were used in the research and a
technique to hasten germination of leguminous seeds using direct seeding.
The information on the different agroforestry systems came from primary and
secondary data. The one year exposure of the authors to the Hanunuo Mangyan gave them
the opportunity to be familiar and understand the agroforestry system of this indigenous
people. The experimental site in Mt. Banahaw gave the authors the concrete information
on the growth of some indigenous tree species that are potential in upland rehabilitation
and agroforestry activities.
It is the hope of the authors that this book provides rich information to understand
the agroforestry systems in Mt. Banahaw, Hanunuo Mangyan and community-based
agroforestry areas.
Cecilia N.Gascon
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their thanks and deepest gratitude to the
following persons and institutions for extending their support in the realization of this
book:
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) through
their President, Dr. Shinobu Inanaga for offering the opportunity of the
collaborative research project between Japan and the Phillipines.
Dr. Shozo Nakamura and Dr. Katsuhiro Osumi for sharing his expertise in
agroforestry and facilitating the publication of this book.
Dr. Motoaki Okuma, President of Forestry and Forest Product Research Institute
for offering the opportunity of scientific communication with Japanese scientists
Dr. Joselito B. Jara and the late Dr. Cornelio D. Esquieres, past presidents for
allowing the conduct of this research in SLPC reservation.
SLPC Board of Trustees through Commissioner Saturnino Ocampo Jr. for
allowing Dr. C.N. Gascon to visit Japan and work on this book.
Dr. Ramon Razal and Dr. Arturo S.A. Castillo for supporting Dr. A.F. Gascon as
counterpart researcher of IRNR in this collaborative research project.
Mr. Douglas Peña, Mr. Mario Nañola, Mr. Bernabe Obmerga, Mr. Primo Javen
and Mr. Rolando Juarez for their assistance in data collection.
Mr. Garret Ruiz, Rodrigo Lapitan, Rodel Santos, Delfino de Chavez ,Ver Calica,
Rodelito Lapitan and Renato Niem for the technical support to Mr.Takahashi
while he worked in the Philippines.
Ms. Aurora Sumague, Forester Amalia Almazol and Mr. Gilbert Andaluz for
their assistance in the data analysis and preparation of the book..
Mr. Mon Mojica for the assistance of book compilation.
Forester Marife Abuel for her assistance in photo documentation.
Families of authors for their moral support and love.
C.N. Gascon A.F. Gascon K. Takahashi
Glossary of Terms 1. Agroforestry – it is a system of land management wherein annual and perennial crops
are combined in the same piece of land sequentially or simultaneously with the two-
fold goals of enhancing the productive and protective capacity of the land by
improving the socio-economic condition of the upland dwellers and rehabilitating the
denuded condition of the uplands. Recently, livestock raising has been included in the
system as an additional source of income and protein for the people (Lasco, 1992,
Bene at al 1977 as cited by Gascon 1998).
2. Community – based forest resource management – refers to people-managed,
grassroots development of forest resources including allocation, decision-making,
implementation, enforcement, benefit-sharing and conflict management among
community members.
3. Crop rotation – sequential arrangement of crops in time and space
4. Exotic species – species which are introduced to a locality
5. Fallow – a condition wherein the soil is allowed to rest for a certain period of time
6. Home gardens – composed of fruits trees, herbs, shrubs, grasses and vegetables
planted around the house of a farmer
7. Indigenous agroforestry – it is a system of land management developed and
practiced by the local people since time immemorial. It includes simultaneous or
sequential planting of agricultural crops and trees, and in some cases livestock raising.
8. Indigenous community – refers to a group of people regarded as the original
inhabitants of a place; also refer to as the ethnic or tribal group.
9. Indigenous species – it refers to the species found native in the site (e.g. in the
Philippines).
10. Productive function of agroforestry – it refers to the net output of a valued product
per unit of resource input. A common measure of productivity is yield or net income
per hectare.
11. Protective function of agroforestry – refers to the ability of the system to minimize
soil erosion, improve soil fertility and prevent the occurrence of pests and diseases.
12. Recalcitrant – seeds with short viability period
13. Reforestation – it is the act of planting trees on bare or open land which used to be
covered with forest growth (DENR-FMB 2003). It includes “ecological reforestation”
and “economic reforestation”, new plantings, assisted natural regeneration, and
enrichment planting (RMPFD 2003 as cited by Fernando 2005).
14. Rehabilitation – it is a type of reforestation done using some of the original and
exotic or introduced species to reforest the site. Its objective is to bring back the forest
to a stable and productive condition. Rehabilitation involves forest tree planting,
agroforestry, adoption of soil and water conservation practices and physical site
improvement. Through rehabilitation, the protective function and ecological services
maybe regained.
15. Silvical characteristics – this refers to the characteristics of the species with
particular reference to the environmental factors such as light, humidity, water, and
soil.
16. Silvicultural requirements – it refers to the requirements of the species in terms of
treatments or activities such as application of fertilizer, thinning, pruning, weeding,
watering, liming, light requirement.
17. Uplands – refer to the hilly or mountainous landscapes of steeply inclined surfaces
(18% and above) including table lands and plateaus lying at higher elevations which
are highly dependent on precipitation and are not normally suited to lowland rice
unless some forms of terracing and ground water source exist.
Abbreviations
CBFM Community-Based Forest Management
CFNR College of Forestry and Natural Resources
CFSA Community Forest Stewardship Agreement
CO Community Organizing
CSC Certificate of Stewardship Contract
CSD Comprehensive Site Development
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FAR Family Approach to Reforestation
FFPRI Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute
FLMA Forest Land Management Agreement
FMB Forest Management Bureau
IRNR Institute of Renewable Natural Resources
ISFP Integrated Social Forestry Program
JIRCAS Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences
LOI Letter of Instruction
NFP National Forestry Program
NGO Non-Government Organization
NIPAS National Integrated Protected Area System
PAMB Protected Area Management Board
PO People’s Organization
PROFEM Program for Forest Ecosystem Management
SALT Sloping Agricultural Land Technology
SLPC Southern Luzon Polytechnic College
SMP Survey, Mapping and Planning
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UPLB University of the Philippines Los Baños
Review of the Reforestation Approaches and Experiences in the Philippines
Antonio F. Gascon and Arturo S.A. Castillo Introduction The Philippines has a total land area of 30 million hectares and about 52%
or 16 million ha are classified as forest lands (DENR-FMB 2005). In the early 60s,
there were about 6 million ha of grasslands found in these uplands. Recently,
reports showed that grasslands had increased to 12 million ha. Natural forests were
logged and consequently, logged over areas were encroached by shifting
cultivators. There is only about 0.8 million ha left as natural forests. The rest had
become secondary forest and abandoned grasslands.
Fig.1 The forest cover in the Philippines in 1900 and 1999. Note: The green portion indicates presence of forests. (Source: Environmental Science for Social Change 1999)
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The grasslands have become important resource for shifting cultivators and
ranchers. Gradually, because of destructive practices of burning, cultivating up and
down the slope, free grazing, planting of erosion-enhancing crops like sugarcane,
rice, corn, pineapple and others, these areas had become marginal and degraded. In
fact, grasslands have become the target of blames of the calamities like landslides,
accelerated erosion, long drought, flash floods and poor water yield. These are the
reasons why they need to be rehabilitated by planting of forest trees and perennial
agricultural crops. The process of forest rehabilitation involves planting of forest
trees, putting up of soil and water conservation structures and application of sound
soil management practices.
Historical Background of Reforestation in the Philippines Reforestation is synonymous to forest tree planting in open areas which
were previously covered with forests. In the past, reforestation was done mainly
for environmental protection. However, for private individuals or group, it was
done to ensure economic benefits.
The earliest reforestation activities in the Philippines started in Mt.
Makiling, in time with the establishment of the first forestry school (now the
College of Forestry and Natural Resources of the University of the Philippines Los
Baños) in 1910 (Fernando 2005). However, records show that reforestation
activities by the Philippine government started in 1916 at Cebu (Alli 1991) using
teak (Tectona grandis) and other exotic species. Subsequent reforestation activities
followed in the provinces of Laguna, Cebu and Zambales.
With the creation of the Bureau of Forest Development (BFD) in 1972,
reforestation became one of the government’s major programs. In 1976, the
Program for Forest Ecosystem Management (PROFEM) was launched under Letter
of Instruction No. 423 which mandated all government agencies to actively
participate in reforestation. In 1977, government reforestation programs were
further strengthened through the enactment of PD 1153 which required all Filipino
citizens 10 years and older to plant 12 trees a year for 5 consecutive years. Through
Letter of Instruction No. 1260 in 1982, the upland dwellers were given importance
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as partners in reforestation with the creation of the Integrated Social Forestry
Program. This was aimed to uplift the socio-economic conditions of the upland
farmers, and at the same time, protect and improve the quality of the environment.
The Philippine government claims that reforestation programs had been
successful, but in reality, these were considered as failures (Fernando 2005).
Realizing the failures of the past reforestation efforts, the National Forestation
Program (NFP) adopted the contract reforestation strategy.
Government Programs on Reforestation
Even up to the present, the Philippine government still adopts the same
programs, also modified and improved some for the establishment of forest trees
during rehabilitation. The Forest Management Bureau (FMB) of the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) of the Philippine government
implement these programs.
1. The Integrated Social Forestry Program
This program started in 1982 as an approach to give upland farmers
the security of tenure over the area they occupy and cultivate. Marginal and
degraded grassland areas, which are under various forms of cultivation or
upland farming, can be rehabilitated using this approach. A farmer occupying
and cultivating a portion of a public forestland (5 to 25 ha) may apply for
consideration with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources’
(DENR) local office. Upon evaluation and approval, the farmer, group of
farmers or farmer’s organization, are provided with Certificate of Stewardship
Contracts (CSCs) or Community Forest Stewardship Agreements (CFSAs).
They are entitled to long-term tenurial arrangement of 25 years, renewable for
another 25 years. The farmers are subject to community organizing activities
and are provided assistance on how to practice agroforestry and soil and water
conservation practices. The programs address the problem of alleviating rural
poverty and ecological stability in occupied forest lands.
The Sta. Catalina Integrated Social Forestry Project in Atimonan,
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Quezon is an example of the pilot ISFP project funded by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nation’s Development Program
(UNDP). The project was aimed at assisting the government in the
development of upland areas and communities by training farmers for
improved farming practices, enhancing learning experiences through farmer-to-
farmer visits, adopting appropriate soil and water conservation technologies,
establishment of 3 ha demonstration farm for soil and water conservation
measures, sloping agricultural technology, establishment of small water
impounding dam, establishment of forest nurseries and adoption of appropriate
and sound agroforestry practices.
The project adopted 12 species of forest tree species to be planted in
the area such as narra (Pterocarpus indicus), mahogany (Swietenia mahogani
(L.)Jacq.), yemane (Gmelina arborea), giant ipil-ipil (Leucaena pulverulenta),
malapapaya (Polyscias nodosa), acacia (Acacia auriculiformis), apitong
(Dipterocarpus grandiflorus), bitaog (Callophyllum inophyllum), bagtikan
(Parashorea malaanonan), makaasim (Syzygium nitidum), kakawate
(Gliricidia sepium) and kalantas (Toona calantas). Seven out of 12 species are
indigenous reforestation species. The forest trees were planted for wood,
fodder, green manure and charcoal and, these are sometimes established either
as boundary trees for farm lots, live fences, windbreaks or fire breaks. In
agroforestry farms, fruit trees like jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophylla), mango
(Mangifera indica), avocado (Persia americana), santol (Sandoricum koetjape),
dalanghita (Citrus commanes) and kalamansi (Citrus spp) are planted. The
most common agricultural crops planted are coconut (Cocos nucifera) and
kawayan tinik (Bambusa blumeana).
2. National Forestation Program (NFP)
In 1988, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
implemented the National Forestation Program with three major components
such as reforestation, watershed rehabilitation and timber stand improvement.
The reforestation component is concerned with planting of indigenous and
exotic species including fruit trees, bamboos and species producing minor
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forest products in denuded forestlands.
In NFP, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR) enters into contract with organized upland settlers or people’s
organizations (POs), community and civic/religious organizations,
entrepreneurs, local and other government offices and non-government
organizations (NGOs). These groups may be contracted for survey, mapping
and planning (SMP), community organizing (CO), monitoring and evaluation
(M and E), actual comprehensive site development (CSD) using the practices
of planting indigenous and exotic tree species and the agroforestry integrating
fruit trees, bamboos and species producing minor forest products in the whole
forest landscape.
3. Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA) Program
When the contractor of the reforestation activities has terminated his
contract with the DENR, he/she may still apply for another contract called
Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA) upon attaining an 80% survival
and properly maintaining the whole area. This program provides long-term
tenure to the people who planted and cared trees in newly reforested areas. The
area should be at least 100 ha. The contract or agreement has a tenure of 25
years and renewable for another 25 years.
The contractor may also plant cash crops while the forest trees are still
young. Vegetable rice, corn and root crops can be planted in the vacant spaces
in between the trees. The contractor may harvest, process and sell timbers
following the sustained yield forest management practices. The DENR gets a
30% share of all the proceeds obtained from the area. The contractors are
assisted by the non-government organizations (NGOs) and Community
Organizers hired for the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR) in the aspects of forest management like silviculture, timber valuation
and harvesting.
4. Community Forestry Program (CFP)
This program is designed for the protection, management and
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rehabilitation of abandoned and cancelled residual and fragmented growth
forests in harvesting, processing and marketing of forest products. This makes
upland dwellers stewards of residual forest areas. Organized upland farmers or
people’s organizations can avail of this program which upon approval may be
granted 25 years tenure and renewable for another 25 years. The farmers may
enter into contract reforestation and other comprehensive site development
projects. The DENR through its local offices may train farmers in resources
inventory, preparation of forest management and conservation plans,
development of livelihood opportunities, community organizing, resource
management, harvesting and processing of forest products.
5. Community-based Forest Management (CBFM)
The Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) by virtue of
Executive Order No. 263 was adopted by the Philippine government as its
national strategy for attaining sustainable forestry and social justice. It provides
that “the CBFM shall apply to all areas classified as forestlands including
allowable zones within the protected areas”. It integrates all people-oriented
forestry programs of the government, namely Integrated Social Forestry
Program (ISFP), Communal Tree Farming (CTF), Family Approach to
Forestation (FAR) and others which incorporates the experiences generated
and learned from the past efforts to ensure sustainable resource management
(Sarmiento 2005). CBFM is the Philippine government’s response to
institutionalize the transfer of management responsibilities to the communities
who depend on these forest resources. The objectives of CBFM are to: 1)
rehabilitate the degraded or denuded forests by establishing forest trees in the
upland landscape; and 2) to improve the socio-economic conditions of the
people by integrating agricultural crops in their forestation activities, not
withstanding the fact, that they are the ones who are contracted for tree
planting and other soil and water conservation activities.
In the province of Samar in the Visayas, through the CBFM concept of
watershed rehabilitation, the people organizations in partnership with the DENR
were able to reforest and develop 2,433.95 ha of formerly logged-over and
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degraded areas. Of this area, about 1,263 ha or 51.92% were established with
toog (Combretodendron quadrialatum), an indigenous tree species, mahogany
(Swietenia mahogani) and narra (Pterocarpus indicus) while 632.44 ha were
developed into agroforest plantations using agricultural crops such as coffee
(Coffea robusta), cacao (Theobroma cacao), abaca (Musa textiles), jackfruit
(Artocarpus heterophylla), mango (Mangifera indica), black pepper (Piper
nigrum) and pineapple (Ananas comosus) (Sarmiento 2005).
The farmer communities in Northern Samar, benefited from the
participation in CBFM activities in terms of increased income and improved
quality of houses and enhanced capability to acquire household assets
(Sarmiento 2005).
Reforestation Practices 1. Choice of Species for Reforestation
The forest tree species used for reforestation should be carefully
selected. The factors to consider in choosing the right species for a particular
area are as follows:
a. Site factors
The site factors include climatic and atmospheric factors,
physiographic factors like elevation, steepness and orientation of the slope, soil
factors like soil texture, soil depth, soil pH and soil fertility. The present
vegetation and prevailing pests and diseases in the area should also be
considered in selecting a species to be planted.
b. Genetic factors
These include the heritable characteristics of the species like acid
tolerance, drought tolerance, fire tolerance, diameter size, rotation age, yield
potentials and rate of growth among others. For example, in the rehabilitation
of grassland areas, we should use acid tolerant, drought and fire tolerant
species like ipil-ipil (Luecaena leucocephala), narra (Pterocarpus indicus) and
banuyo (Wallaceodendron celebicum).
c. Socio-economic and cultural factors
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Most of the upland farmers consider the economic benefits that can be
realized from the trees planted. Leucaena leucocephala was considered the
best choice for planting in the uplands because aside from its lumber, it can be
used for charcoal, fuelwood and the leaves for feeds and fertilizer.
2. Selecting and preparing the site for planting
The different areas or sites for forestation are mentioned in PD 705
(Forestry Reform Code). These are: a) bare or grasslands areas with at least
50% slope; b) bare or grass-covered tract of lands with 59% slope with soil that
are so erodible as to make grass cover inadequate for soil erosion control; c)
brushlands or tract of forestlands generally covered with brushes which needs
to be developed to increase productivity; d) open tract of forestlands with
slopes or gradients generally exceeding 50%, interspersed with patches of
forest each of which is less than 250 ha in area; e) denuded or inadequately
covered areas considered as forest resources, reservations as crucial watersheds,
national parks, game refuge, bird sanctuaries, national shrines and national
historical sites; f) inadequately stocked forestlands not covered by the above;
g) portions of areas covered by pasture lease or permits having a slope of at
least 50%; and h) riverbanks, easements, road-right-of ways, river deltas,
swamps, former river beds and beaches. Generally, these areas can be
classified as grasslands, brushlands, inadequately stocked forestlands, critical
watersheds, pasturelands and reclaimed areas. However, majority of these areas
are grasslands and brushlands.
3. Strategies dealing with degraded grasslands
Marginal and degraded lands subject to forestation can be dealt with
using the following strategies:
a. Restoration
It is an attempt to re-create or bring back the original forest ecosystem
by reassembling the original composition of plants and animals that once
occupied the site. The intention is to recreate an ecosystem as close as possible
to the original, with most of its structure and productivity matching that of the
- 8 -
original biodiversity. In time, ecological processes and functions will match
those of the original forest (Fernando 2005). Restoration is considered the
most ambitious, technically challenging and expensive reforestation option but
also it is the most ecologically appropriate (Lamb 1994 and Rebugio et al.
2005 as cited by Fernando 2005). Restoration short-cuts the long process of
successional development in the area and will more likely become productive
and stable. If done in a widescale, restoration can provide more ecological
services than other forms of reforestation strategies (Fernando 2005).
b. Rehabilitation
It is done using some of the original and exotic or introduced species
to reforest the site. Its objective is to bring back the forest to a stable and
productive condition. Rehabilitation involves forest tree planting, agroforestry,
adoption of soil and water conservation practices and physical site
improvement. Through rehabilitation, the protective function and ecological
services maybe regained.
c. Reclamation
In this strategy, one or more exotic species is used to achieve stability
and there is no attempt to restore the original biodiversity of the site but there
may be economic and socio-cultural advantages or functional gains as in soil
conservation and watershed protection.
Rehabilitation techniques 1. For cogonal areas which are acidic and low in nitrogen and phosphorus
a. Proper site preparation - to eliminate the rhizomes by exposing and drying
them during primary tillage or cultivation. Subsequently, second plowing
and harrowing can effectively control cogon (Imperata cylindrica).
b. Planting of adaptable tree species at closer spacing to establish early cover
and dominance. Cogon does not tolerate shading. Hence, early
establishment of cover eliminates them. Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala)
can be broadcast or sown in furrows in well-prepared land in order to
enhance the establishment of early cover. High density planting of other
- 9 -
leguminous and locally available species can be adopted to accomplish
early cover and promptly eliminate cogon.
c. Prevention of grassfire. Fire is a disclimax factor in grassland. After fire
occurrence, cogon immediately dominates the process of vegetation
succession. Green breaks of 2 to 3 rows of densely planted kakawate
(Gliricidia sepium), Flemingia sp. and other leguminous trees can prevent
the occurrence of escape fires in newly established plantations.
d. Application of booster fertilizer during planting and other dosages on the
second and third year.
e. Use of Rhizobium and mycorrhiza inoculated and hardened seedlings.
f. Early planting during rainy season.
g. Liming the soil to increase the soil pH to favorable levels.
2. For areas with lahar or ash deposits
a. Use of adaptable species like Acacia auriculiformis, Camachile, Agoho and
Eucalyptus.
b. Soil amelioration or putting garden soils in dug holes.
c. Application of organic fertilizers such as compost and animal manure.
3. For Rocky, Coral Limestone and Highly Eroded soils
a. Mulching in dry areas. Mulch regulates water losses through evaporation.
When decomposed, it can also provide organic matter to the soil. Mulch
helps prevent the detachment process during soil erosion.
b. Planting of drought tolerant species like ipil-ipil, Yemane and Molave.
c. Carving out the soil or niche planting. This is done by digging holes and
putting a soil rich in organic matter.
4. For poorly drained sites
a. Putting up drainage canals to get rid of excessive water.
b. Planting of forest trees in raised soil or mound to enhance soil aeration.
c. Use of adaptable species like Kaatoan bangkal (Antocephalus chinensis),
Kalumpit (Terminalia microcarpa), swamp mahogany and agoho
- 10 -
(Casuarina equisetifolia).
5. For very steep slopes with Chromolaena odorata, and areas affected by
landslides and creeps
a. Use of structures like nailed fascines, wattling and cordons.
b. Use of locally available brushwoods like Muntingia calabora, Gliricidia
sepium. Morus alba, Lantana camara and Leucaena leucocephala.
c. In the areas affected by creep, grass sodding helps stabilize the slopes.
d. Planting of bamboos also help stabilize stream banks and gulley heads.
6. Overgrazed and compacted areas
a. Discing and subsoiling using plow and tractors
b. Proper range management practices
c. Planting of acid tolerant grasses.
References Alibuyog, F.B. (2004) Agroforestry systems adopted by the upland farmers in
barangay Sta. Catalina, Atimonan, Quezon, Southern Luzon Polytechnic
College, Lucban, Quezon.
Alli, R.A. (1991) An evaluation of selected reforestation projects in the province of
Iloilo, MS Thesis, University of the Philippines Los Baños.
Fernando, E.S. (2005) Restoring the Philippine rainforests for biodiversity
conservation, environmental protection and livelihood security of the
people, Haribon Policy Paper No. 2, Haribon Foundation.
Sarmiento, C.C. (2005) An evaluation of the community-based forest management
project in catubig, Northern Samar using criteria and indicators,.
University of the Philippines Open University.
- 11 -
Biological and Physical Characteristics of Mt. Banahaw
Cecilia N. Gascon The Physical Features of Mt. Banahaw 1. Geographical Location
Mt. Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park lies between 13°55' and 14°10'
latitude and 121°26' and 121°35' longitude. It is bounded on the north by Laguna
Lake, in the south by Tayabas Bay, in the southeast by the Bicol Peninsula and in
the east by the tail end of the Sierra Madre Mountains. It rings through the
municipalities of Dolores, Candelaria, Sariaya, Tayabas, Lucban, Rizal, Nagcarlan,
Liliw and the city of San Pablo (Fig.2a and 2b). It is about 120 km southeast of
Manila and straddles the borders of Quezon and Laguna. Mt. Banahaw-San
Cristobal National Park has a total area of 11,133.3 ha, 2,754 ha of which is part of
the province of Laguna while the remaining 8,379.3 ha is part of Quezon province.
Mt. Banahaw could be reached via San Pablo City, Lucena City and Sta. Cruz,
Laguna.
2. Topography
The topography of the entire National park is rough. The slope ranges from
moderate to steep. Mt. Banahaw de Dolores (Durungawan) has an elevation of 2,155
m, Mt. Banahaw de Majayjay (Susong Dalaga) is about 2,160 m, Mt. Banahaw de
Tayabas is 2,140 m, Mt. Banahaw de Lucban is 1,875 m, and Mt. San Cristobal is
about 1,470 m (Fig.3a, 3b, 3c and 3d). The summit caldera is 600m deep and has a
diameter of 2 km. The caldera opens southward in a 4km long canyon of Mt.
Banahaw. The crater is also called "Ilalim". The old crater was occupied by a lake
until 1730. At that time, a violent eruption breached to the southwestern rim,
pouring out water, incandescent lava and huge rocks towards the town of Sariaya. A
deep canyon, which was formed during that 1730 eruption, was enlarged by
subsequent erosion activity. It now extends from the summit crater down to the 800
m elevation. An eruption similar to that of 1730 was reported in 1743.
- 12 -
Fig.2a Geographical location of Mt.Banahaw.
Fig.2b Contour map of Mt.Banahaw with the municipality
location in the vicinity.
- 13 -
3. Climate
From December to January, an airmass called the northeast monsoon
(habagat) reaches Quezon province from the northeast and east direction. From
February to March, the northeast monsoon is joined by another airmass called the
North Pacific Trade winds, which is characterized by a strong subsidence inversion
of about 1 km above the Earth's surface producing abundant rain at the lower levels.
In April, an easterly wind oriented north to south approaches Quezon province
from the east giving equal distribution of rainfall from North to South. The month
of May is a transition period between trade winds season and the monsoon season
prevalent from July to September. From June to October, the southwest monsoon
(amihan) reaches Quezon province from the west and southwest. The southwest
monsoon and the South Pacific Tradewinds are very moist and can rise to great
heights. They bring rains which increase in volume as the altitude increases.
November is a transition period between the southwest and northeast monsoon
bringing increased rainfall in the north.
Fig.3a 3-Dimensional map facing to the northeastern side.
Fig.3b 3-Dimensional map facing to the southwestern side.
- 14 -
Mt. Banahaw is considered as a rain mountain, although the rainfall
characteristics vary with sites. For example, the Nagcarlan side has an average
annual rainfall of 2,350-2,400 mm while Lucban side has an average annual
rainfall of 4,470 mm with an annual average of 262 rainy days.
Fig.3c Perspective of Mt.Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon.
Fig.3d Typical views of Mt. Banahaw; Forest, Grassland and Farm.
4. Watershed
Mt. Banahaw watershed sustains water for the creeks, rivers, and falls
draining to Laguna de Bay and Tayabas (Fig.4). This mountain is blessed with
abundant water thus it is called "Vulcan de agua" (Fig.5). Seven rivers traversed the
park namely: Balayong, Maimpis, Liliw, Dalatiwan, Malinao, Nagcarlan and San
Diego. These river systems directly provide water for domestic, irrigation and
recreational purposes. Aside from these, some river systems are believed to have
- 15 -
medicinal value. An example is the Kinabuhayan river in Dolores, Quezon believed
to have "healing power". People from all walks of life take a dip into the water of
Kinabuhayan with the belief that their illnesses will be cured. Even the Katipuneros
in Banahaw cleansed themselves in the waters of Kinabuhayan before going into
major battles.
Aside from rivers, Mt. Banahaw is also rich with falls. Sta. Lucia, Suplina
and Kristalino falls are all found in Dolores, Quezon. These are believed to have
medicinal values. Pilgrims and devotees take a shower on these falls especially
during Holy week. In the crater of Mt. Banahaw, several falls could also be found.
The most famous of which is "Talong Ambon" visited by pilgrims even during
ordinary days. A recent tourist attraction in Banahaw is Taytay Falls located at
Sitio Taytay, Majayjay, Laguna. Before and after the Pahiyas festival and even
during ordinary days, local tourists from other parts of Quezon and nearby
provinces enjoy the cool, clear and unpolluted waters of the falls.
- 16 -
Fig.4 Watershed map of Mt.Banahaw National Park.
- 17 -
Fig.5 Sources of water in Mt. Banahaw
Suplina falls at Dolores, Quezon. Taytay falls at Majayjay, Laguna.
Talong-Ambon falls (Along the trail goingto crater, Sariaya side).
- 18 -
5. Land uses
Mt. Banahaw is primarily used as a watershed. It sustains the water needs
of at least 1 million people in the provinces of Laguna and Quezon. As a watershed
area it supports the Botocan Hydroelectric Power Plant situated in Majayjay and
Luisiana, Laguna which has a capacity of 22 mega watts.
It also supports the water needs of hundreds of farmers who plant rice,
vegetables, root crops, fruit trees and coconut at the flanks of the mountain (Fig.6).
The commonly planted vegetables are Baguio beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), tomatoes
(Lycopersicum esculentum), chayote (Sechium edule Jack. Swartz), radish
(Raphanus sativusLinn.), cabbage (Brassica oleracea Linn. Var. capitata Linn.),
and squash (Cucurbita maxima Dutch), citrus (Citrus grandis), Lanzones (Lansium
domesticum), Rambutan (Nepphelium lappaceum), Banana (Musa sp.), Santol
(Sandoricum koetjape) and Avocado (Persia gratissima) are the common fruit trees
planted.
Mt. Banahaw differs from other national parks in the country because of
the presence of religious sects having a vital part in the use of the mountain. These
groups are concentrated in Dolores, Quezon. They have designated "puestos" or
sacred places in the mountain. During Holy Week, thousands of pilgrims go to
these places and perform religious rituals. These sacred places have been subjected
to degradation as pilgrims cut small trees, branches, palms and bamboos, and leave
significant amount of garbage.
- 19 -
Fig. 6 Vegetable field and fruit plantation, the agricultural areas at the foot of Mt. Banahaw.
- 20 -
Biological Characteristics The Mt. Banahaw range supports high floral and faunal diversity and
endemicity that ranges from 66 to 76%. The vegetation studies recorded a total of
102 families of plants represented by 358 species of trees, 19 species of vines, 15
species of palms, 39 species of ferns, 15 species of grasses and 42 species of fungi.
The species of trees are representatives of 74% of the total species (Fig.7).
Herb 2%
Palm 4%
Vines 4%
Fern 6%HerbaceousOrnamental 2%
Grass 2%
Pandan 1%Shrub 2%
trees 74%
Fig.7 Distribution of floristic growth forms.
The rare species of trees found in Mt. Banahaw include pangnan
(Lithocarpus sulitii), lansones-bundok (Reinwardtiodendron humile Hassk.),
kalamansanai (Neonauclea calycina Bartl. Ex DC. Merr.), tabu (Symplocos
conchinchinensis Lour. S. Moor var. conchinchinensis) and taluto (Pterocymbium
tinctorium (Blanco) Merr.).
A total of 56 species were categorized as endemic and with limited range of
distribution in the Philippines. Dungau-pula (Astronia rolfei) of family Melasto-
mataceae was categorized as endemic in Quezon province (Rojo 2000 as cited by
Gascon 2004).
Among the 15 species of palms identified, 5 were classified as endemic
species, namely pugahan (Caryota cumingii), ditaan (Daemonorops mollis),
sumulid (Daemonorops ochrolepis), tumalim (Calamus mindorensis) and palasan
- 21 -
(Calamus merrillii). These palms are used as materials for handicraft, food, source
of palm wine, for caulking boats, for ornamental purposes and for furniture making.
Among the 100 species of ferns recorded in Lucban, Quezon, Sphaerostephanus
productus (Kaulf.) Holtt. was classified as endemic to the Philippines while
pakong-buwaya or tree fern (Cyathea contaminans Hook. Copel) was characterized
as the largest tree fern in the Philippines (Gascon 2004).
Mt. Banahaw also supports wildlife. A total of 226 species of birds were
identified in areas of Lucban and Tayabas. Among which, 133 were categorized as
endemic species to the Philippines or to Luzon Faunal Region. Eight species were
categorized as endangered and 20 as rare. The endangered species include
brahminy kite (Haliastur indus intermedius), Philippine serpent eagle (Spilornis
holospilus), Philippine falconet (Microhierax erythrogonys), scale-feathered
cuckoo (Phoenicophaeus cumingi), guaiabero (Bolbopsittacus lanulatus),
Philippine hanging parakeet (Loriculus philippinensis), crimson-backed
woodpecker (Chrysocolaptes lucidus) and white-browed shama (Copsychus
luzoniensis).
There were 62 species of mammals, 38 species of reptiles, 43 species of
amphibians and 188 species of insects recorded in Lucban and Tayabas, Quezon.
There were 76 species of butterflies recorded in Lucban, Quezon alone, among
which is Troides rhadamantus classified as endemic and endangered species.
References Alviola, P.III. (1998) Annual report on biodiversity assessment project of Mt.
Banahaw, Unpublished, Philippines.
Fenix, V.M. (1977) Faunal diversity indicators for the conservation management
planning for species and habitats at Mt. Banahaw de Tayabas, Unpublished,
Philippines.
Gascon, C.N. (2004). Mt. Banahaw: physical, biological and management features,
Asean Regionl Center for Biodiversity Conservation, Philippines.
- 22 -
Lit, I.Jr. (1998) Insect biodiversity of Mt. Banahaw, annual report on biodiversity
assessment project of Mt. Banahaw, Unpublished, Philippines.
Mirand a, F.C. (1977) Altitudinal distribution of birds and mammals based on
vegetative cover on Mt. Banahaw San-Cristobal National Park,
Undergraduate Thesis, UPLB.
Navasero, C.S. (1993) Upland farming systems in Lucban, Quezon and its
ecological implications to the conservation and management of Mt.
Banahaw de Lucban, MS Thesis, UPLB.
Rojo, J.D. (1999) Revised lexicon of the philippine trees. FPRDI, College, Laguna,
Philippines.
- 23 -
Growth Performance of Reforestation Species in a Grassland Area of Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon
Cecilia N. Gascon, Antonio F. Gascon and Kazunori Takahashi Introduction
The use of non-indigenous, non-native or exotic species in the
rehabilitation of denuded areas of the country started as early as 1916 in the
province of Cebu using agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia) and teak (Tectona grandis).
Through the decades, several reforestation activities across the country used exotic
species in a more monoculture basis. In the 1970s, Leucaena pulverulenta (giant
ipil-ipil) was considered as the panacea of the Philippine Forestry because of its
potential to answer the problems of the forestry sector on soil erosion, soil nutrient
depletion, fuelwood production and lack of forage for livestock. However, in the
mid-80s, after more than a decade of existence in the country, the giant ipil-ipil
posed a great threat because of the discovery of jumping lice (Heteropsylla cubana)
that practically wiped out the giant ipil-ipil plantations throughout the archipelago.
More so, the epidemic affected and displaced the native ipil-ipil. In 1994, the
plantation of Gmelina arborea was infested by stem borer, Xyleutes sp. in Surigao
del Sur and Cotabato (Lapis and San Valentin 1994 as cited by Gascon 2005).
Another species of Xyleutes also attacked Tectona grandis (Wylie 1993 and Lapis
and Valentin 1994 as cited by Gascon, 2005).
However, through the decades, the Philippine Forestry still opted for the
use of non-native species. The reasons include the following: fast-growing species
rehabilitate the denuded areas faster than native species; exotic species have
promising economic incentives to farmers at a shorter time; the availability of
technology to propagate the species; the support of the national government on
these undertakings like mass media or publication, funding and policy support to
name a few. These resulted to more planting of these non-indigenous species in
almost all reforestation efforts in the country, more researches on their silvical
characteristics and silvicultural requirements and biological control of pests,
- 24 -
production of information materials, on-site and hands-on training on their
propagation, management and maintenance. The use of these non-native species
was also done in Mt. Banahaw. Giant ipil-ipil was planted in certain portion of the
mountain in the mid 80s while large leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla),
gmelina (Gmelina arborea) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus deglupta) were some of the
non-native species planted in the mid 90s. This was done to rehabilitate the areas
vacated by the upland farmers within the reservation of the Southern Luzon
Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon.
In the 90s, there were efforts to introduce the native species in the
mainstream of reforestation efforts in the Philippines. This was in recognition of
the harmful impacts of the non-native species both in the economy and ecosystem,
the potentials of the native species to rehabilitate the denuded areas and bringing
back the forest of the country.
Layout of The Study In 2002, a collaborative effort was initiated by the Japan International
Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) and the Southern Luzon
Polytechnic College (SLPC) to test the adaptability of 18 reforestation species in a
grassland area of Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon. The purpose of the study was to
assess the adaptability of 18 reforestation species under the conditions of Mt.
Banahaw by determining the survival, early growth performance such as height,
stem diameter and basal area. Native ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), acid ipil-
ipil (Leucaena diversifolia) and giant ipil-ipil (Leucaena pulverulenta) were used
as nurse trees and were also monitored. All of those tree seedlings were planted at
the site in April 2002.
There were 18 main reforestation species tested of their adaptability in a
grassland area in Mt. Banahaw. These were akle (Albizia acle), lago (Prunus
grisea), bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan), lamio (Dracontomelon edule),
Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata), kalantas (Toona calantas), magabuyo (Celtis
luzonica), narra (Pterocarpus indicus), kusibeng (Sapindus saponaria), banuyo
(Wallaceodendron celebicum), makaasim (Syzygium nitidum), duklitan (Ponteria
- 25 -
duclitan), supa (Sindora supa), kalumpit (Terminalia microcarpa), bani (Pongamia
pinnata), rain tree (Albizia saman), sampalok (Tamarindus indica) and
earpod (Enterolobium cyclocarpum).
The study was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD).
Blocking was according to elevation in a slope. The indigenous tree species were
planted in rows spaced 5 and 7 m apart. Nurse trees were planted adjacent to the
rows and spaced 2 m within the line. Double rows (nurse trees side by side with
indigenous trees) were laid on a contour strip, and trees within the row were
planted 2 m apart. Potted seedlings were used as planting stocks and dug-hole
planting was adopted (Fig.9, Fig.10 and Fig.11). The seedlings of reforestation
trees and nurse trees were planted in April 2002. The monitoring intervals for the
survival and growth of these species were set to 3 months. The measurements of
tree height and the diameter at 0.1-m height were started from the time of seedling
plantings, and the survivals of seedlings were also recorded. On this study, we
analyzed the performances of species by the data of 1-year duration from October
2003 until October 2004. We obtained the quarterly growth values by subtracting
the monitored quarterly data of height and diameter from the initial values. The
values were taken for the whole year after the trees have survived and gained the
establishments. These quarterly data were compared between all the species planted
including the nurse tree species.
The Reforestation Site The study site had a total area of 3.5 ha. It was chosen because it was a
contiguous grassland (cogonal and talahib) ecosystem and has no problem on
illegal forest occupancy. The site was an open grassland (Fig.8) dominated by
cogon (Imperata cylindrica) and talahib (Sacharum spontaneum). The soil was
categorized as Luisiana sandy clay loam, and the average annual precipitation was
3,656.7 mm with pronounced rainy season from September to December. The
average annual temperature and relative humidity were 23oC and 85%, respectively.
The area was adjacent to agricultural areas cultivated by the farmers from
Taytay, Majayjay and Laguna. The crops planted there include tomatoes
- 26 -
Fig. 8 Grassland and the reforestation site in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon.
- 27 -
Fig. 9 Leucaena + timber species combination at Mt. Banahaw reforestation site.
Fig. 10 Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus. Fig. 11 Leucaena leucocephala.
- 28 -
(Lycopersicum esculentum), radish, cabbage, sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) and
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Based on records, the site was an abandoned farm
previously used as grazing areas for farm animals like goats, cow and carabaos.
These made the area so degraded and marginal.
Early Growth Performance 1. Nurse trees
Nurse trees were planted in the area to establish early cover to protect
the main reforestation species from the adverse effects of strong wind and
intense light in the open grassland. Three nurse tree species were tested. These
were native ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), acid ipil-ipil (Leucaena
diversifolia) and giant ipil-ipil (Leucaena pulverulenta).
At the measurement in October 2004, which was 2.5 years after the
planting, native ipil-ipil had attained the height of 276.40 cm and the diameter
of 21.41 mm, respectively, followed by giant ipil-ipil and acid ipil-ipil which
attained the height with diameter of 229.15 cm with 17.70 mm and 211.36 cm
with 18.35 mm, respectively. (Fig.12 and 13).
On the average of quarterly height growths from October 2003 until
October 2004, the results showed that native ipil-ipil performed the best, and
followed by giant and acid ipil-ipil, which were 20.85, 19.03 and 12.84
cm/quarter, respectively (Table 1). On the other hand, the averages of the
quarterly diameter growths in the same duration, native, giant and acid ipil-ipil
were 0.97, 0.92 and 0.51 mm/quarter, respectively (Table 2). These results
were quite high, but were expected because the plantation was still on the
seedling to sapling stage. The forest trees grow fast in diameter and in height
during these stages (Kozlowski 1979). However, the tree species of genus
Leucaena are generally very first growing, and favorable as for giving the
shades that will suppress the grasses and nurse some slow growing tree species.
- 29 -
Fig.13 Average diameter growth of the various reforestation species
in Mt. Banahaw.
Fig.12 Average height growth of the various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Oct. Jan. Apr. Jul. Oct.
Observation Period (2003～2004)
Hei
ght,
cm.
Spanish cedar sampalok
acid ipil-ipil
kusibeng
lamio
rain tree
supa
narra
bagtikan
giant ipil-ipil
duklitan
magabuyo
lago
bani
makaasim
kalantas
akle
kalumpit
banuyo
native ipil-ipil
earpod
0
5
10
15
20
25
Dia
met
er, m
m.
Spanish cedar
sampalok
acid ipil-ipil
kusibeng
lamio
rain tree
supa
narra
bagtikan
giant ipil-ipil
duklitan
magabuyo
lago
bani
makaasim
kalantas
akle
kalumpit
banuyo
native ipil-ipil
earpod
Observation Period (2003～2004)
Oct. Jan. Apr. Jul. Oct.
- 30 -
Tabl
e 1
Qua
rter
ly h
eigh
t gro
wth
s of
var
ious
refo
rest
atio
n sp
ecie
s in
Mt.
Ban
ahaw
.
Sp
ecie
s H
eigh
t Gro
wth
s on
Obs
erva
tion
Peri
ods (
cm)
O
ct.-J
an.
Jan.
-Apr
. A
pr.-J
ul.
Jul.-
Oct
. A
ve.
Ran
kSp
anis
h ce
dar
3.9
3.8
3.1
3.4
3.59
20Sa
mpa
lok
3.
1 2.
8 3.
0 2.
0 2.
7521
Aci
d ip
il-ip
il 10
.8
15.4
13
.1
12.0
12
.84
6K
usib
eng
3.5
3.7
3.8
3.5
3.64
19La
mio
6.
7 6.
5 6.
3 6.
5 6.
5113
Rai
n tre
e
3.5
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.75
18Su
pa
6.5
6.2
6.1
6.0
6.21
14N
arra
19
18
.5
19.6
18
.0
18.7
83
Bag
tikan
5.
3 5.
3 4.
8 5.
0 5.
1216
Gia
nt ip
il-ip
il 18
.6
19.4
19
.3
18.8
19
.03
2D
uklit
an
5.3
4.8
4.1
5.2
4.86
17M
agab
uyo
8.4
8.0
8.5
7.9
8.21
10La
go
6.9
7.2
6.8
7.0
6.98
11B
ani
5.7
5.6
5.8
5.9
5.76
15M
akaa
sim
8.
7 8.
0 8.
5 8.
2 8.
369
Kal
anta
s
6.6
6.5
6.9
6.5
6.62
12A
kle
8.
3 8.
5 8.
5 8.
2 8.
378
Kal
umpi
t 11
.4
11.0
11
.3
9.9
10.9
07
Ban
uyo
17
.5
17.3
16
.5
15.5
16
.70
4N
ativ
e ip
il-ip
il 22
.0
22.9
20
.0
18.5
20
.85
1Ea
rpod
18
.0
16.0
15
.0
16.5
16
.37
5
- 31 -
Tabl
e 2
Qua
rter
ly d
iam
eter
gro
wth
s of
var
ious
refo
rest
atio
n sp
ecie
s in
Mt.
Ban
ahaw
.
Spec
ies
Dia
met
er G
row
ths o
n O
bser
vatio
n Pe
riod
s (m
m)
O
ct.-J
an.
Jan.
-Apr
. A
pr.-J
ul.
Jul.-
Oct
. A
ve.
Ran
kSp
anis
h ce
dar
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.38
12Sa
mpa
lok
0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1220
Aci
d ip
il-ip
il 0.
9 0.
9 0.
8 0.
9 0.
923
Kus
iben
g 0.
6 0.
5 0.
1 0.
4 0.
4011
Lam
io
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.30
15R
ain
tree
0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1518
Supa
0.
2 0.
1 0.
2 0.
2 0.
2117
Nar
ra
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.14
1B
agtik
an
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.46
9G
iant
ipil-
ipil
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.51
6D
uklit
an
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.31
13M
agab
uyo
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.47
8La
go
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.64
5B
ani
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.44
10M
akaa
sim
0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1319
Kal
anta
s
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.25
16A
kle
0.
1 0.
1 0.
9 0.
1 0.
3114
Kal
umpi
t 0.
5 0.
4 0.
4 0.
5 0.
497
Ban
uyo
0.
9 1.
0 0.
8 0.
8 0.
904
Nat
ive
ipil-
ipil
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.0
0.97
2Ea
rpod
0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1121
- 32 -
2. Main Reforestation Species
Based from the latest measurements made in October 2004, the
average tree height of the top 10 species are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Tree heights of top ten species planted in Mt. Banahaw.
Local and Scientific Name Height
(cm) Rank
Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) 211.1 1 Earpod (Enterolobium cylocarpum) 199.5 2 Banuyo (Wallaceodendron celebicum) 144.8 3 Bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan) 137.5 4 Bani (Pongamia pinnata) 129.0 5 Kalumpit (Terminalia microcarpa) 128.6 6 Lago (Prunus grisea) 119.9 7 Supa (Sindora supa) 117.1 8 Akle (Albizia acle) 116.5 9 Kusibeng (Sapindus saponata) 103.5 10
It can be noted that the top three species such as narra, earpod and banuyo were
all leguminous species (Fig.12 and Table 3). These species have greater
adaptabilities in poor sites (Agpaoa et.al. 1975) because they form root nodules
that harbor Rhizobium bacteria which is able to fix atmospheric Nitrogen from
the air. The woods of these leguminous trees are highly valuable for furniture,
cabinet, and interior work, and are popularly used in the Philippines. Another
high performing species in height was bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan ).
This species belongs to Dipterocarpaceae, and also produce the good wood that
is used for flooring and veneer.
The species with low tree height levels which stayed less than 1m in
October 2004 were sampalok (Tamarindus indica), magabuyo (Celtis luzonica),
Lamio (Dracontomelon edule), kalantas (Toona calantas), duklitan (Ponteria
duclitan), rain tree (Albizia saman), spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata), and
Makaasim (Syzygium nitidum).
Sampalok is well-adapted in open and dry areas (Agpaoa et.al. 1975).
It found difficulty in establishing in the areas with cool temperature, humid air
- 33 -
and high rainfall as in the grassland area in Mt. Banahaw. Spanish cedar is a
low elevation species that cannot withstand cogon, talahib and strong winds.
When the planted trees were assessed of their quarterly height growths
(Table 1) the fast growers were narra, banuyo, earpod and kalumpit which gave
an average value of 18.78, 16.70, 16.37 and 10.90 cm/quarter, respectively.
The medium quarterly height growth were noted in lago, kalantas, lamio, supa
and bani which were 6.98, 6.62, 6.51, 6.21 and 5.76 cm/quarter, respectively.
The slow growers were sampalok, spanish cedar, kusibeng and rain tree which
had only an average quarterly height growth of 2.75, 3.59, 3.64, and 3.75
cm/quarter.
On the other hand, Table 4 shows the diameter of the planted
reforestation species in October 2004.
Table 4 Stem diameters of top ten species planted in Mt. Banahaw.
Species Average
Diameter (mm)
Rank
Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) 16.93 1 Kusibeng (Sapindus saponaria) 15.80 2 Duklitan (Ponteria duclitan) 15.77 3 Earpod (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) 15.18 4 Kalumpit (Terminalia microcarpa) 14.07 5 Banuyo (Wallaceodendron celebicum) 13.01 6 Rain tree (Albizzia saman) 11.60 7 Bani (Pongamia pinnata) 11.46 8 Lamio (Dracontomelon edule) 11.37 9 Bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan) 10.31 10
It can be noted that the biggest stem diameters were noted in the species of
narra, kusibeng, duklitan, earpod, kalumpit and banuyo which were 16.93,
15.80, 15.77, 15.18, 14.07 and 13.01mm, respectively. The average growers
in stem diameters were noted with rain tree, bani, lamio, bagtikan, lago and
akle which were 11.60, 11.46, 11.37, 10.31, 9.41 and 9.35 mm, respectively.
Furthermore, the lowest stem diameters were noted in makaasim, spanish cedar,
sampalok, magabuyo and kalantas which were 4.28, 4.93, 6.93, 7.03, and 8.57
- 34 -
mm, respectively.
When these trees were assessed the average of quarterly diameter
growths (Table 2), it was found out that the fast growers were narra, banuyo,
lago, kalumpit and magabuyo which gave values of 1.14, 0.90, 0.64, 0.49 and
0.47 mm/quarter, respectively. The slowest growers in terms of quarter
diameter growth were earpod, sampalok, makaasim and rain tree which gave
the values of 0.11, 0.12, 0.13 and 0.15 mm/quarter, respectively. It was noted
in Fig.13 that there were some bigger trees which grew slowly as in the case of
earpod, but there were smaller trees which performed better, as in lago and
magabuyo.
Concluding Remarks Based on this study, the three Leucaena species, Native Ipil-Ipil, Giant
Ipil-Ipil and Acid Ipil-Ipil performed very fast growth and their heights had
reached more than 2m within 3 years after the planting. These species are suitable
as the nurse trees to prepare the mild environment for the slow growing trees
planted together. For the main reforestation trees, Narra was the best species for the
growing performances. This tree also exceeded 2 m on height, and showed the high
diameter growth keeping high growth rate. Narra is one of the most favorable trees
in the Philippines for the use of timber, furniture and flooring. Another
reforestation species, which showed the fast growth on height, was Earpod. The
height within 3 years reached almost 2 m. This tree is an exotic species from
Central American region around Mexico and Venezuela, commonly seen in the
Philippines, but considered as a lesser-used species. In the Mt. Banahaw grasslands,
this tree will be still useful to establish the forest cover quickly, also the wood can
be used for easy timber use. All of those species introduced above are leguminous
trees and have greater adaptability to the conditions existing in Mt.Banahaw.
The remaining trees planted were not growing very fast. On the height
growth, their heights were lower than 2 m in October 2004 after 2.5 years planting.
Some of them like Supa, Akle and Banuyo are the premium timber species in the
Philippines, but the slow growers. The weeding maintenance and the nursing shade
- 35 -
will be required for the early growth, which suppress the luxuriance of grasses
around the seedlings. Those species suit to be planted with the grass control
operation. Makaasim was also a moderate growing species, however, this tree
naturally grows around the grassland area of Mt. Banahaw and the wood can be
used for general construction works. The survivability of the seedlings was high
enough at the site on our observation, so Makaasim will be a suitable planting tree
to recover the natural forest environment in this mountainous region.
References Agpaoa, A., et.al. (1976) Manual of reforestation and erosion control for the
Philippines, German Agency for Technology Cooperation, Ltd. (GTZ),
Germany.
Heinsleigh, T.E. and Holaway, B.K., (Eds). (1988) Agroforestry species for the
Philippines, AJA Printer Inc., Metro Manila, Philippines.
Kozlowski, T.T. (1979) Tree growth and environmental stresses, University of
Washington Press, USA, 192pp.
- 36 -
Characteristics of Some Indigenous Tree Species Planted in Mt. Banahaw,
Lucban, Quezon
Antonio F. Gascon and Arturo S.A. Castillo Bani (Pongamia pinnata) Fabaceae
Bani is a leguminous tree that attains
a height of 6 to 25 m and a diameter of 45 cm.
Its bark has a dull gray to pinkish-brown in
color, smooth but becoming shallowly
fissured upon maturity, the inner bark smells
like a crushed bean pod. Its leaves are
compound, 20 to 25 cm long, the leaf shape
is ovate, the terminal leaflet is larger than the
rest and is pointed at the tip. Leaves are
thickly coriaceous, purplish pink to whitish.
This tree grows mainly in lowland
areas and along the seashore. It thrives well in soils which are sandy to clay loam as
well as in limestone-based areas. The species usually flowers from April to May
and matured fruits are collected from July to September. The fruits of bani is a pod
and can be collected from the tree by climbing or by using a long pole with a hook.
The collected pods are sun-dried to let the dehiscent pods open. Pods can also be
crushed using a hard object or a knife. Seeds intended for propagation are sun-dried
for 2 to 3 days after which they can be kept in tightly-sealed containers for storage.
Bani seeds require pre-germination treatments to ensure uniform
germination. Seeds are drilled 3 cm deep in seedbeds at a distance of 4 cm between
hills. Shoot emerges after one to two weeks. The germinants are transferred to
- 37 -
polyethylene bags after attaining a height of 15 cm. Bani seedlings are ready for
transplanting in the field when they attain a height of 50 cm. Outplanting or field
planting is usually done in May to June. The recommended spacing in the field is
5 × 5 m.
Bani is a good fuelwood species and is a medicinal plant. The flowers can
be used to treat diabetes. The extracts from the crushed roots can be mixed with
coconut milk and lime as cure for gonorrhea. Young shoots are used to cure
rheumatism. The species can be used for soil erosion control because it has deep,
widespreading roots. Although the research site is 700 m above sea level, bani
performs well in the slopes of Mt. Banahaw.
Magabuyo (Celtis luzonica) Ulmaceae
Magabuyo is a medium to large
tree reaching a height of 30 m and a
diameter of 90 cm in good sites. It has a
straight bole and a distinctly wide
spreading branches and deep crown. It
has a smooth outerbark, yellowish to gray
in color; the inner bark is light yellow.
Magabuyo has simple leaf, coriaceous,
glabrous, broadly elliptic to ovate in
shape with 8 to 12 cm long and 5 to 12
cm wide, and leaf blade is entire. Petioles
are one centimeter long, apex short and abruptly acute, the base is broadly rounded,
paler beneath, grayish black when dry, alternate veins, spreading into 3 from the
base. This tree is found in forests of lower elevations, thicket belts or edges and in
forest gaps. It is found associated with other secondary species. However,
- 38 -
magabuyo has become depleted due to illegal logging and shifting agriculture.
Magabuyo flowers in March and the fruits are available in July. The fruits
are small fleshy drupes, widely dispersed and can be collected on the ground or
standing trees. The fruits are soaked in water 1 to 2 days to soften the pulp. The
fruits are then masked or rubbed against a wire. The pulp floats in water while the
seeds sink. Seeds are sun-dried and can be stored in sealed containers for a year
without losing their viability. The poles and lumber of this species can be used for
general construction.
The seeds can be sown in germination beds or boxes by row seeding. They
have high germination capacities. When the seedlings reach 10 to 15 cm height.
They are transplanted in polyethylene pots and raised there until they attain a
plantable height of 50 to 70 cm. In the field, 2 × 2 m spacing is recommended as
they are fast growing and readily establish cover. In the grassland area of Mt.
Banahaw, magabuyo attains a good survival and better early growth performance
as compared to other indigenous species.
Bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan) Dipterocarpaceae
Bagtikan is a prominent tree reaching a
height of 35 to 40 m and a diameter of 70 to 100
cm. In a dense stand, its crown is flat and
spreading with the tendency to become dominant
as it matures. It has a straight and cylindrical bole.
Bagtikan is widely distributed all over the
country. It is found in places of all climatic types
in the Philippines and in neighboring places in
East Asia such as, Malay Peninsula, Malacca,
Burma and Borneo. It is found from 100 and up to
- 39 -
800 m above sea level. It prefers a humid site with deep, fertile soil. In natural or
primary forests, it is commonly found along gentle slopes near ridges.
The leaves of Bagtikan are entire, alternate and flat, oblong or sub-
elliptical in shape, pale green beneath, glabrous and shiny at the top, rounded at the
base. The veins and midrib are very pronounced, with 5 to 8 pairs of equally
prominent nerves. Bagtikan has yellow flower tinged with pink, falls off
abundantly that almost cover the ground under the flowering tree. The petals are
oblong, glabrous on the inner side, and the ovary is hairy. The fruiting calyx has 5
long wings but their bases do not tightly enclose the fruit as with those of the
Shorea species. The fruits are small, less than 2 cm in diameter at maturity. The
fruit development of bagtikan takes 3 to 4 months, however maturity and seed falls
vary in different regions in the Philippines. The bark of bagtikan has broken ridges
3.8 to 4.3 cm thick. The main stem bark when cut gives a reddish color while the
bark at the buttress when cut is whitish.
In Bataan and Laguna the fruits fall off in July, June in Bulacan and
Cagayan while in Cebu, Surigao del Norte, Camarines Sur, Misamis Oriental and
Quezon, mature fruits fall off in August to September. Bagtikan is a tall tree and as
such seed collection can be done using seed traps or on the ground. Prompt
collection should be done because the seeds lose their viability shortly. The seeds
can be packed in moist containers with mosses, coconut fiber and sawdust as media.
Pulverized charcoal can be a suitable packing medium. The seeds are placed in
wooden trays or boxes with a perforated side to allow ventilation.
If a seed collector prefers to pick up the seeds on the ground, he should
prepare the area near a plus tree by removing the grasses and litter. The winged
seeds can be disseminated up to 60 m away from the mother plant. Bagtikan seeds
are viviparous, they germinate even before they fall on the ground. Regenerations
spring up densely as in the nursery bed. If a collector prefers to collect wildlings,
the one with the first real pair of fully developed leaves with 20 cm tall are
recommended. Lift them with the ball of soil attached firmly around the roots. Ten
to twenty wildlings are wrapped in banana stalks or plastic bags with holes.
Transfer the balled wildlings in a slightly shaded nursery. The newly transplanted
- 40 -
wildlings in the nursery should at least be watered once a day. They are allowed to
develop in the nursery for 3 to 6 months before outplanting.
Bagtikan can be planted in understocked secondary forest or brushwood as
done in assisted natural regeneration. They prefer to grow in a moist soil and
partially shaded sites. However, in open grasslands, bagtikan can also be planted, it
only needs judicious partial removal of grasses by patch clearing. Planting stocks
like wildlings or seedlings are set in dug holes spaced 4 × 4 m. Light fertilization of
20 to 30 g of 14-14-14 per plant is recommended. It can be applied by mixing it
with the soil to enable them to cope with the rapidly developing grasses.
Bagtikan is basically a fine-wood species for timber and veneer. The
timber is generally used for rough construction, cabinet, furniture making, finishing
material for interior flooring, boat planking and tramming. It is a good material for
pulp and paper, mine timber etc.
Bagtikan is a climax species, however, because of the cool climate in the
grassland area along the slopes of Mt. Banahaw, it performed fairly as an
indigenous reforestation species.
Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) Fabaceae
Narra is one of the best known trees in
Southeast Asia. It is a national tree of the
Philippines as it is commonly found in almost
all parts of the country; it is tall, stable, tolerant
to the extreme conditions of dry and rainy
seasons and wind-firm.
Narra is a large, nearly deciduous tree
for a short time during dry season, that attains a
height of 30 m or more, with high and large
- 41 -
buttresses. The crown is usually wide spreading but deep, occupying one-third of
the total height. The trunk is frequently short, irregularly fluted or deformed
however in natural stands or dense plantations they develop straight, clear and
cylindrical bole that can be sawn into lumber for the manufacture of fine furniture.
The leaves are compound, imparipinnate, 12 to 22 cm long, the petiole is 2
to 4 cm long, the rachis is 6 to 18 cm, sparsely hairy, glabrescent. The compound
leaves are distributed alternately, composed of 7 to 11 leaflets, ovate to oblong-
ovate in shape, smooth margin if it is of smooth narra, wavy if its prickly narra, the
leaf apex is blunt acuminate, thin, glabrous, shiny, chartaceous to sub-coreacious.
The bark surfaces are concolorous, grayish brown, sometimes greenish. The
stipules are caducous, linear, 7 to 15 mm long, hairy on both sides.
The flowers and fruits are borne in 5 to 7 branched panicle and sometimes
with axillary racemes. The flowers are few to numerous, the calyx is 5 to 10 mm
long, all the lobes hairy inside towards the top, corolla with a standard. The flowers
are yellow, fragrant, profuse and usually occurs twice a year.
The mature fruit is dry and indehiscent pod with membranous wings and
orbicular or semi-orbicular in shape. It is brown to blackish, prickly narra is
densely hairy, 4 to 6.6 cm in diameter. The seed-bearing part is 1.5 to 3 cm in
diameter, 6 to 9 mm thick, more or less woody. The pod contains 1 to 2 pear
shaped seeds, widest below the hilum. The testa is smooth and pale to dark brown.
Narra can be propagated using seeds or stem cuttings, seedlings raised in
the nursery (prepared as stumps, potted or bare-root) and wildlings. In the nursery,
the seeds can be drilled flat in seed boxes. It should be covered with a thin film of
soil. Dried cogon and other leaves can be used as mulch to maintain a moist soil
during dry months. The pods can also be directly sown in 5 × 6 × 0.004 inch
plastic bags filled with topsoil. The seed boxes and seedbeds are watered twice a
day. Excessive watering should be avoided. Narra has higher germination ability
of 80 to 100%. When direct seeding is desired, spot or strip clearing should be
done and two to three seeds are dropped in the hole spaced 2 × 2 m apart.
Narra seeds can be collected from standing plus trees and from the ground.
Abundant seed falls occur in September to November and occasionally in January
- 42 -
to July. Pods should be free from abnormalities. Prompt collection of pods should
be done to prevent contamination of microorganisms on the ground. The fruits are
sun-dried for a week to reduce moisture content to 10% after which they are stored
in sacks at room temperature. Before storing the seeds, small amount of moisture
absorbing materials like calcium carbonate and magnesium oxide can be mixed to
maintain its viability for a year.
Narra can also be asexually propagated using stump sprouts and cuttings.
The desired branches are severed off from the stem. Big branch cuttings about 10
cm in diameter and 2 m long are treated with IBAA or other rooting hormones in
order to produce an instant tree. Stump planting of narra seedlings can produce
good results in rehabilitating open grasslands. The upper shoots are cut leaving a
part 1 to 2 inches from the root collar. The planting materials are prepared bareroot
making them easy to transport and establish. Experiments done at the Ecosystem
Research and Development Bureau (ERDB), Philippines shows that stem tissues of
6 months to 2 years old narra saplings can be regenerated using tissue culture
technique. Other known techniques of propagating narra include grafting, budding,
ground and aerial (marcotting) layering.
Narra can be established in open grassland but it requires good site
preparation by clear brushing or strip brushing the tall grass vegetation. Holes are
dug about 15 cm in diameter and 15 to 20 cm deep especially if planting stocks are
only 30 cm tall. An initial spacing of 1 × 1 m can be adopted however for
landscaping, a wider spacing of 4 × 4 to 10 × 10 m can be used. A light application
of complete (14-14-14) fertilizer can be done inorder to enhance early survival and
growth. Ring weeding and cultivation for at least twice a year during the
establishment period can improve survival and early growth. Narra tends to branch
at an early stage and that it requires sustained pruning operations until a well
defined bole is attained. Harvesting can be done after 15 to 20 years depending on
the site quality.
Narra grows in a variety of tropical climate however it performs best in
fertile, deep soils along the bank of the rivers, immediately behind the mangrove
swamps and areas extending upstream of watersheds. It thrives naturally in moist
- 43 -
sandy loam to clay loam soil, along gullies and stream banks of low to medium
elevations, but it can tolerate areas up to 1,300 m above sea level. In natural stands,
it associates with other leguminous trees in a molave forest. It is well adapted to
Philippine temperature ranging from 22°C to 32°C and under an average annual
precipitation of 2,366 mm.
Narra is best known as source of timber for furniture. The reddish
hardwood is used for cabinetry, cart wheels, carving, light to heavy construction,
musical instruments, etc. It is recommended as an ornamental and avenue tree. In
fact, a number of these trees are found in municipal plaza and urban parks. The
whole parts of the tree have medicinal and cosmetic values. The young leaves and
flowers are said to be eaten, the flowers are sources of honey, the leaf extracts are
used as shampoo. Young leaves can be applied to ripen boils, ulcers and prickly
heat. Bark exudates are sources of gums, a cure for dysentery and diarrhea. The
red latex is used to cure ulcers and has diuretic properties.
Based from initial assessment of the performance in Mt. Banahaw, narra as
a leguminous tree species performed very excellent, both in survival and early
growth.
Lago (Prunus grisea) Rosaceae
Lago is a small lesser known tree
species reaching a height of up to 20 m and a
diameter of 60 cm. In Mt. Makiling, the trees
form the intermediate layers especially found
in small gaps and forest edges. It is abundant
in secondary forests but has gradually been
depleted due to rampant illegal logging. The
leaves are simple, coreacious and oblong-
- 44 -
entire, 10 to 25 cm long and 2 to 5 cm wide, broadly obtuse or rounded at the base,
gradually acute or sub-acuminate apex, glabrous and with a pair of glands at the
base. The midrib is brown to reddish brown with 4 to 6 lateral nerves, faint and
exceedingly curved with obscure reticulations. The outerbark is brown to reddish
brown and smooth. The flowers are born in a raceme or spike, axillary, soft and
pubescent. The flowers are alternately distributed from the base, pedicel measured
3 to 5 mm long. The calyx are broadly funnel shaped, pubescent with small
segments. The petals are similar to the calyx lobes but glabrous on the inner side,
stamens are many, inserted below the hairy disk, pistil is glabrous.
The fruits are born in a raceme or spike, small drupes. Mature fruits are
available throughout the year and can be collected from the standing tree and on the
ground. The seeds are extracted by mashing in a container filled with water. The
seeds are recalcitrant and do not require sun drying. The seeds are only air-dried
and shortly it is sown in nursery beds. Germination takes place within a week, but
with lower germinations values.
Seedlings are transferred to the medium-sized planting pots and raised
under the shade until they reach plantable height of 50 to 70 cm. There are no
records of extensive planting of lago in the Philippines. Lago poles can be used as
fuelwood and for light construction purposes. In natural forest, Lago is found in
Molave stands or Limestone forest.
The indigenous tree species trials done in Mt. Banahaw revealed that lago
has very low survival in grasslands. Many of the planted seedlings dried up until the
base during summer. Resprouting takes place during the rainy season. However,
based on overall assessment, it is a moderate grower in the site.
- 45 -
Kalantas (Toona calantas) Meliaceae
Kalantas is a large tree which
attains a height of 40 to 50 m and a
diameter of 120 to 150 cm upon
maturity. In a dense stand, it forms a
straight, cylindrical bole which is
more than half of its total height. The
crown of kalantas is wide spreading,
deep and rather open. The leaves are
pinnately compound, rachis ranges from 5 to 18 cm long and expands 2.5 to 6.5 cm,
the compund leaf is generally opposite, sometimes alternate. The twigs are
branched at the end. The bark breaks into rectangular scale, sometimes fissured,
slightly turning and raised outward. However, in young kalantas trees, the bark is
smooth and with longitudinal lines. The bark looks similarly with that of tangile
but can be distinguished by its distinct cedary odor especially when freshly cut.
Kalantas can be found in primary forests from low to medium altitudes and
abundantly distributed in the islands of Batanes, Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros,
Leyte, Cebu, Mindoro and Palawan. Kalantas grows fairly well in dry soils,
preferably clay to loamy with considerable humus. Kalantas associates with
leguminous tree, molave trees and dipterocarps.
Flowering of kalantas occur in March to April and the fruits are available
after a year in May to June. In Quirino province, the fruits are available in
November. The seeds are collected from the standing tree by climbing or by using
the long pole. The seeds are stony and can be air-dried for two days. Seeds under
normal conditions can be stored for 2 to 3 months with still 85% germination,
decreasing to 47% on succeeding month. Under dry-cold storage in refrigerators,
with a temperature of 10 to 23°C, seeds can be stored up to 7 months, after which
germination values decline. Kalantas seeds are just soaked in tapwater in order to
- 46 -
enhance germination. The seeds are sown in seedbed with ordinary garden soil.
The sown seeds are watered once a day. Within a week, uniform germination is
achieved. When the germinants reach the height of 10 to 20 cm, they are
transferred in rearing beds or pots up to 7 months. The plantable height is 50 to 70
cm. Kalantas planting stocks can also be earthballed wildlings. They are further
raised in the nursery, hardened before outplanting.
Kalantas planting stocks are not tolerant to heavy shade. Partial removal
of the vegetation such as grasses and broadleaved shrubs by patch and strip clearing
can be made to ensure better survival. The whole site can be ring-weed, cultivated
thrice a year and applied with moderate amount of complete fertilizer per seedling.
Kalantas is fast-growing and attains maturity after 15 to 20 years. The wood of
kalantas is light, durable and does not shrink too much making it a good material
for constructing small boats and banca. Its reddish brown wood is used for
sculpture work, furniture and cabinet.
As an indigenous species, kalantas performs quite well in Mt. Banahaw. It
has high survival but slow growth rate. It cannot compete very well with cogon
(Imperata cylindrica) and talahib (Saccharum spontaneum). Likewise, it cannot
tolerate open conditions with intense light and strong winds.
Akle (Albizia acle) Fabaceae
Akle is a medium-sized tree
attaining a total height of 25 to 30 m and a
diameter of 70 to 120 cm. Its bole is
generally short and crooked. The crown
is widely spreading and deep. It is a
deciduous tree that sheds off its leaves
during dry season, intolerant or sun-
- 47 -
loving. It is commonly found in secondary forest.
The leaves are bipinnately compound, opposite, usually with one pair of
pinnae, each with 3 to 6 pairs of leaflets. The flowers are greenish white, bome on
raceme on a small, rounded heads or globes. The seeds are contained in short and
flat pods with 2 to 3 seeds. The trunk has lenticellate to smooth bark, no buttress
but has swollen roots. The bark is brown to dark brown, brittle and the inner
structure is creamy white when freshly cut turning to vermilion or reddish yellow
after exposure.
Akle seeds are available in May to June in Mt. Makiling. They are
contained which dehisce at maturity. Seed collection from standing tree by
climbing should be done before pods naturally open. To extract the seeds, the pods
should be sun-dried or hard and well ventilated surface. Akle seeds can be stored in
dry bottles up to one year without losing much of its viability.
It requires hot water treatment in order to attain fast and uniform seed
germination. Pre-germinated seeds are drilled or broadcast-sown in seedbeds.
Germination is attained after 7 to 15 days after sowing. Akle seeds have higher
germination values and survival. Under natural forest, akle grows on gaps and
stand edges. Balled wildlings can also be sued as planting stocks.
In the field, akle can be planted in partially cleared round patches and in
strips. It is a slow growing leguminous species. In our initial observation of growth
performance at Mt.Banahaw, it is an moderate grower.
- 48 -
Duklitan (Pouteria duclitan) Sapotaceae
Duklitan is a large tree up to 50 m tall
and up to 100 cm in diameter. It has a straight,
cylindrical bole that provides good amount of
lumber. The tree is widely distributed in the
Philippines and Southeast Asia. It is common
in periodically inundated areas and on limestone
forests but it is also common in secondary
forests. It is seen in the lower slopes of Mt.
Makiling.
The leaves are simple, spirally arranged,
evenly distributed in a twig, elliptic-obovate or elliptic-oblong with a distinct broadly
obtuse base, the apex is acuminate, with a distinct reticulate to slightly transverse
tertiary venation. The tree is glabrous on both side of the leaf, the petioles 3 to 5 mm
long. The flowers are whitish green, small, in clusters or leafless or nearly leafless
auxilliary shoots or in auxilliary clusters on slender pedicels 2 to 9 mm long.
Duklitan flowers in March in Quezon, August in some other parts of the Luzon
Island.
The fruits are ovoid to obovoid or globose, 1.2 to 3.5 diameter, glabrous
except at the base. It turns blackish green upon ripening. The seeds are straw
brown and has a glossy texture. The fruits are fleshy that turn purple upon ripening.
These are collected from seed falls which are abundant in February. The fruits are
soaked in tap water for 2 to 3 days to soften the pulp and to macerate to extract the
seeds. A fruit has 1 to 4 seeds. The seeds can be air-dried for 1 to 2 days however it
can be sun-dried if it is intended for long storage. These are spread in plastic trays
and stored at room temperature. Because the seeds are waxy or stony in texture, they
require pre-germination treatments. The seeds germinate 17 days after sowing with a
very low germination value of only 15%.
- 49 -
Field planting is done 6 months after emergence when the seedlings reach
50 to 70 cm in height. Duklitan is a good source of timber for carving, making
musical instruments, cabinet works, household implements, fan ribs and
matchsticks.
Duklitan has low field survival in Mt. Banahaw and establishes slowly
because of strong wind and low soil moisture during dry season.
Supa (Sindora supa) Fabaceae
Supa is a small to medium tree
reaching a height of 20 to 30 m and 150 to
180 cm in diameter, a stout but vigorous
leguminous tree with drooping branches.
The leaves are simple - compound,
alternate and averaging 15 cm long
measured at the rachis. It has usually 3
pairs of leaflets, elliptic, coreacious to leathery, 3.5 to 9 cm long and 2.5 to 5 cm
wide. It has very short petiolules, the terminal pair has acute and slightly
equilateral shape, otherwise obtusely rounded, sometimes submarginate,
reticulation fine but distinct. The bark is brown to nearly black, sheds off in a large
rectangular scales.
The white flowers are born in a terminal or axillary racemous
inflorescence, 10 to 15 cm long, more or less densely olivacious and pubescent.
The flower are pedicellate, 2 cm long subtended by 2 acute bracts; the calyx is
short, 4-bolled, thick , 1 cm long and spinulose. The petals are 1 cm, as long as the
calyx lobes, pubescent along the margins below; the filaments and ovary are hirsute.
The fruit of supa is small pod containing 2 to 3 seeds, ovate, rounded at the
base, somewhat beaked at the apex, 4 × 6 cm and covered with straight but stiff
- 50 -
prickles or spines. In Mt. Makiling, fruits of supa ripen in July to August. They are
collected from the standing mother tree by climbing or from seedfalls on the
ground. The seeds are manually extracted from dehiscent pods upon sun-drying for
2 to 3 days. These can be sun-dried for one day and stored in dry, sealed bottles.
Supa seeds have good keeping quality. They are still viable 1 to 2 years after
collection. Supa seeds have fairly good germination values of 60 to 80% and they
have good seedling survival. There are no records of extensive planting of supa in
the Philippines but there are natural standing trees in limestone or molave forests.
The sapwood is light-colored to pink, distinctly demarcated from the
yellowish red heartwood when fresh, turning chestnut brown or russet with age,
crossed-grains, with fine texture, very glossy, with distinct taste or odor,
moderately hard, durable and moderately resistant to decay.
Supa performs poorly to fairly in the grassland of Mt. Banahaw. It has
very low survival and establishes slowly but the surviving seedlings pick up in
vigor after 2 years.
Makaasim (Syzygium nitidum) Myrtaceae
Makaasim is a medium to large
tree reaching a height of 25 m and a
diameter of 60 cm or more. It naturally
thrives well in well-drained forests of
low or middle altitude, even up to 1,300
m above sea level. The tree has wide
spreading, deep and fully developed
crown.
The leaves are simple, 8 to 14
cm long and 3 to 6 cm wide, elliptical
- 51 -
oblong to broadly oblanceolate, rigidly coreaceous, bluntly acute apex, lucid above
and light green beneath, long petioles, base obtuse and subcuneate with 8 to 12 pairs
of nerves, obtuse and finely interarching or wavy tips. The bark is brownish and
slightly flaky which sloughs off. It has a paniculate inflorescence; chiefly terminal,
seldom lateral, 6 cm long, densely flowered, thick and rigid small stalks, yellowish
gray, more or less angulate or ridge divarilate.
Makaasim blooms in March to April and the fruit ripens in May to June.
The flowers are white, subsessile, funnel-shaped calyx, 1 cm long with 4 broad
rounded and punctate segments. Petals are numerous, broadly ovate, coarsely
glandular and dotted style. The flower has numerous stamens. The fruits are
globose, 1.5 cm in diameter, crowded by the persistent calyx, hard and greenish,
turns yellowish when they ripe. The small fruits are harvested from standing tree by
climbing or with the use of hooks. Seeds are placed in small sacks, soaked in water
to soften the pulp. The fruits are mashed to separate the seeds which settle down.
Seeds are sun-dried and kept for storage. Seeds are sown in seed boxes, germinate
after 15 to 21 days. It has low viability values and survival.
Makaasim is a native species of Mt. Banahaw, the tree has very high
survival and establishes excellently in plantations. However, it grows slowly
during the seedling stage. The wood is very resistant to decay, durable and fine
textured. It can be used for general construction.
References
De Guzman, E.D., Umali,R. and Sotalbo,E. (1986) Dipterocarps and non-
dipterocarps, in guide to the Philippine flora and fauna, Vol. 3, Natural
Resources Management Center and University of the Philippines, Quezon
City.
Fernando, E.S., Sun, B.Y., Suh, M.H., Kong, H.Y. and Koh, K.S. (2004).
Flowering plants and ferns of Mt. Makiling, ASEAN-Korea Environmental
Cooperative Unit (AKECU), National Instrumentation Center of Environmental
- 52 -
Management, Seoul National University, Korea.
Hensleigh, T.E. and Holaway, B.R., (Eds). (1988) Agroforestry species for the
Philippines, US Peace Corps. Technology Center, Manila, Philippines.
Merril, E.D. (1926) An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, Bureau of
Printing, Manila, Philippines.
Rojo J.P. (1999) Revised lexicon of the Philippine trees, FPRDI, College, Laguna,
Philippines.
- 53 -
Simplified Pre-germination Treatments and Improved Direct Seeding Methods
for Reforestation
Kazunori Takahashi and Garret D. Ruiz Introduction The Philippines used to have wide forest acreage and had been a leading
timber exporting country before, but at the present, the total forest area occupies
only around 18% of the country’s land resource due to the long years of extensive
harvesting of timber since the Spanish colonial period until the late 70s. Its
share in forest acreage is now very low as compared to other Southeast Asian
countries (Gascon 2002).
The residual or remnant forest areas are continuously being devastated
and these wide-spread destructions over the mountains sometimes cause serious
floods and menace to the people living in lowlands.
Reforestation is, therefore, one of the most important social tasks, not
only to restore forest resources but also to protect the life of rural people
(Gacoscosim 1995 Magdaraog 1998). The basic rehabilitation methods used in
the tropics were historically introduced from advanced nations, but are they
suitable enough? They need more nurseries to raise the seedlings, but nursery
establishment may be too costly for the people of mountainous region. We may
rather need to develop the methods more suitable for the domestic condition in
the Philippines. The simple and easy methods with low cost will be important
for the farmers and foresters in the rural areas who are the main keepers or
stewards of the forests.
The direct seeding may be an example of the useful method for the
reforestation of those areas. Indeed, direct seeding method using leguminous
tree seeds is a very popular way to establish the forest trees in the degraded
grassland areas in the Philippines (Magdaraog 1998 and Tesoro et al. 1980)
JIRCAS initiated a collaborative research project entitled “Studies on
- 54 -
the Establishment of Cover Forest for the Logged-Over Tropical Forests in the
Philippines” in 1999 in order to promote the technical development of
reforestation methods for the marginal and degraded mountainous logged-over
areas. Commercial logging or harvesting had transformed the forests into
grassland, causing the regeneration of tree species to be very difficult. This
project was conducted in close collaboration with the Institute of Renewable
Natural Resources of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University
of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and Southern Luzon Polytechnic College
(SLPC) in Lucban, Quezon.
One of the important study components of this project was the
establishment of simplified pre-germination treatments for the indigenous
leguminous tree species useful for the adoption of agroforestry in the country.
Hereafter, we introduced several experiments related to the simplified
pre-germination treatments and the improved direct seeding methods for the
leguminous agroforestry trees.
Pre-germination Treatments by Soaking in Hot Water
The trees of Fabaceae are generally highly tolerant to drought
conditions and suitable for tree planting in degraded grassland areas. Those
seeds usually have thick, water-blocking seed coat, requiring pre-germination
treatments. Heating can be an effective way to soften the hard and waxy seed
coat, and the soaking in hot water may be the most convenient way of
pre-germination treatment for the private foresters and farmers. The required
temperature and soaking time will be different according to the kind of species.
Sometimes, we may find variations in the nature of the seed coat even among
the populations of the same species, thus the experimental studies on
pre-germination treatments should be carried out widely in areas where the
species are abundant to gather precise information regarding their germination
behaviors.
- 55 -
Fig. 14 Hot water treatment and sowing test on study of germination enhancement.
- 56 -
Fig. 15 Germination monitoring of Parkia roxburghii on study of germination enhancement.
- 57 -
We managed the studies on hot water treatments for the common
indigenous tree species of Fabaceae in Southern Luzon region. The most
effective temperature and soaking time were studied using experimental trials
by combining with the treatment using different hot water temperatures (40oC,
60oC, 80oC) and extent of soaking time (0.5min, 2min, 5min) . We carried out
this experiment using the seeds of common leguminous tree species, namely
Acacia mangium, Albizia saman, Albizia acle, Parkia roxburghii, Leucaena
diversifolia, Leucaena leucocephala, L. pulverulenta and Pterocarpus indicus f.
echinatus (prickly narra). The nine test courses by the different temperatures
and times and one non-treated seed course were examined. We prepared four
sets of one hundred seeds for each test course. The seeds in the strainer were
soaked in hot water inside the pot simultaneously setting the required
temperatures by thermometer. We arranged ten pieces of lined 1×1m square
seed bed for the seed sowings, sowed those hot water soaked seeds on the seed
beds in mid-January of 2000, and monitored the germination parameters. We
measured the height of the seedlings and marked them with numbers on the
small wire sticks (Fig. 15). The monitoring was continued until 50 days after
seed sowing with the interval of 5 days.
The results showed that the seed soaking in hot water were effective for
several species in enhancing the seed germination rate (Fig. 16 and Table 5). In
our experiment, Albizia acle, Acacia mangium, Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus,
Leucaena pulverulenta, Leucaena diversifolia and L. leucocephala showed
statistically significant effect on seed germination rate (Table 5). In all the species
tested, the three species of genus Leucaena were especially important for the
reforestation in the Philippines. We succeeded to find the suitable temperatures
and times to gain the high seed germination rates of them. Generally, those
Leucaena species need quite high temperatures of around 80oC, and the emerging
seedlings grow rapidly under the treatments (Table 5). The procedures of hot
water treatments are very simple, thus we hope that the techniques of seed
soaking and the data of the suitable temperature and time will be disseminated
widely to the foresters and farmers.
- 58 -
Experimental Species ; Acacia mangium
Fig. 16 Differences of seed germination rate and seedling growth on hot water seed soaking experiment.
Experimental Species ; Albizia saman
- 59 -
Fig. 16 Continued…
Experimental Species ; Leucaena deversifolia
Experimental Species ; Parkia roxburghii
- 60 -
Fig. 16 Continued…
Experimental Species ; Leucaena pulverulenta
Experimental Species ; Leucaena lecocepara
- 61 -
Fig. 16 Continued…
Experimental Species ; Albizia acle
Experimental Species ; Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus.
- 62 -
Tabl
e 5
See
d ge
rmin
atio
n en
hanc
emen
t on
hot w
ater
trea
tmen
ts a
nd fi
re h
eatin
gs.
- 63 -
Direct Seeding Method for Leguminous Tree Species Soaking in hot water is also a useful pre-treatment for the direct seeding
practiced by the farmers or the land owners of grass-covered mountainous area.
Some farmers sow the leguminous tree seeds before they burn the grassland
area. The fire removes the grasses and heats the sown seeds to soften the
water-blocking seed coat layer, but the heat of grass burning will not be always
stable and may not give the suitable temperatures that the seeds need. So, we
thought of comparing the seed germination rates between the conventional
direct seeding method of burning grasses and the newly devised one of sowing
the seeds soaked in hot water.
This test to compare the conventional direct seeding and the newly
devised one sowing the seeds soaked in hot water were carried out at the field in
of Mt. Makiling located near UPLB campus. The germination rates of
indigenous leguminous seeds were compared between the ones heated by the
conventional way of burning grasses, the ones heated by suitable hot water
soaking and the non-treated ones without heating. We used the eight
leguminous tree species, namely Acacia mangium, Albizia saman, Parkia
roxburghii, Leucaena diversifolia, Leucaena leucocephala, Leucaena pulverulenta,
Albizia acle and Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus.
The area of test field square was 3×10m for a species, and that was
divided to 3 sections of 1×10m square. Each section was made up of lined
1×1m unit. The dense grasses mixing with cogon, Imperata cylindrica, covered
those test fields. We broadcast-sowed each 100 seeds on all the 1×1m units of
a 1×10m section to test the conventional direct seeding by grass burning,
cleanly weeded the grasses and burned them just after seed sowings. On the
other hand, we weeded and burned the grasses before the seed sowings for
the other two 1×10m sections each applied to test the direct seedings by hot
water soaked seeds and non-treated seeds.
- 64 -
Fig.17 Experiment of direct seeding by grass burning.
Fig.18 Germinated seedlings from seeds soaked in hot water.
The same amount of the seeds were broadcast-sown on the 1×1 m units of a
1×10m sectional fields after the burnings. For the seeds soaked in hot water, we
gave the suitable treatments before the seed sowings by the temperatures and
soaking times found in the studies of pre-germination treatment (Table 5).
We carried out those seed sowings in early February of 2000. The
monitoring of seedling emergence at the test fields was started subsequently
- 65 -
with the seed sowings. We marked and measured the heights for all the emerged
seedlings of the species tested using numbered small wire sticks. The interval of
the monitoring was 5 days. That was continued for 50 days after the seed
sowings. At the end of the monitoring period, we sieved the surface soils of the
seed beds to collect all the seeds that did not germinate, and then counted the
numbers of the sound seeds by cutting them to check the quartiles of embryos.
We calculated the germination rate of the species by the proportion of the
accumulated number of emerged seedlings to the sum of the number of those
seedlings and the one of the sound seeds remained after the monitoring
duration.
On these comparative tests between the conventional method and the
method to improve the conventional direct seeding combining with the hot
water tresatment, we confirmed the advantages of our improvement. Fig.19
shows the comparison of germination rates between the conventional direct
seeding method to burn the grasses after seed sowing and the method giving hot
water soaking before seed sowing. The germination rates of the seeds sown
without any treatment were generally lower than the ones of seeds heated,
except for two species of Acacia mangium and Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus.
Acacia mangium did not give good germination rates even with heating. This
suggests that the seeds have not matured well. The seeds of pterocarpus indicus
f. echinatus given the conventional fire heating also did not germinate at all.
The temperature by fire heating might be damaging the seeds, or not be
effective by contraries.
The other species statistically enhanced the seed germination rates by
the both methods of fire heating and hot water soaking (by Mann-Whitney,
U-test; Table 5). The seeds soaked in hot water showed the higher germination
rates than the fire heated ones at the time after 50 days of sowing. The seeds of
three species on genus Leucaena, Leucaena diversifolia, Leucaena leucocephala
and Leucaena pulverulenta particularly showed the quite high germination rates
from the early stages and performed the high percentages of seedling
establishments by the suitable soaking in hot water.
- 66 -
Also, the seed germination rates of Albizia saman and Parkia
roxburghii were highest on the seeds soaked in hot water 50 days after sowing,
but the initial seed germination rates 25 days after sowing were higher on the
fire heated seeds. We could not find the valid explanation of the result, but that
might be related to the large sizes of the seed as compared to the ones of other
species we tested.
We proved that the conventional direct seeding method could be
improved combining with the seed soaking in hot water. On the procedure we
devised, the leguminous tree seeds were initially soaked at the most effective
temperature for the species. The grasses of the planting area should be burned
before the seeds are sown. The pasture management often uses fire to burn
cogon and grasses in order to supply the nutritious young shoots to animals, but
if it is uncontrolled, the pasture burning may destroy adjacent forests and
plantations (Valmayor et al. 1982). Generally, burning grasses in the mountainous
area must be regulated or prohibited for the prevention of forest fire. If the grass
burning is not appropriate, weeding can be an alternative way, and the seeds are
sown on the ground after the removals of grasses. Those broadcast seeding need
to be done with care, and the seeds should be in contact with the soil
immediately after the sowings (Gacoscosim 1995). If the sowing area will slope
steeply, the seeding in holes or in easy furrows will be recommendable to
prevent the seed loss rather than the broadcast seeding.
- 67 -
After the seed germination monitoring on direct seeding tests, we
continuously observed the seedling growth and the grass recovery of the fields.
The grasses of the test fields fully recovered again in 150 days after the
burnings and the average grass height reached to around 110 cm in that period.
On the other hand, the growth performances of the tested leguminous trees were
greatly varied in the period. The average seedling heights of Leucaena
pulverulenta, Leucaena leucocephala and Leucaena diversifolia exceeded the
one of grasses, but those of Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus, Albizia saman and
Albizia acle, which were the quality timber species in the Philippines, were
lower than the height of grasses (Fig.20 and 21). Those results show that the
grass weeding after direct seeding is necessary for the slow growing seedlings
including the latter three species we tested.
The species of genus Leucaena are generally first growing as shown on
our observation. The shed stands of Leucaena covering the grassland will be
0 25 50
80c°5 min Temp. & Time.Aibizia acle
0 25 50
60c°1 minTemp. & Time.Acacia mangium
00
20
40
60
80
100
25 50
80c°0.5 minTemp. & Time.Parkia roxburghii
0 25 50
80c°2minTemp. & Time.Leucaena diversifolia
Hot water soaked seeds
Non-treated seedsFire heated seeds
0
Days after seed sowing
25 50
80c°5 minTemp. & Time.L. leucocephala
0 25 50
80c°0.5 min
Temp. & Time.
Temp. & Time.Leucaena pulverulenta
Fig. 19 Germination rates of leguminous tree seeds on comparison of hot water soaking treatments and fire heatings
00
20
40
60
80
100
25
Cum
ulat
ive
germ
inat
ion
rate（
％）
80c°0.5 minAlbizia saman
Temp. & Time.
50 0 25 50
80c°2minPterocarpus indicus (e)
Temp & time : Temperature and time on best hot water soaking course.
.
- 68 -
simply established by our proposed method of direct seeding (Fig. 22). They are
useful to eliminate grasses and offer the spaces for the varied agroforestry
activities combined with the timber production.
0 30 60 90 120 1500
20
40
60
80
100
Vege
tatio
n C
over
(%
)
Days after seed sowing0 30 60 90 120 150
0
100
200
Days after seed sowing H
eigh
t
(cm
)Grass speciesLeucaena purverlentaLeucaena leucocephalaLeucaena diversifollia
Fig. 20 Seedling growth performances of Leucaena species on comparison with the recovering grasses.
0 30 60 90 120 1500
20
40
60
80
100
Vege
tatio
n C
over
(%
)
Days after seed sowing0 30 60 90 120 150
0
100
200
Days after seed sowing
Hei
ght
(c
m)
Grass speciesPterocarpus indicus f. e.
Fig. 21 Seedling growth performances of timber use legumes on comparison with the recovering grasses.
Albizia samanAlbizia acle
- 69 -
Seed Collection
Pre-germination Treatment
Weeding ( or Grass burning )
Direct Seeding
Maintenance
Seed Collection
Grass Burning
Broadcast Seeding
( Weeding, Vine Cutting, Fertilizer)Repeating Burning
( Broadcasting, in Holes or Furrows )
Conventional MethodImproved Method
Fig. 22 Procedure flowcharts for leguminous direct seedings.
Fig. 23 Before and after of direct seeding reforestation by Leucaena leucocephala.
- 70 -
Conclusion The trees of Fabacea are popularly used for reforestation in the
Philippines (Valmayor et al. 1982), but the seeds are generally hard to
germinate naturally because of the water-blocking seed coat. In our research,
the suitable pre-germination treatments by the seed soaking in hot water have
been found to enhance the germination to improve their water absorption
capacities (Fig. 16, Table 5). Although the farmers usually sow the seeds and
burn the grassland to heat the leguminous seeds, we found that the hot-water
soaking treatments were more effective for maintaining high temperatures
specifically needed for the seed germination enhancement of leguminous
species (Fig. 19). Our improved method to sow the hot-water soaked seeds after
removing the grasses, greatly succeeded in ensuring establishment of seedlings
(Fig. 22 and Fig. 23).
References Gascon, C.N. (2002) Mt. Banahaw; physical, botanical and management
features, SLPC, Lucban, Quezon, Philippines, 52-61.
Gacoscosim, M.M. (1995) Philippine forestry in action, Phoenix Publishing
House Inc., 1- 40.
Magdaraog, G., (Ed.) (1998) Environment and natural resources, ATLAS of the
Philippines, ECPF, Metro Manila, 225pp.
Tesoro, F., et al. (1980) The Philippine recommends for Ipil-Ipil, PCARRD,
Laguna, Philippines, 1-32.
Valmayor, R.V., et al. (1982) The Philippine recommends for reforestation,
PCARRD, Laguna, Philippines, 24-103.
- 71 -
Agroforestry Systems in Mt. Banahaw Quezon Province, Philippines
Cecilia N. Gascon, Marife O. Abuel, Lorelie D. Santos Introduction Upland areas in the Philippines are faced with two conflicting needs, food
production for the increasing population and the rehabilitation of the denuded areas
used for food production. The government is encouraging the adoption of
agroforestry technologies in the uplands that are believed to answer these two
conflicting needs.
Agroforestry is not a new technology because it has been practiced by our
ancestors since the time immemorial and its knowledge has been handed down
from generation to generation. In the Philippines, some of the conventional
agroforestry systems are well known, namely the Naalad agroforestry system in
Cebu, the Hanunuo Mangyan’s crop diversity system in Mindoro, the Ikalahan’s
“gen-gen” in Nueva Vizcaya, the Ifugao’s “pinugo” in Mountain Province, the
Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT) in Bansalan, Davao del Sur, home
gardens and the multistory system in the provinces of Cavite, Laguna and Quezon.
The Agroforestry Systems in Mt. Banahaw There are two dominant agroforestry systems in Mt. Banahaw, namely
vegetable-based and coconut-based multistory systems. The following will discuss
the processes involved in each system and socio-economic conditions of people
practicing the systems.
1. Vegetable-based agroforestry system
The vegetable-based system is predominant in the towns of Lucban,
Majayjay, Liliw and Nagcarlan. However, the following discussion will present
only the practices in Lucban, Quezon. a. Land preparation and farm maintenance
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Farmers prepared their land by brushing. Debris are piled in one
corner of the farm and allowed to decompose. However, the decomposed
materials are not mixed with the soil in the entire farm. Burning as a means
of land preparation is not practiced because the debris are moist due to
regular rain occurrence and the local government does not allow burning
as a method of land preparation.
Generally, the household heads are the ones cultivating and
managing the farm. However, there are some women who help their
husbands during land preparation. Other family members also participate
in harvesting crops. When a farmer has the money, he usually hires
laborers specifically in brushing and clearing his farm. The hired laborer is
also a farmer who is not so busy with his farm or is in need of immediate
cash. Aside from family and hired labors, exchange labor or “turnuhan” is
also prevalent in the area. Farmers have their own “turnuhan” group
consisting of 3 to 8 members. Membership is dependent on the farmer’s
circle of friends and relatives.
Animals also played important role in land preparation. Carabaos
are used in plowing and harrowing in preparation for planting radish and
sweet potato. Making plots across the contour (up and down the slope
cultivation) is observed in pechay (Brassica napus) and beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris). This method is not ecologically sound as it enhances runoff and
leaching of nutrients.
The farms are maintained by brushing, weeding, fertilizing and
applying pesticides. In order to minimize soil disturbance created by
uprooting the grasses, the farmers cut only the upper part. In effect, the
grasses retard rainfall energy and reduce runoff.
b. Cropping patterns.
Cropping pattern is the sequential arrangement of crops in time
and space. The present cropping pattern in the site is influenced by the
practices of their forefathers, practices of their contemporary farmers and
some are results of learning from technicians visiting the area. The rainfall
distribution and influence of middlemen affect farmers’ cropping pattern .
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c. Cropping calendar
Fig.24 shows the crop calendar used by the farmers. Eight crops
were identified as commonly planted.
Fig.24 Cropping calendar of upland farmers
in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon.
For the month of January, three crops were usually planted,
namely sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and
radish (Raphanus sativus). Sweet potato is planted either during the
months of January, February, March, June and September. It is harvested
during the months of April, May, September and December. To some
farmers, sweet potato is normally planted after harvesting radish. The
farmers claim that the soil is still fertile after harvesting radish and is still
appropriate to plant sweet potato.
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Beans are planted 2 to 3 times a year, either in January, May or June.
Harvest period are in March, July and August. The farmers do not plant
beans during April because of too much heat that lead to wilting of leaves
of new seedlings. Likewise, beans are not planted in August because of
typhoons and gusty winds that destroy the crops.
Radish is planted in January and harvested in April. This crop is
not planted during rainy months to avoid washing out of seeds by heavy
rains and rotting of crop by damping off. Pechay and mustard are planted
in May and June and harvested in July to August. Like other crops, pechay
is planted only once a year.
The cropping calendar discussed above is dependent on the
availability of capital, market condition or price stability, readiness of the
land for planting and the readiness of farmer to plant.
d. Crop combination
Crop combination refers to the various crops planted by a farmer
in his farm sequentially or simultaneously. Crops planted include beans,
chayote (Sechium edule), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), pechay (Brassica
napus), tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) and cabbage (Brassica
oleracea). Beans is the crop commonly combined with others due to the
following reasons: 1) beans occupy lesser space for planting; 2) the whole
year is suited for planting beans except for the months of April and
August; 3) farmers realize the immediate return of investment because it
can be harvested shorter than 2 months after planting.
e. Crop rotation
Unlike the usual practice of shifting cultivators of rotating the field,
Lucban farmers are practicing rotation of crops rather than shifting from
one place to another due to limitation of land to till. Rotation of crops is
based on the kind of crop in season. Fallow period ranges from 2 to 3
months and very seldom extends to 1 year and this is dependent on
farmers’ readiness to plant. Farmers can not afford to have longer fallow
period because of the limitation in land area.
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It is observed that the trees and perennial crops in a vegetable-
based farm are concentrated on the farm boundaries that also served as
protection from animals and intrusion of other farmers, delineating the bo-
undaries between two farms and to some extent source of fuel wood while
they stay in their farms. The trees and perennial crops planted by farmers
as boundary crops include ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), dapdap
(Erythrina orientalis), madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium) and banana
(Musa sapientum). Some farmers leave a narrow strip of natural vegetation
along gulleys and head waters for soil erosion control and water
conservation.
f. Crop yield
The peak harvest months of chayote (Sachium edule) are in April
and May. During these months, a farmer can harvest 780 – 1,560 kg in 2
weeks in a half ha of land. These are also the months where vegetables
command higher prices. From June to November on the other hand, a
farmer can harvest only 560 kg in 2 weeks in a half ha of land. In one
cropping, a farmer can harvest 8,320-11,050 kg in half ha.
A half ha of pechay can harvest 550-1,200 kg in one cropping. For
sweet potato and beans, the harvests range from 60-1,200 kg and 1,200-
1,680 kg, respectively. For radish and tomato on the other hand, the
harvests are 2,800 kg and 600 kg, respectively.
g. Marketing system of farm products
The farmers do not have problems where to market their products.
Farm products are highly accessible by horses or jeepney and are sold
either to middlemen (87 %) or directly to the market (13 %). The 95 to
99 % of farm products are sold and only 2 % is used for home
consumption (Fig.25). The prices of farm produce are dictated by
middlemen, prices in Divisoria (a market in Manila) or supply of
vegetables from other provinces.
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Fig.25 Marketing scheme of farm products
2. The Coconut-based Multistory Agroforestry Systems in Mt. Banahaw
This multistory agroforestry system is dominantly practiced by the
farmers in Dolores, Sariaya and Candelaria, Quezon Province, Philippines. The
following discussion will focus on how multistory systems are practiced in
these towns surrounding Mt. Banahaw.
a. Multistory system in Brgy. Pinagdanglayan, Dolores, Quezon
a.1 Physical characteristics of the site
The study site was located in Brgy. Pinagdanglayan, Dolores,
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Quezon. It is one of the upland barangays at the foot of Mt. Banahaw.
The slope ranges from 14 % to 20 %. The area is under Climatic Type II
of the Coronas System of Rainfall Classification characterized by 7-month
rainy season and 5-month dry season in a year. The temperature ranges
from 24.2oC to 29.8oC. The annual precipitation is 4,014 mm while the
average relative humidity is 86% (Fig.26, 27 and 28). The soil textural
type is clay loam with 54% water holding capacity. The chemical
characteristics of the soil under the multistory farm revealed that
phosphorus ranges from 11 – 79 ppm; nitrogen value ranges from 2.2 -
3.5% while pH ranges from 5.4 - 5.9. The volume of soil erosion ranges
from 1.53 tons/ha/yr to 3.54 tons/ha/yr.
a.2 Species composition
The multistory farms were composed of coconut (Cocos nucifera)
+ Coffea robusta or Coffea excelsa + banana (Musa sapientum) +
agricultural crops and coconut + rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) +
lansones (Lansium domesticum) + Albizia procera + citrus + mahogany
(Swietenia mahogani) + agricultural crops.
The coconuts which are set at 10 × 10 m spacing serve as the
overstory while coffee and other fruit trees serve as the intermediate layers.
The species found in this multistory system are all perennial. The two
forest tree species included in the system were akleng parang (Procera
excelsa) and mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). Akleng parang naturally
grows in the area while mahogany was planted by the farmers as future
source of lumber.
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The understory layer is composed of 3 varieties of sweet potato
(Ipomea batatas) that command higher prices in the market locally termed
as “sinuksok”, miracle” and tinrining”. Some farmers also planted corn
(Zea mays), baguio beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), radish (Raphanus
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
max min mean
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Relative Humdity
90 88 86 84 82 80 78 76
Fig.26 Average relative humidity in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon.
Fig.27 Average monthly rainfall in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon.
Fig.28 Average temperature in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
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sativus), ginger (Zingiber officinale), string beans (Vigna sesquipedalia),
gabi (Colocassium esculentum), peanut (Arachis hypognea) and cassava
(Manihot utilissima).
a.3 Marketing of farm products.
Majority (90 to 95%) of farm produce are sold to San Pablo City
Public Market while the remaining 5 to 10% are either sold to other market
outlets or consumed by the household.
b. Brgy. Mamala I, Sariaya, Quezon
b.1 Physical characteristics of the site
The town of Sariaya is 126 km south of Metro Manila. The study
sites are in Brgys. Concepcion Banahaw and Sampaloc, Bugon, about 2.5
km from the town proper and are accessible by jeepney. The place has an
elevation of 300 m above sea level. The site is drained by 3 rivers, namely
Balubal, Mamala and Keanuang. Sariya belongs to Climatic Type III,
characterized by long dry season from November to April and wet during
the rest of the year. The soil texture type belongs to the Sariaya series
which is dark brown, deep to moderately deep, sandy loam and well-
drained soil.
b.2 Land preparation and farm maintenance
The farmers prepared their farms by first brushing and removing
the grasses (locally termed as “gamas”). The debris are either piled
(“patoto”) to form a dike that serves as barrier for runoff and soil erosion,
burned during dry months or scattered in the farm and allowed to
decompose as organic fertilizer. These land preparation and farm
maintenance are normally participated by the whole family especially
during Saturdays, Sundays and holidays. Aside from family labor, the
farmers also practice “bayanihan” (exchange labor) with other farmers.
The farm animals such as cow and carabao are used in land
preparation particularly in plowing and harrowing the field for planting
radish (Raphanus sativus), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), pechay
(Brassica napus), carrot and cabbage (Brassica oleracea).
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The farms are maintained by brushing, weeding, fertilizing and
pesticide application. Lime was applied in the soil when farmers observed
that the soil has become acidic.
b.3 The species composition of a multistory system
There were two types of multistory system in Brgy. Mamala I,
namely coconut + vegetable and coconut + fruit trees.
b.3.1 Coconut + vegetable
There were eight crops planted under the coconut, namely sweet
potato, cabbage, cassava, pechay, carrot, peanut, radish and ginger (Table 6).
Table 6 Agroforestry crops commonly planted under coconut trees.
The farmers used two varieties of sweet potato, the “suk-sok” and
“tarlac” that can be harvested 7 and 4 months after planting, respectively.
The farmers preferred these two varieties because they give more yield and
Crop
Planting Harvesting No. of Cropping
Sweet Potato (suksok) (tarlac) (Ipomea batatas)
Any month of the year
Any month of the year
After 7 months
After 4 months
2 2
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea)
November to January
August to January
January to February
March and October
2-3
Cassava (Manibot esculenta)
Any month except
dry months
After 6 months 1
Pechay (Brassica napus)
Any month except
dry months
After 45 days 3
Carrot (Daucus carota)
Any month except
dry months
After 80-100 days
3-4
Peanut (Arachis hypogea )
December to February
April-June 1
Radish (Raphanus sativus)
Any month After 45 days 2
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
Any month After 1 year 1
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can be planted anytime of the year. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) is planted
during the months of January, August, November and December and
harvested after 2 months. Cassava (Manihot utilissima) and pechay are
planted anytime of the year except during dry months. Carrots are planted
three to four times a year while peanut is planted only once a year, from
December to February and harvested March to May. Radish and ginger are
planted anytime of the year depending on the farmers’ readiness to plant
and the availability of inputs like seeds and fertilizers.
These crops are normally planted in combination with other crops.
The 85% of the farmers planted three to five crops in the farm
simultaneously (Fig.29).
Fig.29 Coconut + vegetable crops farm.
b.3.2 Coconut + fruit trees
The fruit trees found in combination with coconut include coffee,
santol (Sandoricum koetjape), duhat (Syzygium cumingii (L.) Skeels) and
kamias (Averrhoa balimbi).
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Fig.30 Coconut + fruits trees farm.
b.4 Marketing system of farm produce
The 90% of farm produce are sold while the rest are used for
household consumption. The farm products are hauled by horses or
carabaos to the “paradahan” or waiting shed, which is 4 to5 km away from
the farmers’ farm. The farmers sell their products either to the middlemen
who came to the farm or directly to Sariaya market.
The middlemen directly influence the choice of species to be
planted. The current price of products determines the farmers’ decision as
to what crops to plant the next cropping.
c. Brgy. Masalukot, Candelaria, Quezon
c.1 Physical characteristics of the site
The town of Candelaria, Quezon is located 112 km south of Metro
Manila. It is considered as one of the rice granaries of the province. Brgy.
Masalukot is situated in the western portion of Mt. Banahaw. It has an
elevation of 460 m above sea level. The barangay is accessible by car
during dry season but becomes less accessible during wet season because
of muddy feeder roads. Brgy. Masalukot has an undulating terrain with
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slopes ranging from 30 to 50%. Only small patches of land have slopes
below 30%.
The area falls under Climatic Type III characterized by relatively
dry season from November to April and wet during the rest of the year.
The wet season starts in December while the driest months are from
January to April. Three soil series identified in the area were Guadalupe,
Macolod and Sariaya series. The Guadalupe series include moderately
deep, well drained dark brown soils of fine clay family. These soils are
derived from tuffaceous volcanic material with varying degree of
weathering. The Guadalupe series is more widely distributed and is most
important for agriculture than the other families of soil in the area.
c.2 Land preparation and farm maintenance
Farmers prepared the farm by brushing. The debris are either piled
in the corner of the farm and allowed to decompose to serve as organic
fertilizer or burned during dry months. Land preparation is generally done
by men in a form of family, hired or exchange labor. Animals are not used
in land preparation because of the steepness of the site. The farmers
practice soil conservation like cultivating along the contour and planting
perennial crops like coconut (Cocos nucifera), ipil-ipil (Leucaena
leucocephala) and madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium).
c.3 The multistory system
There are three agroforestry systems in the area, namely
perennial-based, annual-based, and perennial + annual based systems. In
the perennial-based system, four crop combinations were identified: 1)
coconut + coffee; 2) coffee + banana; 3) coffee + madre de cacao and 4)
coconut + fruit-bearing trees.
In the annual-based system, nine species were identified, namely
rice (Oryza sativa), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), corn (Zea mays),
squash (Cucurbita maxima), ginger (Zingiber officinale), gabi (Colocasia
esculenta), ampalaya (Momordica charantia), patani (Phaseolus lunatus)
and sitao (Vigna sesquipedalian).
The farmers follow a monthly sequence of planting. For the month
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of January, sweet potato is planted and in August, it is harvested. The
crops planted in March include ampalaya, patani, and sitao and harvested
in June or July. Because the area depends on rainfall for irrigation, rice is
planted only in May and harvested in September. During the month of
June, corn, squash and ginger are planted and are harvested in September.
Majority of the farmers plant corn because it does not require too much
labor and fertilizer. Gabi is planted during wet months and is harvested
after 6 months to 1 year. It was observed that farmers are gradually
modifying their system by intercropping ginger with corn, rice with corn
and combining corn, ginger and gabi.
The Masalukot farmers practice crop rotation rather than shifting
from one area to another. Rotation is based on the kind of crop in season.
The fallow period ranges from 2 to 3 months depending on the farmers’
readiness to plant.
c.4 The marketing system
The farm products are placed in the community shed (“bahay-
nayon”) where the buyers can pick up and transport to the different market
outlets. The 90 to 95% of the products are sold in a wholesale basis while
the remaining 5 to 10% is used for household consumption.
References Abuel, M.N. (1995) Upland Farming Systems in Brgy. Masalukot V, Candelaria,
Quezon. Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon.
Allegado, R.M. (2001) The Multistory Agroforestry System in Brgy.
Pinagdanglayan, Dolores, Quezon. Southern Luzon Polytechnic College,
Lucban, Quezon Philippines.
De los Santos, L. (1995) Cropping Pattern in Brgy. Ilayang Mamala I, Sariaya,
Quezon and its Relation on the Socio-economic Condition of the People.
Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon.
- 85 -
Navasero, C.N. (1993) Upland farming system in Mt. Banahaw de Lucban
watershed and its ecological implication to the conservation and
management of Mt. Banahaw, University of the Philippines, Los Baños,
Philippines.
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The Hanunuo Mangyan Agroforestry Systems And Associated Farming Practices
Cecilia N. Gascon Introduction The Hanunuo territory lies in the southeastern part of Mindoro island. It
occupied about 800 km2 of forest and grass-covered hinterlands. The 650 km2 of
which was an exclusive territory while the remaining 150 km2 was shared with
other Mangyan groups. Hanunuo occupied the highlands from Roxas to Bulalacao
in the south, and portions of San Jose and Magsaysay in the west, hence they were
often referred to as the Southern Mangyans.
Hanunuo Mangyan is one of the tribal communities or indigenous people
group in the island of Mindoro, Philippines. Literatures showed that this
community use swidden or kaingin farming as the most common type of
agroforestry system (Conklin 1957 as cited by Abarquez 1991).
The Hanunuo Mangyans have four types of land uses, namely the
residential area, the multistory farm, the kaingin or swidden farm and the forested
area (Fig.31).
Land Uses of the Hanunuo Mangyan 1. Residential Areas
These are found very near the seashore approximately 5 to 20 m above
sea level with flat to rolling topography. One distinguishing characteristic of this
land use is the presence of home gardens planted with fruit trees and few
vegetable species. As mentioned in the previous discussion, the home gardens of
the Hanunuos could not be considered as kitchen gardens because they did not
provide the kitchen needs of the household. The ocular observation and interviews
revealed that the home gardens are not original practice of the Hanunuo. They just
imitated it from the "damuongs" or lowlanders who also live in the area.
- 87 -
Fig.
31
The
land
use
sys
tem
s of
the
Han
unuo
Man
gyan
.
- 88 -
Fig.
31
Con
tinue
d...
- 89 -
Fig.
31
Con
tinue
d...
- 90 -
Fig.
31
Con
tinue
d...
- 91 -
The home gardens are the least diverse area and are not subjected to
burning. No rituals were done during planting and harvesting periods. The
labor devoted to home gardens is minimal compared with the kaingin.
2. Multistory farming Areas
These areas are located at 70 to 100 m above sea level with a rolling to
hilly topography. These are planted to perennials that are the source of food
and cash of the farmers. The respondents revealed that once the area is
converted to a multistory farm, it is no longer subjected to kaingin, specifically
to burning. The multistory farms are "owned" by farmers with more than one
parcel of land for cultivation. There are indications that these areas are
previously a second growth forest subjected to clearing before they became
multistory farm. The indications include the presence of species like anahaw
(Livistonia rotundifolia) which was also found in kaingin and forested areas.
Multistory farming may not be an original practice of the Hanunuos
because of two major reasons: 1) originally the Hanunuo Mangyan are not
dependent on cash and thus they do not need to plant mango which is their
primary source of cash; and 2) early studies about the Hanunuo Mangyan (e.g.,
Conklin 1957) never mentioned the multistory system of farming. 3. Swidden farming Areas
These areas are located 100 to 160 m above sea level with a hilly
topography. These are planted with rice or rice+com and later on mixed with
other crops like banana (Musa sapientum), ube (Dioscorea hispida), cassava
(Manihot utilissima) and cadios (Cajanus cajan ). The Swidden farming areas
are previously a secondary forest as manifested by the presence of stumps of
secondary forest species left after burning. This is validated by the interview
results wherein farmers admitted that they cut the trees, burned the area and did
cultivation activities locally termed as kaingin.
Kaingin areas undergo fallow periods of 1 to 3 years, depending on the
farmer. The fallow area is just one portion located within the kaingin site.
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This practice is different from their original practice of moving from one place
to another to look for areas for kaingin while resting their farm.
4. Forested Area
The forested areas are located at 100 to 200 m above sea level. These
areas are either forest fallows or secondary growth forests and permanent
forests. The forest fallows are usually found in boundaries or in between two
kaingin farms along the slope. They serve as buffer zones against soil erosion.
The permanent forests are found on very steep slopes and in mountain tops.
These are not subject to kaingin but are sources of wood/lumber when the
farmers build or repair their houses. The presence of rocks in the upper slope
prevented the farmers from cultivating these areas.
The Different Agroforestry Systems of the Hanunuo Mangyan 1. Swidden farming (kaingin)
Swidden farming is the most commonly practiced agroforestry system
of the Hanunuo Mangyans. It is also referred to as "kaingin" by the Hanunuos.
The full swidden cycle is composed of five distinct phases: a. site selection b.
cutting c. burning d. cropping and e. fallowing.
a. Site selection
Farmers selected their respective sites and are no longer opening up
new sites because of the government regulation. This is a departure from the
old practice wherein each nuclear household should make one new swidden a
year (Conklin, 1957 as cited by Abarquez et aI 1991).
The site for kaingin is dependent on the availability of land that has
been fallowed for the past 1 to 3 years. This area is usually adjacent to the
present kaingin site. This practice indicates that the Hanunuos are no longer
shifting cultivators in the real sense of the word but more of modified
sedentary farmers. This also manifested that land was no longer a "free good"
(Conklin 1957) as claimed by earlier writers on the Hanunuo.
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Rotation of land is done within the area "owned" by the farmer. This
has positive ecological advantage for the secondary forest. Hence, it was more
likely that the forest would be maintained and preserved.
Although, it is seldom that the Hanunuo would open up a new site for
kaingin, the following were the observed standard rules for site selection:
1) Sacred groves and strangling figs (Ficus sp.) should not be touched.
2) Site should be as near the settlement as possible as a practical measure
during harvesting when heavy loads would be carried on the back. In some
cases, the Hanunuo Mangyan would build a temporary house ("kubo") at
the farm where they could stay during the significant farming operations
like burning, planting, weeding and harvesting.
3) Swiddens cannot be made on land cultivated by other farmers and still
have productive tree crops. This was because previous occupation of an
area indicated ownership or rights to refarm it.
4) A shady slope was more favorable because of better soil moisture
5) Permanently muddy, fine silty, gravel, or quicksand types of soils were to
be avoided. "Firm" rather than "hard" or "loose" or "cracked" soils were
preferred because they led to less erosion. These were tested using the
thumb and index finger. This method corresponded to the brittleness or
consistency test for forest soils. A firm soil is hard and does not readily
succumb to pressing and also the beating effect of raindrops, hence it is
stable and less susceptible to soil erosion. This practice specifically held
true in selecting a new kaingin site. However, this was no longer
considered at the time of the study because the Hanunuo farmers
concentrated only on the area they were presently cultivating. Site rotation
existed only within the area they occupied.
6) Excessive rock outcrops are to be avoided.
7) Regularity of slope was more important than degree of slope. Slopes of
less than 35 % are preferred. Moderate slopes made all work easier for the
Hanunuo swiddener in terms of site preparation, planting, weeding and
harvesting.
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b. Cutting.
Cutting and brushing of small trees, shrubs and grasses were done
from January to February after the farmers had marked their respective sites.
This activity was done in preparation for burning. Cutting and brushing was
generally performed by men. The present process of cutting done by the
Hanunuos was exactly the same as what their forefathers did (personal
communication with the barangay captain of the Hanunuos ). The trees were
felled down to stump level (Fig.32), laid down and bucked for ease in
spreading.
Fig.32 The newly prepared area of the Hanunuos.
They used an ax or a bolo for cutting. The debris were spread
uniformly on the whole site to ensure even amount of fuel for burning.
c. Burning.
Burning was done from March to April, sometimes extending up to
May. This activity was done to eliminate grasses and other vegetation that were
not removed during cutting and believed to compete with the crop. The farmers
said that it was hard to grow crops if the area was not burned (Fig.33). Burning
lasted for 2 hours.
A 2-m wide safety path around the whole area also called afirebreak
- 95 -
was made to prevent the spread or escape of fire to the next farm or adjacent
secondary forest. Superstitious belief during burning include the following: 1)
the one who was burning the farm should sit down while doing the activity to
prevent the fire from going up or blow up; 2) he should also be quiet to stop
spotting of fire embers during burning. Burning was done during calm hours to
prevent the occurrence of fire whirlwinds or windstorms.
Fig.33 The newly burned site for kaingin by the Hanunuos.
d. Cropping
The cropping included planting, maintenance, and harvesting of the
cultivated crops (Table 7). Rice and corn were the major crops (Fig. 34) of the
Hanunuos because these were their staple food. Rice varieties included
"camuros," "capungot," "bintalan," "tabuno," "dungis," "kinta" and "Iubang."
Corn varieties were hybrid types which included "sweet corn" and "sticky
corn." Rice and corn were not planted in a regular spacing. Their normal
distances (based on field measurement) were 1 × 1m and 2 × 2m for rice and
corn, respectively. Each hill had 10 to 12 rice seedlings and 2 to 3 corn
seedlings.
Planting was an elaborate farm activity involving various rituals
participated in by the other members of the community. Before planting, which
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the Hanunuo referred to as "hasik," (broadcast sowing) seeds and the farm
implements were subjected to a blood sacrifice ritual. Blood from a chicken or
pig's neck was dropped on some of the rice seeds and on the farm implements
to be used in planting. It was done so that the rice spirit will show proper
respect to the present crop. It was believed to provide good vigor to the plants
and better harvest. The rice spirit would protect the crop during its entire
growth cycle.
Table 7 Cropping Calendar of the Hanunuo Mangyan in Sitio Dangkalan,Bulalacao,Oriental Mindoro.
- 97 -
Prior to the actual planting, the owner of the rice seed would prepare
six items needed for setting up a ritual seed plot. Blood was placed on them,
together with the seed. Then, they were mixed and brought to the edge of the
swidden (upper corner) by the entire labor party. The leader, surrounded by the
rest of the labor party would then make 5 to 7 dibble holes using the
(Voacanga globosa) wood. "Liwas" means "free of something" and "Iipas"
means to "pass by or miss". The ceremony hoped to convey these messages to
plant and animal pests which were then expected to leave the swidden field so
it would have better growth and yield.
Planting was done on the onset of the rainy season, which usually took
place in the latter part of May or first week of June. Related activities included
replacement planting (if necessary), fencing to keep larger mammals away
from the field, watching against animal pests, weeding and thinning.
Intercropping of new crops like banana, cassava, sugar cane and root crops
were also done (Fig.34 and 35).
Crop maintenance included weeding specially in the rice and rice +
corn farms. This was done in August and September. Fertilization and the use
of pesticides were not practiced because of the unavailability of chemicals. The
Hanunuos had not developed a specific method to control rodents from
destroying their crops although result of the interview revealed that this is one
of their problems. The farmers considered whatever left by the rodents as their
harvest. This factor contributed to the low harvest and food shortage. Aside
from rice and corn, the swidden farms were also planted with other plant
species that are all food sources for the Hanunuos. These include banana (for
additional carbohydrate source), cadios (source of protein), cassava (very
important source of flour during lean months), sugarcane and pineapple.
Akleng parang (Albizia procea) was a common tree species found in the rice
and corn farm.
- 98 -
Vertical Profile of a Hanunuo Mangyan’s Rice Farm.
Horizontal Profile of a Hanunuo Mangyan’s Rice Farm.
Fig.34 Vertical and horizontal profile of a Hanunuo Mangyan’s Rice Farm, Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro.
Banana －Musa sapientum
Sugar cane －Saccharum officinalum
Cadios －Cajanus cajan
Pineapple －Ananas comosus
Malunggay －Moringa oleifera
Cassava －Manihot esculenta
Rice －Oryza sativa
Distance (m)
Dista
nce
(m
)
Distance (m)
Heig
ht
of
Specie
s (m
)
- 99 -
Fig.35 The swidden farm of the Hanunuo Mangyan.
e. Fallowing.
The scenario at the time of the study had changed from what it was as
described by studies conducted 20 to 40 years ago. Previously, land was
fallowed for 10 to 19 years (Conklin 1957 as cited by Abarquez et al. 1991).
The farmers did this by shifting from one place to another and opening up new
kaingin sites. However, the practice now was to rest only a portion of the land
under cultivation while the remaining portions of the same piece of land were
planted to crops. The land was rested whenever the farmer noticed that it was
no longer fertile. Fallow period lasted for 1 to 3 years depending on the need of
the farmer and availability of seeds for planting. This was significant in
maintaining the sustainability of the land. The longer the fallow period, the
more the sustainability of the land was maintained.
In areas that were not subjected to swidden farming or has been under
fallow for many years, it was surprising to know that there were 75 species of
crops, weeds, shrubs and trees present (Table 8).
- 100 -
Table 8 Species of plants found in the kaingin site before planting rice + corn.
Common Scientific Family Plant Type Use Name Name
1. Anuling Pisonia umbellifera Nyctaginaceae small tree indicator of high moisture
2. Alagaw Premna odorata Verbenaceae small tree medicine
3. Mamalis Pittosporum pentandrum Pittosporacea small tree medicinal
4. Sugar cane Saccharum officinale Graminae erect herb food
5. Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae tree food
6. Hagonoi Chromolaena odorata Compositae shrub weeds medicinal
7. Ciratro
8. Elipanthopus Elipanthopus spicatus Verbenaceae erect herb indicator species
9. Sambong Blumea balsamifera Verbenaceae herbaceous medicinal shrub
10. Pineapple Ananas comosus Mromeliaceae erect herb food
11. Bagarbas Flacourtia jangomas Flacourtiaceae small tree fuelwood
12. Makahiya Mimosa pudica Mimosaceae creeper weed
13 Mutha Cyperus rotondus Cyperaceae herb weed
14. Paragis Eleusine indica Graminae herb weed
15. Linga herbaceous source of sesame fruit
16. Corn Zea mays Graminae erect herb food/fodder
17. Malunggay Moringa oleifera Moringaceae small tree vegetable medicine
18. Nami Dioscorea hispida vine food
19. Ube Dioscorea alata vine food
20. Cassava Manihot utilissima Euphorbiaceae woody shrub food
21. Coconut Cocos nucifera Palmae Arborescent food
22. Ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala Mimosaceae tree fuelwood.lumber
23. Carabao grass Paspalum conjugatum Gramineae grass, creeper weed,fodder
24. Cowpea Vigna sequidales Fabaceae small shrub vegetable, grain
25. Nito Lygodium japonicum Schizaeaceae vine novelty furniture
26. Sapinit Lantana camara Verbenaceae woody shrub indicator of compacted soil
27. Saluyot Corchorus aestuans Tiliaceae herbaceous weed vegetable shrub
28. Kadios Cajanus cajan Fabaceae woody shrub vegetable, N-fixer
29. Banana Musa sapientum Musaceae arborescent food
30. Ligas Semecarpus cuneiformis Anacardiaceae small tree pole
31. Hog plum Spondias mombin Anacardiaceae small tree edible fruit
- 101 -
Common Scientific Family Plant Type Use Name Name 32. Rice Oryza sativa Gramineae herbaceous grain for food
33. Bagalunga Melia dubia Meliaceae tree lumber
34. Wild singkamas Pachyrhizus sp. Fabaceae vine weed
35. Tigbau Saccharum spontaneum Gramineae weed
36. Binunga Macaranga tanarius Euphorbiaceae small tree pole
37. Hauili Ficus septica Moracea small tree indicator of high soil moisture
38. Bignai kalabaw Antidesma bunus Euphorbiaceae small tree edible fruits, dye
39. Mali-mali Leea manllensls Leeaceae small tree medicine
40. Dita Alstonia scholaris Apocynaceae tree medicine, lumber
41. Sayapo Trichospermum eriopodium Tiliaceae medium tree fiber
42. Borakan vine
43. Pakiling Ficus odorata Moraceae small tree pole
44. Amugis Koordersiodendron pinnatum Anacardiaceae big tree lumber
45. Palasan Calamus merrillii Palmaceae shrub poles, furniture
46. Lokwat Eriobotrya japonica Rosaceae small tree pole
47. Bangkal Nauclea orientalis Rubiaceae big tree lumber
48. Suag kabayo Hyptes suaveolens Labiatae small shrub weed
49. Dungao Melastoma sp. Melastomataceae small shrub indicator species
50. Cogon Imperata cylindrica Gramineae grass weed
51. Amorseco Crhysopogon aciculatus Gramineae grass weed
52. Binayoyo Antidesma ghaesembillia Euphorbiaceae small tree edible fruit
53. Tawa-tawa Scirpus hirta Euphorbiaceae herb weed
54. Duhat Syzygium cumingii Myrtaceae small tree edible fruit, pole
55. Alagaw Premna odorata Verbenaceae small tree edible fruit, pole
56. Bagalunga Melia dubia Meliaceae big tree lumber
57. Kakawate Gliricidia sepium Fabaceae small tree fuelwood
58. Tangisang bayawak Ficus variegata Moraceae big tree indicator lumber
59. Buli Corypha elata Palmae palm fiber
60. Malatampoi Syzygium xantophyllum Myrtaceae big tree lumber
61. Salingkugi Albizzia saponaria Mimosaceae small tree medicine
62. Niyog-niyugan Ficus pseudopalma Moraceae small tree medicine
63. Akleng parang Serialbizzia procera Mimosaceae big tree fuelwood
64. Malabulak Salmalia malabarica Bombacaceae big tree fiber
65. Kawayang kiling Bambusa vulgaris Graminae erect clump pole
66. Anonang Ehretia dichotoma Boraginaceae small tree pole, medicinal
67. Anubing Artocarpus ovata Moraceae big tree gums, lumber
68. Pagsahingin Canarium aspernm Burseraceae big tree lumber
69. Tiger grass Thysanolaena latefolia Graminae erect herb weed
70. Tsaang gubat Camelia lanceolata Theaceae big tree pole, lumber
71. Batino Alstonia macrophylla Apocynaceae big tree pole, lumber
72. Wild strawberry shrub indicator species
73. Coffee Coffea sp. Rubiaceae small tree food
74. Tigau Callicarpa sp Verbenaceae small tree pole
- 102 -
2. Multi-story System The Hanunuo Mangyan farms were widely known for their crop
diversification (Fig.36). This was not only true for the swidden farms but
Fig.36 The multistory farm of the Hanunuo Mangyan.
Distance (m)
Dis
tance
(m
)
Distance (m)
Hei
ght
of
Spec
ies
(m)
Banana － Musa sapientum
Anahaw － Livist ona rotundlfolla
Coconut － Cocos Nucifera
Mango － Mangifera Indico
Anuling － Pisonla umbelllfera
Pineapple － Ananas comosus
- 103 -
also for the multistory farms. Plant species found included trees, shrubs and
herbs. As previously described, the upper canopy was occupied by coconut,
and the middle canopy was composed of mango (Mangifera indica), banana
(Musa sapientum), anahaw (Livistona rotundifolia) and anuling (Pisonia
umbellifera). The lower canopy was dominated by pineapple, wildlings of ipil-
ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) and grasses.
The farming practices in multistory farms were not as elaborate as
in the swidden farms. The activities are focused on replacing the dead
plants (especially in the case of banana) and brushing the area to remove
weeds and free the crops from competition. In the case of mango, however,
the Hanunuo farmer had adopted the lowland technology of spraying
chemicals to induce flowering. The farmers reported that they could not get
good harvests if the mango trees were not sprayed with chemicals. This was
a modification of their traditional practice of non-dependency on chemicals
but could mean an increase in income of farmers. It was found out that
areas planted to coconut and banana were no longer subjected to kaingin
activities.
This had positive implication to the ecological system because: 1) it
promoted minimal soil disturbance; 2) it provided continuous vegetation cover
which served as protection against the direct impact of rain and intense sunlight
leading to minimizing soil erosion and maintaining good soil moisture; 3) it
promoted biological diversity ; and 4) it promoted efficient use of solar energy
because the light energy not utilized by the upper canopy level can be trapped
by the intermediate and understory vegetation.
3. Home Gardens
The home gardens of the Hanunuo Mangyan were structurally simple.
They were composed of bananas, coconut and other fruit bearing trees like
mango, jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophylla) and guava (Psidium guajava) in the
upper canopy level. The farmers also planted ube (Dioscorea hispida) which
twined on the fruit trees. Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) and kakawate
- 104 -
(Gliricidia sepium) were grown as live fence or boundary trees. Vegetable
crops were not common features of the Hanunuo Mangyan home gardens. Thus,
they could not be equated to 'kitchen-garden' as described by Nair (1993).
Preparation of a home garden did not require elaborate activities like
removal of grasses, burning, cultivation, etc. The farmer only spent his or her
spare time planting the crops and underbrushing them, especially late in the
afternoon or during Sundays. The family members can harvest the crop
whenever fruits are available for harvest.
The Infiltration, Volume of Erosion and Sediment Loss in the Different Agroforestry Systems of the Hanunuo Mangyan
Table 9 and Fig.37 show the infiltration rate of water as it entered the
soil. Among the three agroforestry systems, the highest infiltration rate was
found in the multistory stand which had an average of 1.322 cm/min. The
lowest infiltration rate was observed in the rice + corn swidden farm which had
an average of 0.480 cm/min. The high infiltration rate in the multistory area
was due to its high organic matter content and lower soil bulk density. High
organic matter content makes the soil loose, allowing water to easily infiltrate
down the soil column. The lowest infiltration rate was noted in plots planted
with rice + corn. These plots were frequently trampled on because of planting
and weeding operations, hence appeared to be compacted. Compaction of the
soil resulted in slow infiltration.
Table 9 Infiltration rates in three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental
Mindoro.
Systems Infiltration Rate (cm/min)
Average Infiltration
1 2 3 4 5 Swidden Farm 0.75 0.61 0.39 0.33 0.32 0.480 Multistory Farm 2.46 1.23 1.02 0.96 0.94 1.322 Forested Area 0.64 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.45 0.482
- 105 -
Fig.37 Average infiltration rates in three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro.
This result confirmed the findings of Thompson and Troeh (1978) who
mentioned that a 1 to 2 cm/hr infiltration rate was observed in an agricultural area.
Likewise, Daño (1983) noted that a dipterocarp forest area had an infiltration rate
of 6.38 cm/hr. This value was lower than the findings of our study, which found the
infiltration rate to be 28.8 cm/hr at a natural forest area. The differences may have
been due to the initial moisture content of the area, soil texture and organic matter.
Volume of Surface Runoff in the Three Farming Systems
Runoff refers to the water that is not infiltrated or lost through
evapotranspiration. Together with runoff water are the soil particles that had been
detached and transported. The study showed that the forest and multistory farms
had the lowest total runoff in the July -December period (Table 10). On the other
hand, the rice + corn swidden farm had the highest runoff yield. This showed that
the vegetation present in the other areas, such as in forested and multistory systems,
helped intercept rainfall, resulting in low runoff yield. The results were consistent
with the findings of Daño (1983) that low runoff yield was found in dense forest
like dipterocarp forest and high in grasslands.
Swidden F. Multistory Forested
Average Infiltration rate(cm/min)
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
- 106 -
Table 10 Total runoff (liter) of the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro.
Systems Block Total Mean I II III Swidden Farm 927.1 917.4 937.6 2782.1 927.40b Multistory Farm 448.8 443.8 446.4 1339.0 446.36c Forested Area 523.0 514.4 531.9 1569.3 523.10c
Treatment means with the same superscript are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Fig.38 Monthly runoff in three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro.
The higher runoff in the rice + corn swidden farm may have been an effect of
burning as a method of land preparation. As the ground cover was consumed by fire,
the mineral soil was left vulnerable to direct rainfall impact, causing the soil
particles including ashes to be detached and dispersed. These soil particles and
ashes clogged or sealed the soil pore spaces in the surface, thus reducing infiltration
rate (Jasmin 1976) and increasing the occurrence of surface runoff. Furthermore,
the fire intensity may have killed the microorganisms active in litter decomposition.
Decomposed litter through microorganisms, action usually improved soil porosity
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec0
50
100
150
200
250
Swidden Farm
Multistory Farm
Forested Area
Run
off (
liter
)
- 107 -
and infiltration capacity of the soil (Hewlett and Nutter 1969). Since most of the
humus and litter were consumed in the burned plots, more runoff could occur as a
result of impaired soil porosity and infiltration capacity of the soil (Costales 1981).
The lower runoff values in the forest and multistory farms could be
attributed to the presence of continuous cover provided by the canopy layers and
debris on the soil surface. Furthermore, the presence of more organic matter in
these two farm practices (based on the result of the chemical analysis) contributed
to less surface runoff. Jo (1990) stated that organic matter improves the physical
characteristics of the soil by improving aggregation, increasing both the cation
exchange capacity and available water content. As a result, OM increases
infiltration and reduces soil erosion.
Sediment Yield in the three Agroforestry Systems
The forest had the lowest sediment yield (20.8 tons/ha), followed by
multistory (63.5 tons/ha) in the July-December period (Table 11).
The low sediment yield obtained from the forest area was attributed to the presence
of tall trees which intercepted more rainfall. The net precipitate reaching the forest
floor minimized the activity of runoff water resulting in low sediment yield. It
could be attributed also to the presence of vegetation as well as litters on the forest
floor. Moreover, the area was not subjected to any kind of cultivation, which is one
of the causes of soil erosion. Furthermore, the very thin surface soil and the
presence of rocks in the area have also minimized soil erosion. The villagers
recalled that the area became a forest because of its unsuitability for cultivation due
to the presence of rocks and very thin soil.
- 108 -
Table 11 Total sediment yield (tons/ha) of the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro.
Systems Block Total Mean I II III Swidden Farm 373.0 362.8 386.9 1122.7 374.26a Forested Area 21.5 20.7 21.3 63.5 21.18b Multistory Farm 7.0 6.8 7.0 20.8 6.95b
Treatment means with the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Fig.39 Monthly sediment yield of the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro.
The amount of erosion in the forest was comparable with the erosion rate
of 25.8 tons/ha/yr obtained from a two-meter alley planted with kakawate
(Gliricidia sepium) by (Agustin 1992). This rate was still relatively high compared
with the standard stated by (Young 1989), which was 10 to 12 tons/ha/year. This
maybe because of the influence of gaps, steep slope and high rainfall intensity.
(Young 1989) and (Paningbatan 1990) stated that the tolerable soil loss is 10
tons/ha/yr. The US Conservation Service, however, sets the limit at 2.2 to 11.2
tons/ha/year. The multistory , on the other hand, was characterized by the presence
of debris from banana and coconut plants. The floor was protected from direct
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Swidden Farm
Multistory Farm
Forested Area
Sedi
men
t yie
ld (t
ons/
ha)
- 109 -
exposure to raindrop by the leaves of bananas, coconut and other fruit trees. The
area was also characterized by the presence of organic matter and thick soil which
may have contributed to less soil erosion. A high volume of soil erosion was
recorded for rice + corn swidden farm, which could be due to cultivation practices
specially during weeding operation.
It can be noted that the highest sediment yield was recorded in September
and November (Table 11). Farmers weeded their farms in September, hence there
was soil disturbance, making the area prone to erosion. The highest runoff was also
observed in this month. November, on the other hand, was devoted to rice and corn
harvesting. Although the farmers' practice was to remove only the fruits of rice and
corn, other soil disturbances occurred in the form of soil trampling by the farmers.
The occurrence of typhoon Rosing (heavy rains for 2 days) contributed to the soil
erosion.
Sheet Erosion
In addition to measuring the sediment yield in the runoff plots, sheet
erosion (tons/ha) using modified erosion bars was also determined (Table 12). The
highest average depth of soil loss was in the swidden farm. The lowest was
observed in the forest (9.0mm) and multistory (10.9mm) farms. The multistory and
forest farms can be compared to the effect of a single hedgerow of Gliricidia
sepium in an alley cropping system (Visco 1997).
The sheet erosion data were converted into their equivalent weight per
hectare. The mathematical computation showed that the control recorded the
highest sheet erosion of 1,640.03 tons/ha while the forested area had the lowest
with 427.54 tons/ha. It was interesting to note that the actual erosion in the study
site far exceed that of records. The volume of soil erosion was very high compared
with the allowable soil loss of 11.2 tons/ha (Weischmeier and Smith 1978 as cited
by Visco 1997).
- 110 -
Table 12 Average sheet erosion of the different farming systems from August to December 1996.
Treatment means with the same superscript are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance using the Duncan’s multiple range test.
References
Abarquez, G., et al. (1990) The Hanunuo uplnd swiddenists, unpublished paper.
UPLB, College, Laguna, Philippines.
Barker, T.C. (1984) Shifting cultivation among the Ikalahan, program on
environmental science and management, Working Paper Series1, UPLB,
Philippines.
Berganio, M.L. (1990) Effects of corn and legume intercrops on crop productivity
and soil erosion in hilly land, MS Thesis, UPLB, Philippines.
Cruz, M.A., Concepcion J., et al. (1985) Philippine upland production system: an
integrative analysis of three sites in Philippine upland communities, In:
Man, agriculture and the tropical forest, change and development in the
Philippine uplands, Sajise, P.E., et al. (Ed.), p87-118
David, W.P., (1988) Soil and water conservation planning, policy issues and
recommendations, Journal of Philippine Development, 26, Vol. XV, No. 1.
MacDicken, K.G. and Vergara N.T. (1990) Agroforestry: classification and
management, John Wiley and Sons Inc., USA.
Mun, C.Y., (1993) Rainfall and streamflow analysis of a large tropical rainforest
watershed, MS Thesis, UPLB, Philippines.
Nair, P.K.R. (1993) Introduction to Agroforestry. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
The Netherlands.
Farming Systems Average Depth of Soil Erosion (mm)
Sheet Erosion (tons/ha)
Mean
Swidden Farm 22.3 1159.1 386.3bc Multistory Farm 9.0 427.5 142.5e Forested Area 10.9 513.4 171.1d
- 111 -
Typical Agroforestry Systems in the Philippines
Antonio F. Gascon and Fernando Alibuyog Introduction
Agroforestry farms are found in almost everywhere in the Philippines,
specifically in the provinces. In the lowlands, trees or woody perennials are
integrated in the landscape as shade trees, farm crops and protective cover against
wind and strong rains. In the upland areas, different types of agroforestry systems
are observed. The oldest agroforestry system in the country is locally known as
“kaingin” or shifting cultivation. This agroforestry system involves processes that
include: 1) locating an area for cultivation; 2) clearing; 3) burning; 4) cultivation;
and 5) fallowing. The main features of this system are the use of fire in clearing the
area for cultivation and allowing the soil to “fallow” or rest and rejuvenate for a
certain period of time until it becomes productive again. However, this system is
now modified because of land limitation and the prohibition of the government to
open up new public areas for cultivation.
Agroforestry systems have been modified in order to address its twofold
functions of maintaining ecological balance while achieving economic productivity
for the farmers. This chapter will discuss some of the agroforestry systems in the
Philippines as implemented in specific locations of the country.
Features of Typical Agroforestry Systems 1. Mixed Cropping System
This system combines coconut, forest species, fruit trees, root crops or
medicinal plants arranged in a multi-layered canopy. The coconut occupies the
main canopy layer while the middle or intermediate was occupied by
developing forest trees like mahogany (Swietenia mahogani), narra
(Pterocarpus indicus), gmelina (Gmelina arborea), fruit trees like jackfruit
(Artocarpus heterophyllus), mango (Mangifera indica), santol (Sandoricum
- 112 -
koetjape), banana (Musa sapientum) and papaya (Carica papaya). The lower
layer was composed of pineapple (Ananas comosus), cassava (Manihot
utilissima) and ginger (Zingiber officinale).
In this system, coconuts are spaced 8 × 8 m, which allows enough
light to reach the lower vegetation. This is practiced in Sta. Catalina, Atimonan,
Quezon CBFM site. In the CBFM site in Catubig, Nothern Samar mixed crops
of cacao (Theobroma cacao), coffee (Coffea robusta) and other crops like
abaca (Musa textiles), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and black pepper
(Piper negrum), and pineapple (Ananas comosus) were planted in the coconut-
based agroforestry farms (Sarmiento, 2005).
2. The Coffee and Cacao Based Agroforestry System
One of the most common farming systems found in the Philippines is
the coffee based agroforestry system. It makes use of shade trees such as
Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Eryrthrina orientalis, Albizia
saman, Pterocarpus indicus and other leguminous tree species. These trees are
regularly spaced at 5 × 5 up to 8 × 8 m or planted randomly while the crop
trees of coffee and cacao are set as understories.
The nurse trees are planted from 6 months to a year before the
establishment of the main crops such as coffee or cacao. These are periodically
pollarded or pruned and in some cases, thinned to provide partial shade and add
nutrients from the leaf litter and prunings. The leaf litter and prunings
decomposed can sufficiently provide for the fertilizer needs of cacao or coffee.
For example, it was mentioned that through prunings and litter fall, The
amount of 270 kg N/ha/year, 60 kg P/ha/year and 150 kg K/ha/year can be
returned back to the soil. (Beer 1989 as cited by Dalmacio 2001)
Nurse or shade trees provide the crop plant protection from strong
winds. Newly transplanted coffee or cacao, though hardened-off, are not that
ready to withstand strong winds. They may be shaked and their roots are
loosened, or they may transpire excessively, lose water and die. These nurse
trees on the other hand may decrease light intensity and thus modify
- 113 -
temperature. Cacao and coffee need cool climate for their growth.
In choosing the shade of nurse trees, the following characteristics
should be considered. The nurse tree should: exhibit light foliage; not attain
large size; have rapid juvenile growth; have hard or wind firm stems; and not
exhibit allelopathy.
The nurse trees should minimally compete with cacao and coffee for
light, water and nutrients. Nurse trees and associated crops should occupy
different canopy positions and root horizons. They should be easily be
established, i.e. with high survival and good early growth performance. They
should have rapid regeneration of leaves and they can easily be eradicated
when no longer wanted. The canopy or leaf structure of trees should allow
adequate amount of light to penetrate down the understory. The leaves should
not cause coalescence if rain water is too large. Powerful raindrops or canopy
drips during throughfall enhance soil erosion. These nurse trees should not
favor or serve as alternate host for pest or crop diseases (Dela Cruz et.al 2002).
The nurse trees should be preferably N-fixing.
In this system, the coffee plants are likewise top-pruned to produce
more lateral branches. It will produce more yield and will facilitate harvesting.
Successful coffee or cacao based agroforestry system include: the coffee +
Benguet pine multistory system in Mt. Province, the coffee or cacao +
coconut + banana agroforestry system of Batangas and Cavite provinces, the
coffee + ipil-ipil + banana agroforestry system of Iloilo and Negros Occidental
in the Visayas.
3. Alley Cropping
Alley cropping involves the establishment of hedgerows of trees or
shrubs (usually double-hedgerows) at regular intervals along the contours, and
the planting of agricultural crops in the open space or alleys formed between
the hedgerows. The contours are usually spaced 4 to 6 m, depending upon the
steepness of the slope. It is closer in steeper slopes and wider in flatter ones.
The hedgerow species are usually leguminous trees that minimize soil erosion,
- 114 -
reduce surface run-off and improve soil fertility. The contour hedgerows are set
in the contour lines established using an A-frame. The farmers use Flemingia
congesta, Gliricidia sepium, Leucena leucocephala and Desmodium rensonii as
hedgerows.
A good example of alley cropping is the Sloping Agricultural Land
Technology (SALT-1). In this system, each contour line is planted with two
rows of woody perennial using seeds, cuttings or seedlings. For the alleys,
SALT-1 recommends planting of perennial crops in every third alley and
annuals like rice, corn and vegetable for the rest.
The hedgerows should be pruned back to the height of about 0.50 m to
minimize shading of agricultural crops in the alleys. The frequency of pruning
depends upon the coppicing or sprouting ability of the species. Biomass from
the prunings can be mulched, used as green manure for the annuals or as a
fodder for the livestock. The ideal characteristics of the hedgerow species are
easy to establish, fast-growing, good sprouting or coppicing ability, nitrogen
fixing, deep rooted and with multiple uses.
In Sta. Catalina, Atimonan, Quezon, the farmers planted pineapple,
cassava, corn and many practical vegetable crops in the alley.
4. The Improved Fallow System
The traditional fallow system or swidden cultivation (also called as
shifting cultivation or kaingin) is considered as the oldest form of agroforestry.
In this sytem, the land is cleared, burned and planted with agricultural crops for
2 to 3 years. After a few years of cropping and cultivation, the land is rested.
This is called the fallow period. The land is cropped for less than 33% of the
rotation cycle. Traditionally, the fallow period lasts 8 to 15 years which enables
the soil to regain its fertility. While the land is under fallow, the farmer moves
to another area where he can farm and repeat the same set of activities.
This system can be viewed in various cover appearances.
a. The existing vegetation in plots is cleared and burned afterwards.
Therefore the lower herbaceous vegetation layer is removed, followed by
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partial tree and shrub removal. Trees that provide fruits to the farmers are
sometimes left. Standing dead trees are left as trellis for yam production.
During this stage, hardly any vegetation is left. These cleared plots look
like big gaps surrounded by a natural or semi natural vegetation.
b. In the next phase, crops cover the land. In general, cereals are sown first
followed by root or tuber crops. A common worldwide crop combination
starts with rice or corn, later interplanted with cassava, sweet potato,
bananas and some fruit trees. Cropping is continued until perceived decline
in harvest is felt.
c. After the cropping period is completed, the secondary semi-natural
vegetation starts to fully develop. They occupy the area very rapidly.
The fallow period is an important stage of the kaingin cycle. Given
enough time, the natural processes of nutrient absorption and storage and
nutrient returns through litter fall will restore the productivity of degraded or
damaged land. When the fallow is enriched with fast growing trees, shrubs and
vines, the practice is called improved fallow. Nitrogen fixing trees (NFTs) can
be used to enhance soil amelioration and reduce the length of the fallow period.
The farmers of Ikalahan in Imugan, Nueva Vizcaya practiced the
improved fallow system using sweet potato as the main crop. Intercropping,
crop rotation and fallow were done which enabled them to cultivate a new field
when fertility is optimum and put the field back to fallow before significant
erosion took place (Rice and Dolnera 1980 as cited by Lasco 1982). An area
was cultivated for 2 to 3 years and then left to fallow for 17 years.
The Hanunuo of Mindoro province practices fallow system which, in
this case was divided into two stages, low forest fallow and high forest fallow.
The first stage which took about a year consisted of herbaceous shrubs, vines
and low-growth trees which were protected from fire by firelines and were not
cut and cultivated. The second stage which took about 7 to 8 years was
composed of second growth forest.
In Naalad, Naga, Cebu, a modified fallow system was being practiced.
Two modifications were done to the traditional systems. The first modification
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involve planting of ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), a nitrogen-fixing plant
along the strips. This practice hastens the natural fallow from 10 to 20 years to
only 5 to 6 years. The second modifications involve the establishment of soil
erosion control structure, locally termed as “balabag” or “babag” which is
made of dead branches of ipil-ipil. The physical condition of the “balabag”
indicated whether the land is really for fallow. The major significance of this
modified system was that the farmer needed only two parcels since both the
fallow and the cultivation periods lasted for 5 to 6 years. The farmers broadcast
ipil-ipil seeds after harvesting the crops. Ipil-ipil is used because it is fast
growing, and has good vegetative vigor aside from being deep rooted, tolerant
to drought and nitrogen-fixing.
The improved fallow system has many benefits, as follows: 1) the
trees and shrubs in the fallow can fill the space and impede the establishment
of undesirable weeds. Many kinds of invasive and problematic weeds thrive in
the open and sunny conditions in vacant lands, but they do not occupy the areas
that are cooler and shadier; 2) the physical and chemical properties of the soil
are enhanced. It improves soil fertility, accumulates more nutrient, adds
organic matter, breaks up hard soil, reduce soil erosion, encourages or sustains
the population of beneficial organism, breaks up physical barriers to root
growth; 3) when the trees are removed at the end of the fallow period, they can
also yield products such as firewood, charcoal and poles; 4) trees and shrubs
provide regulative functions such as disruption of pests and disease cycle, and
sequestration of carbon dioxide.
There are other trees and shrubs which can be used to improve the
species composition of the fallow. These are Sesbania sesban + Crotolaria
grahamiana, Sesbania sesban + Macroptilium artropurpurium (siratro),
Sesbania sesban + ground nut (Arachis hypogea) and Cajanus cajan+ peanut.
5. Windbreak or shelterbelts as agroforestry system
Trees and shrubs are established along farm boundaries to protect the
crops on the leeward side from strong winds thus minimizing wind-induced
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damage to crop. Wind velocity is reduced from 5 to 10% in the leeward side.
The presence of shelterbelt can protect farms, orchards and nurseries. Agricultural species which are free from the adverse effects of winds are more
vigorous and healthy and consequently give increased crop yield.
There are many factors to be considered in choosing a species for
shelterbelt. These are as follows: 1) the species must be adapted to the kind of
soil ; 2) it must have strong and deep root system; 3) it must be resistant to pest
and diseases; 4) it must be easy to propagate; 5) should have higher field
survival; 6) it must retain its leaves throughout the year; 7) it must provide
multiple uses.
The plants recommended for shelterbelt include molave (Vitex
parviflora), anahau (Livistonia rotundifolia), agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia),
banaba (Lagerstromia speciosa), kamachile (Pitthecelobium dulce), akleng
parang (Albizia procera) and kawayan tinik (Bambusa blumeana).
References Alibuyog, F.B. (2004) Agroforestry systems adopted by the upland farmers in a
CBFM project in Sta. Catalina, Atimonan, Quezon, Unpublished, SLPC,
Lucban, Quezon, Philippines.
Dela Cruz, L.U., Dalmacio R.V., Castillo A.S.A., and Gascon, A.F. (2001)
Rehabilitation of marginal and degraded areas, University of the
Philippines Open University, Philippines.
Evans, J. (1992) Plantation forestry in the tropics. 2nd edition, Oxford University
Press, Great Britain, 325-327.
Gascon, C.N. (1998) Sustainability indicators of the Hanunuo Mangyan
agroforestry systems, Sitio Dangkalan, Brgy. Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro,
Philippines. Ph.D. Dissertation, UPLB, Philippines.
Hensleigh, T.E. and Holaway, B.R., (Eds). (1988) Agroforestry species for the
Philippines, US Peace Corps. Technology Center, Manila, Philippines.
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Magcale-Macandog, D., Yao, R. and Degal, E. (1999) Fallow Systems in the
Philipines: A review of literature paper presented in a workshop
proceedings of the fallow systems documentation and participatory rapid
appraisal methodology, SEAMEO-SEARCA. Baguio City, Philippines.
Nair, P.K.R. (1993) An introduction to agroforestry, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
The Netherlands.
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AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES: Experiences and Lessons Learned in Mt. Banahaw, Hanunuo Mangyan and Some Community-based Forestry Projects
発行年月日 平成18年３月31日
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