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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Agricultural Policy and Regulation in Sub-Saharan Africa:
Lessons for Increasing InvestmentJoshua Ariga, Katrin Kuhlmann, and Nicole Mason
on behalf of the PEMEFA team
Eye on Africa Seminar
Thursday, April 5, 2018
Room 201 International Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
About PEMEFA (Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa)
Consortium of five partner organizations:
1. African Fertilizer and Agribusiness Partnership (AFAP)2. International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC)3. Michigan State University (MSU)4. New Markets Lab (NML)5. Regional Network of Agricultural Policy Research Institutes (ReNAPRI)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
GOALTo transform African agriculture and livelihoods byimproving smallholder farmers’ access to and use offertilizers by establishing comprehensive, relevant, androbust national and regional fertilizer policies andregulatory frameworks that facilitate increased privatesector investment and participation in fertilizer value chains.
About PEMEFA (cont’d)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
OBJECTIVES1. Generate evidence to mobilize support for policy and regulatory reforms
that will encourage private sector-led fertilizer markets and improvesmallholder farmers’ access to and profitable use of fertilizers.
2. Build the capacity of stakeholders along fertilizer value chains toestablish a conducive enabling environment for private sector-ledfertilizer markets.
3. Drive ongoing efforts to reform policy, legal, and regulatory regimes forfertilizer through outreach and engagement.
About PEMEFA (cont’d)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
PEMEFA’s initial activities (including today’s seminar) aresupported by a planning grant from the Alliance for AfricanPartnership (AAP).
The AAP is a new, innovative initiative at Michigan State Universitythat seeks to develop a collaborative and cross-disciplinary platformfor addressing today’s global challenges.
About PEMEFA (cont’d)
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§ International, multi-disciplinary staff and unique facilities suited for conducting a broad range of research activities.
§HQ in Muscle Shoals houses:§ Research laboratories. § Greenhouses. § Growth chambers.§ Bench-scale and pilot-plant units. § Training facilities. § Technical library.
Capabilities at Headquarters
Agricultural Policy
Fertilizer R&D Integrated Soil Fertility Management
Balanced Fertilizers Capacity Building
Market Development
Areas of Expertise
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Today’s seminarAgpolicyandregulationinSSA:Lessonsforincreasinginvestment• ExamplesfromfertilizervaluechainsinSSA
Outline1. Background– fertilizeruseandfertilizervaluechainsinSSA[J.Ariga]2. Policyreforms&fertilizermarketdevelopment– Kenyaexample[J.Ariga]3. FertilizerlegalandregulatoryframeworksinSSA[K.Kuhlmann]4. Fertilizersubsidyprograms&privatesectorinvestmentinSSA[N.Mason]5. Concludingremarks[N.Mason]6. Q&A
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Fertilizer use & fertilizer value chains in SSA
Joshua Ariga (IFDC)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Importance of Agriculture in Africa• Agriculture is a key economic sector in Africa: 15% of
the GDP (5% to >50% ) and 55% of total employment (WB, 2016: FAO, 2015; ILO, 2017)
• Smallholder farmers constitute 80% of all farms in Africa (AGRA, 2014), and they are mainly women (FAO, 2015)
• Globally, fertilizer is a key ingredient for increasing agricultural production:§ Norman Borlaug: “If the high-yielding [seed]
varieties are the catalysts that have ignited the green revolution, then chemical fertilizer is the fuel that has powered its forward thrust.”
§ Evidence suggests that no region worldwide has been able to achieve food security without significantly increasing the use of fertilizer (Africa Fertilizer Summit, 2006).
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Nutrient Mining in Agricultural Lands of Africa1995–97 2002–04
Source:Henao,J.,andC.Baanante.2006.AgriculturalProductionandSoilNutrientMininginAfrica:ImplicationsforResourceConservationandPolicyDevelopment.IFDCReport.Note:Norecentupdatesofthesemaps
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Farmer’s Practice
After 4 Yearsof ISFM
Cereal yield (kg/ha)
Maize 750 2,750
Sorghum 1,000 1,800
Cotton 1,150 2,000
Irrigated rice 3,000 5,500
Source: Henk Breman, IFDC Rwanda Field Office
Field With ISFM Practice
Field WithoutISFM Practice
Improvement in Crop Yield through Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) in West Africa
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Source: Henk Breman, IFDC Rwanda Field OfficeNote: No profitability analysis conducted
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Africa: Other Fertilizer Facts• SSA accounts for >10% of the world’s population but < 3% of global
fertilizer consumption
§ Fertilizer demand in SSA: 3.7 million metric tons nutrients, or 2% of world demand (2017)
§ Top 4 (South Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Nigeria) account for 50% of total fertilizer consumption in SSA
• SSA imports >90% of its fertilizer requirements
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Source:IFAandFAO
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Fertilizer use: SSA vs. other regions - 2015(kg nutrients/ha arable land)
13
329
165
157
139
132
127
125
105
77
59
15
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
EastAsia&Pacific
SouthAsia
EuropeanUnion
World
NorthAmerica
LatinAmerica&Caribbean
CentralEurope&theBaltics
MiddleEast&NorthAfrica
Europe&CentralAsia
SouthAfrica
Sub-SaharanAfrica
Source:FAOSTATviatheWorldBankhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ag.con.fert.zs
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Cereal yields: SSA vs. other regions - 2016(kg/ha)
14
7,318
5,173
5,075
4,453
4,172
3,967
3,810
3,757
3,128
2,582
1,395
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
NorthAmerica
EuropeanUnion
EastAsia&Pacific
CentralEurope&theBaltics
LatinAmerica&Caribbean
World
SouthAfrica
Europe&CentralAsia
SouthAsia
MiddleEast&NorthAfrica
Sub-SaharanAfrica
Source:FAOSTATviatheWorldBankhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.YLD.CREL.KG
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
SSA has chiefly relied on area expansion to achieve gains in production
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
FOB costProcurement from overseas fertilizer manufacturers
Internationalshipping
Seaport in coastal country in Africa
Warehousing in port vicinities
Physical Flow of Fertilizer Transaction Costs
Ocean freight
Port charges
Functions
Procurement (by tender or negotiation) and financing
Freight costs
Handling, bagging, inspection, customs clearance
Local transport, unloading, stacking, inventory finance
Warehousing costs
Conduct(Coordination)
Performance(Profitability)
Flow of Fertilizer from Supplier to Farm-Gate
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Transport costsInland transportation
Inland warehouse
Local transportation
Agro-dealer
Physical Flow of Fertilizer Transaction Costs
Inland storage
Transport costs
Functions
Inland transportationby road or rail
Warehousing costs
Local transportationby truck or public vehicles
Agro-dealer retails to farmer (sales, rebagging, finance, distribution, information)
Operating costsFarmer
Conduct(Coordination)
Performance(Profitability)
Flow of Fertilizer (cont’d)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
FertilizerPrice Formation
X
X + 50%
X + 80%
TransportCost
Infrastructureinvestment:ApriorityforAfricancountriesanddevelopment partners
KmofPavedRoads/Million Capita
Farm-Gate Fertilizer Price and Road Density
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Source:ChemonicsandIFDC(2007)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Policy reforms & fertilizer market development:
The Kenyan experience
Joshua Ariga (IFDC)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Summary of Kenya policies since 1960• 1960-2000:
• National Food Policy Strategy
• Mostly geared toward self-sufficiency in cereals, biased toward farmers compared to consumers
• Sessional Papers: 1981, 1994 (reactive)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Time Reforms Comments1960-1980:Immediate post-independence
Government is Solution:• Market and price control• State agencies to implement
controls and market
• Poor management of state agencies, co-ops, KFA, AFC
• Rent-seeking
1980-1990:Incipient liberalization
Government under Pressure:• SAPs urging state divestiture• Removal of price controls and
trade restrictions• Private trade encouraged• Piecemeal liberalization: private
sector not able to fill the gap
• Pressure from donors• Famous Washington
consensus
Kenya Policy Timeline
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Time Policy Comments1990-2000:Rapid liberalization
Government Allows Private Entry:• Liberalization of maize market, fertilizer
trade, exchange rates, private sector participation
• Multiparty democracy (1992)
• State intervention in markets (buying and selling)
2000-2006:Participatory approach
Private + Reactive State Intervention:• Integrated rural development: roads,
extension, poverty, food security issues• External partners: encouraged
consultation between state, private sector, and civil society.
• Civil society network grows
• Concerted donor pressure
• Moral strength to local civil societies
Kenya Policy Timeline (cont’d)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Private sector responses:1. Expansion in private fertilizer wholesaling and retailing.2. Reduction in fertilizer marketing costs observed between Mombasa port and farm-gate. 3. Reduction in distance from farms to point of maize sale by private trader.4. Increase over time in maize/fertilizer price ratios.
Smallholder farmer responses:1. Rise in the percentage of farmers using fertilizer and hybrid maize seed.2. Increase in maize yield and maize production.3. Increase in percentage of farmers selling maize.
Policy reforms – fertilizer marketing:1. Price de-controls.2. Full legalization of private fertilizer trade. 3. Import quotas eliminated. No subsidies (1990-2007).
Policy reforms – maize marketing:1. Price de-controls eliminated in 1993. 2. Barriers to trade eliminated by 1995.3. NCPB buying centers reduced.
Public investments:1. Rural feeder roads.2. New maize varieties: Kenya Agricultural Research Institute and private seed firms.
Synergies in Promoting Increased Fertilizer Use and Yield: Public Policy and Private Response
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Price of Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) in Mombasa and Nakuru
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400miles:8hrs@50mphPavedroad
Source:ArigaandJayne(2009)&MinistryofAgriculture,Kenya
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
4.1
6.9
10.6
15.0
2.9
2.3
3.0
4.3
0 5 10 15Distance to Fertilizer Seller
Low
Pot
entia
l Reg
ion
Hig
h Po
tent
ial R
egio
n
2007
2004
2000
1997
2007
2004
2000
1997
Distance from Farm to Fertilizer Seller (km)
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Source:ArigaandJayne(2009),UsingTegemeo HouseholdSurveyData
Highpotential
region
Lowpotential
region
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
7.8
10.7
19.0
0.1
1.5 1.9
05
1015
20
Diffe
renc
es in
Mea
ns(kg
s/acre
)
High Potential Region Low Potential Region2000 2004 2007 2000 2004 2007
Difference in Mean Household Fertilizer Application Rates from 1997 Level
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Source:ArigaandJayne(2009),UsingTegemeo HouseholdSurveyData
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
NCPB Officials Sacked in Kenya
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https://citizentv.co.ke/news/ncpb-interdicts-22-senior-staff-over-fertiliser-theft-127127/[CitizenNewspaper]https://www.nation.co.ke/news/Cartels-reap-big-from-State-s-fertiliser-plan/1056-4319444-kmfe79z/index.html{NationNewspaper]
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Challenges and Lessons in Policy Process• Policy process can take a long time (need patience)• Political nature of the process (be very careful)• Harmonize views from interest groups• Get the right publicity• Make message simple (“help the poor”)• Include the less-advantaged in the process
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Fertilizer legal & regulatory frameworks:
Existing statuses, lessons, and ways forward
Katrin Kuhlmann (NML)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
What is an Enabling Environment?The enabling environment consists of the policies, laws, andregulations including the institutional infrastructure that guide theconduct of stakeholders (e.g., farmers, traders, etc.) in pursuit oftheir goals. An effective enabling environment is one that creates theconditions for private sector participation and investment in valuechains, thereby increasing competition, putting downward pressureon prices, improving the quality of available goods and services inthe market, and improving access.
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Gaps in the Enabling Environment
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Information
• Enterpriselevel(manyenterpriseslacklegalresources)• LegalSector(marketrulesspanjurisdictionsandlegalsystems;agriculturallaw
notafocus)• PublicSector(notalwaysawareofmarketneeds)
Implementation • Significantdifferencesexistbetweenlawsonthebooksandlawsinpracticeatnationalandregionallevels
Ruleoflaw• Bestpracticesandmodelsshoulddrawfromdevelopingcountries’experiences;
customizedandincrementalapproachnotcommon
Scale • Issuesaddressedoncase-by-casebasiswithoutimpactingsystemasawhole
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
About the New Markets Lab• Non-profitlawanddevelopmentcenterfocusedontheintersectionbetweenlaw,economicdevelopment,entrepreneurship,andsocialimpact
• Programswithadiversesetofpartnersaroundtheworlddesignedtoleveragelegalsystemsinsectorswithgrowthpotential(agriculture–includingfertilizerandseed,services,technology)thatareheavilyregulated
• Setofinterventionsandtoolstoimproverulesonpaperandtheirimplementationinpractice
• Buildmarketcapacitythroughhands-ontrainingforlawyersfromaroundtheworld
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Examples of NML’s Work• Methodologyontheimpactofregulatoryimplementation• Highlightpriorities,tradeoffs,andregulatorysequencing• Setofprogramsfocusedonsectorscriticaltodevelopmentandheavilyregulated
• Agriculture(standards,seeds,fertilizer)• Services(ICT,financial,andtransport)• Technology(IP)• E-Commerce• EmergingIndustries
• Legalcapacitybuilding• LegalGuidesandRegulatorySystemsMapstosimplifylawandregulationonpaperandinpractice• SeedRegulationExample
• TanzaniaSAGCOTexample:AGRA/USAID
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Regulatory Objectives• Understandingandinterpretingcurrentregulatoryframeworks
• Commonchallenges,regulatorytradeoffs(e.g.:marketdevelopmentv.consumerprotection)andgapsinimplementation
• Linkingregulationwithadvocacyatnationalandregionallevels• Identifyingprioritiesfordraftingandrevisingfertilizerregulatoryframeworks(nationalandregionallevels)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
The Enabling Environment & Fertilizer• Nationalfertilizerframeworksoftenspanarangeofinstruments,including:
• Fertilizersubsidies[Nickywilltalkmoreaboutthis]• Macroeconomicpolicies(interestrates,foreignexchangecontrols,exchangeratedistortions,inflation,currencydevaluation,etc.)
• Trademeasures(tariffs,taxes,importandexport(includingbans),bordercharges,andothernon-tarifftrademeasures)
• Regulatoryrequirementsforregistrationofnewproductsandcompanies• Fertilizerdistributionpolicies• Regulationsrelatedtoqualitycontroloffertilizerproducts
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Some Definitions• FertilizerLaw:Laws(oracts)arefrequentlyestablishedthroughaparliamentaryprocessandcreateaframeworkforgoverningthemarket.
• FertilizerRegulation:Regulationsaredevelopedtoimplementlaws,usuallythroughadministrationaction.
• FertilizerPolicy:Policy createsgoalsandobjectivesthatlawsandregulationsshouldaimtoaccomplishinordertoguidestakeholdersandgovernmentofficials.(Notlegallybinding.)
The enabling environment for fertilizer refers to policies and regulations andsupporting institutions that encourage the timely availability of a wide-range ofquality affordable fertilizers that cater to farmers’ crop and soil nutrient needs.
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Good Regulatory Practices• Becauseoftherangeofinstruments,fertilizerregulationsareoftenincrediblycomplex
• WellFunctioningNationalPolicy,Legal,andRegulatoryFrameworktoEncourageFertilizerMarketDevelopment
• Typicallyframeworkconsistsofseveralinterconnectedinstruments:FertilizerPolicy,Law/Act,andRegulations
• Countrieshaveamixofmeasures• Evenwhenexistmaybeoutofdatewithmarketdevelopments(forexample,fewaddressuniquenatureofbio-fertilizersandblends)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Country CurrentInstruments Instruments UnderDevelopment
Ethiopia FertilizerManufacturingandTradeProclamationNo.137/1998; GrowthandTransformationPlan(GTPII);AgriculturalPolicyandInvestmentFramework(2010-2020);CommercialRegistrationandBusinessLicensingProclamationNo.686/2010;MoANRDirectivetoEstablishCriteriaforCompetenceCertificate
DraftFertilizerProclamation;DraftProclamationtoEstablishtheNationalFertilizerIndustryAgency(NFIA)
Malawi Fertilizers,FarmFeeds,andRemedies Act(FFRA)1973,asamended1996;NationalFertilizerStrategy(NFS),2012;MalawiGrowthandDevelopmentStrategy(MGDS);AgriculturalSectorWideApproach(ASWAp),2010
FertilizerActandRegulations(underdevelopmentsince2003;modified2007);FertilizerPolicy
Mozambique StrategicPlanofAgriculturalSectorDevelopment(PEDSA)(2010—2020);FertilizerStrategy,2012;FertilizerRegulation,2013
FertilizerAct
Tanzania Fertilizer Act,2009(amended2014);FertilizerRegulations2011(amended2017),Fertilizer(BulkProcurement)Regulations,2017;NationalAgriculturalPolicy(NAP),2013;NationalFertilizerStrategy(NFS),2013
N/A
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Good Regulatory Practices (Cont’d)• IndependentRegulatoryAuthorityestablishedthrough Regulationsunderthenecessarylegalauthority,skilledstaffandwell-equippedlaboratories
• Autonomousbodytofacilitatestableandpredictableregulatoryenvironmentandfacilitatedevelopmentofandalignmentwithregionalmeasures
• Example: TheTanzaniaFertilizerRegulatoryAuthority(TFRA)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Good Regulatory Practices (Cont’d)• StreamlinedandSimplifiedRegistrationProcesstoRegisterFertilizer:
• Reducethenumberofseasonsoftestingandfees• Example:Tanzaniaamendedregulationsin2017(shiftfrom3seasonsto1)
• Removetheregistrationrequirementsfornewblends• Shifttoexpostsystemovertimeratherthanexante(focusesonenforcementratherthanmarketentry)
• Expostmeasuresareagoodregulatorypracticebutrequiresufficientcapacitytoimplement• Phase-outapprovedlistapproachforfertilizersandadoptatruth-in-labelingapproach
• Example:ZambiaandSouthAfricamaintainalistofnutrientsasopposedtoalistoffertilizergrades
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Prior Regulatory Process for Fertilizer Registration in Tanzania
Regulationsambiguousastodefinitionof“new”
ApplicantmustbeaTanzanianresidentorassignanagentwhoisapermanent
Tanzanianresident
Applicantcompletesapplication,whichincludes:(1)fertilizersample,(2)certificateofanalysis,(3)writtendeclarationfertilizerisnotbannedor
restrictedincountryoforigin,(4)3copiesoflabeltobeused,(5)informationonsuitability,(6)anyotherinformationordocumentrequiredbyTFRA,
and(7)applicationfeeofUSD50
ApplicantsubmitssignedapplicationtoTFRAforapproval
TestingforsuitabilityofknownandnewfertilizersandfertilizersupplementsmustundergolabtestsbyTFRA.NewfertilizersandsupplementsmustbetestedvialabandfieldbyTFRAforatleast3
consecutiveseasons
TFRAdeniesapplication
TFRAapprovesapplicationandgrantsregistration
certificatewithmaximumtermof2years
TFRAaddsnewfertilizerorfertilizersupplementtolistofapprovedfertilizersforuseinTanzania
ApplicantpaysfortestingbyTFRA,whichcostsapproximatelyUSD10,000/seasonoratleastUSD30,000total
[Renewal]
Season2Test Season3Test
Dealerregistration
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Amended Regulatory Process for Fertilizer Registration in Tanzania
Regulationsambiguousastodefinitionof“new”
ApplicantmustbeaTanzanianresidentorassignanagentwhoisapermanentTanzanianresident
ApplicantsubmitssignedapplicationtoTFRAforapproval
Testingforsuitabilityofknown&newfertilizersandfertilizersupplementsmustundergolabtestsbyTFRA.Newfertilizersandsupplementsmustbetestedvialab
andfieldbyTFRAforatleast1season
TFRAdeniesapplication
TFRAapprovesapplicationandgrantsregistration
certificatewithmaximumtermof2years
TFRAaddsnewfertilizerorfertilizersupplementtolistofapprovedfertilizersforuseinTanzania
ApplicantpaysfortestingbyTFRA,whichcostsapproximatelyUSD10,000/season
Applicantcompletesapplication,whichincludes:(1)fertilizersample,(2)certificateofanalysis,(3)writtendeclaration
fertilizerisnotbannedorrestrictedincountryoforigin,(4)3copiesoflabeltobeused,(5)informationonsuitability,(6)anyotherinformationordocumentrequiredbyTFRA,and
(7)applicationfeeofUSD50
[Renewal]
Season2Test Season3Test
Dealerregistration
42
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Good Regulatory Practices (Cont’d)• EnhancedImplementationofExistingLegalMechanisms
• Expandcapacityandtraining(includingfocusonlaboratories,skilledstaff,equipment,traceabilitymechanism)andenforcement(withdeterrentpenaltiesforviolations)
• StrengthenedPublic-PrivateDialoguePlatformstoImproveRegulatoryFrameworksandTheirImplementation
• Examples:MozambicanAssociationforDialogueandPromotionofFertilizerUse(AMOFERT);TanzaniaFertilizerSociety
• TheAMOFERTPlatformiswell-recognized,andparticipatedindraftinganewFertilizerActthatisunderreviewbytheMozambicangovernment
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Good Regulatory Practices (Cont’d)• AwarenessBuildingofLegalandRegulatorySystems
• Addresschallengesthrough:• Improveddisseminationofinformation(LegalGuides)• Assistanceforpreparingorinterpretinglegaldocumentslikecontracts• Providingtransactionallegalservicestoindividualsworkingwiththeagriculturalsector
• Providetailoredlegaltrainingforfarmers,includingrightsandobligations• Designtrainingprogramforlawyerstoimproveoverallregulatoryenvironmentanddeliveryofagriculturallegalservicestostakeholders
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Regional Harmonization• HarmonizedStandardsandtradeproceduresatRegionalLevelfacilitateeasymovementofblendswithintheregion;harmonizelaboratorycapacities
• AbujaDeclarationCallsforRegionalHarmonization• AUMemberStatesandRegionalEconomicCommunities(RECs)shouldtakeappropriatemeasurestoreducethecostoffertilizerprocurementatnationalandregionallevelsanddevelopcapacityforqualitycontrol
• Focusonensuringdutyandtax-freemovementacrossregions
• ContinentalFreeTradeArea(CFTA)andTripartiteFreeTradeArea(TFTA)• CFTAlaunchedthisMarch• TFTAincludesthreeRECs:theEastAfricanCommunity(EAC),theSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC),andtheCommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica(COMESA)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Regional Harmonization (Cont’d)• COMESADevelopingHarmonizedFrameworks• EACHarmonizedRegulatoryInstrumentsandProceduresforFertilizerMarketUnderDevelopment
• SADCRegionalAgriculturalPolicy(RAP)• Policynotspecifictofertilizer• Noseparateframeworkforfertilizerexists
• EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)RegulationRelatingtoFertilizerQualityControlintheECOWASRegion
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Example: ECOWAS Fertilizer Regulations • StreamlinedProductRegistration(ECOWAS– ProductRegistrationNotRequired;Truth-in-Labeling)
• InstitutionalCooperation• FreeMovementofFertilizer(includingblends;waytomeetmarketneeds)• StandardQualityDefinitionsandLabelingRequirements
• IFDCcontributedtoworkonsamplingandtesting• HarmonizedInspectionandAnalysis• CommonLicensesforFertilizerProducersandTraders• SharedLaboratoryResources
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
ECOWAS Fertilizer Regulations (Cont’d)• Requiresdomestication(differencesbetweencivillawandcommonlawcountries)
• IFDCWAFPprojectisassistingindividualECOWAScountrieswithdomesticationprocess
• Developqualitycontrolsincountrydistributionsystem(identifyandevaluatelabandhumanresources)
• EstablishagencytoenforceECOWASregulatoryframework,includingqualitycontrolandnationalcommitteestosupporttheseefforts
• Draftmodalitiesforissuanceofimportanddistributionlicenses;fixregistrationfeesforimportersanddistributors
• Setuppenaltiesforinfringementofregionalandnationalregulations
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Principles for Harmonizing Fertilizer Regulatory Frameworks
• ImplementationatNationalLevelisCritical• ApproachesMayVaryAmongMembersofRegionalBloc• ConsiderSequencingofRegulatoryInterventions• Promote“LowHangingFruit”Reforms• EstablishCommonMethodologyandIndicatorstoMeasureProgress• TailorCapacityBuildingtoNeedsofIndividualMemberCountries• ListentoPrivateSectorandCivilSocietyVoices
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Short-Term Regional Harmonization Interventions• EstablishmentofNationalEntitiesResponsibleforFertilizerRegulation
• Helpfacilitatestableandpredictableregulatoryenvironmentatthecountrylevelandsignificantlycontributetoamoreefficientregionalfertilizermarket
• ClarityonProductandBusinessRegistrationandLicensingRules• Inconsistentapplicationofregistrationandlicensingrulesimpedesharmonizationefforts
• TariffandCustomsDuties• Countriescouldagreetoexemptfertilizerfromcustomsdutiesandothertaxes,andharmonizeVATforfertilizer,includingforfertilizer-relatedservices
• ListofApprovedFertilizers• Regionalizelistofapprovedfertilizerstofacilitatetrade,withthelong-termaimoftransitioningtoanexpostapproachliketruth-in-labeling
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Short-Term Regional Harmonization Interventions (Cont’d)• PackagingandLabeling
• Establishuniformrulesforpackagingandlabeling,suchasaminimumsetofinformationtobeclearlylabeledonfertilizercontainers
• HarmonizedRegionalQualityControl(IncludingInspection)• Establisharegionalqualitycontrolsystemthatextendsallalongthefertilizervaluechain
• FertilizerStandards• Adoptuniformstandardsforfertilizer,includingblends,basedoninternationalstandards
• RaisingAwarenessofFertilizerLawsandRegulations• Atnationalandregionallevels,includingbymakingsureproposedchangesaresharedandvettedwithpublicandallrulesarepublished
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Long-Term Regional Harmonization Interventions• ShifttoaTruth-in-LabelingApproach
• ECOWASsystemisanexampleofexpostregulationandaTruth-in-Labelingapproach
• FreeMovementofFertilizerCross-Border,IncludingTransport• Removeorreducebordertaxes,roadblocks,andescortsystems;introduceone-stopborderprocesses;andimprovetradecorridors
• RegionalInspection,Analysis,Sampling,andTolerance• Inspection,analysis,andtestingprocedurescouldfollowinternationalstandardsandregionalrulesforinspectioncouldbeestablished
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Long-Term Regional Harmonization Interventions (Cont’d)• OversightandAdministration
• Establishregionalinstitutionalmechanismwithclearmandate• RighttoAppealandConfidentiality
• Harmonizegroundsforappealandensureclearrighttoconfidentialityforsensitivebusinessinformationtoavoidunfaircompetition
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Fertilizer subsidy programs and private sector investment in
fertilizer value chains: Evidence from SSA
Nicole Mason (MSU)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Fertilizer subsidy programs in SSA• Whatisafertilizersubsidyprogram(FSP)?• Popularpolicytoolfordecades• Upthrough1970s/1980s:typicallyuniversal subsidiesanddistributedatgov’tdepotsorbystate-ownedenterprises
• Abolishedin1980s/1990sduetohighcosts andinefficiencies• Resurgenceinpopularitysincetheearly2000s• *Some*attemptstomakeFSPs“smarter”/moreprivatesector-friendly
• Targeted subsidiesinsteadofuniversal• Greaterinvolvementofprivatesectorfertilizerimportersandretailers
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Still popular today. Heavy gov’t expenditure, major press coverage, mixed results.
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
How have FSPs affected private investment in fertilizer value chains?• IfFSPsgenerateasustained↑indemandforfertilizeratcommercial(unsubsidized)prices,could↑incentivesforprivateinvestment
• Empiricalevidence?• Moststudies(8of10)suggestFSPs↓commercialdemand(“crowdingout”)
• EX)Zambia,Malawi,Kenya,Nigeria(maingov’tprogramin2000s)• But2casesofFSPs↑commercialdemand(“crowdingin”)
• EX)Tanzania,Nigeria(pilotprograminKanoState2009-2011)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
What explains crowding out? • SignificantshareofFSPfertilizertargetedtofarmHHsthatwouldhavepurchasedfertilizeratmarketpricesevenwithoutthesubsidy
• Thesetendtobe:• HHswithmorelandorotherassets• Male-headedHHs
• Withoneexception,allFSPswithcrowdingoutonlyminimallyinvolvedtheprivatesector
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Sources:Seecrowdingin/outreferences
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
What explains crowding in?• BothTanzania(NationalAgriculturalInputVoucherScheme– NAIVS)&Nigeria(KanoStateVoucherProgram– KVSP):
• Utilizedvouchersredeemableatprivatesectorretailers’shops• Tanzania/NAIVS:
• DidgoodjoboftargetingHHsthathadn’tusedfertilizeronmaizeorriceinthelast5years(75%ofbeneficiaries)
• Nigeria/KVSP:• Subsidyfor3X50-kgbags.Notenoughtomeetfulldemandà farmerspurchasetherestatmarketpriceatagrodealer?
• Inputsuppliersrequiredtobephysicallypresentinlocalgov’tareas• PilotprogramcloselymonitoredbyIFDC
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Sources:Mather&Minde(2016),Liverpool-Tasie(2014)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Implications for FSP design• Itmaybepossibletoreducecrowdingoutbytargeting:
• HHsthatcannotaffordorhavenotusedfertilizeratthemarketprice• HHswithlesslandorotherassets• Female-headedHHs
• Crowding-inappearstobemostlikelywhen:• TheFSPusesvouchersredeemableatprivateretailers’shops• Incentivesareprovidedtoretailerstolocateclosertofarmers• Subsidizedfertilizerquantitiesarelessthanfullamountneededbyfarmers
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Supply-side effects of FSPs
• Farlessrigorousempiricalevidence thandemand-sideeffects
• Mostlyanecdotal evidenceanddescriptive studies
• Exception:StudyonhowtheMalawiFarmInputSubsidyProgram(FISP)affectsprivatesectorfertilizersales(Kaiyatsaetal.2017)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
How did allowing select large-scale distributors and affiliated retailers in select districts (9 of 28) to accept FISP fertilizer vouchers in 2015/16 affect fertilizer sales? • Noeffectoncommercialsalesoflarge-scaledistributors/retailersinpilotdistricts(participants&non-participants)
• é Subsidizedfertilizersalesofparticipatingfirmsby299MT/retailer• ê Commercialfertilizersalesofindependentagro-dealersinpilotdistricts(excludedfromprogram)by28MT/agro-dealer
èOverall:1MTofsub.fert.soldà 0.14MTê incommercialfert.sales
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Source:Kaiyatsaetal.(2017)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
4 insights from descriptive studies on FSPs and private sector involvement1. FSPsthathavetheprivatesector(andnotstate-ownedenterprises)
handleimportation/procurement,distribution,andretailingoffertilizerforFSPshavethepotentialtocrowd-inprivatesectorinvestmentinfertilizervaluechains
EX)Tanzania/NAIVSà sustained,predictableé infertilizerdemandàImporters/distributorsinvestinnewstorage/distributionwarehousesàAgro-dealersshiftfromrentingtopurchasingshopsàMoreagro-dealersinoperationandmoredeliveryofinputstovillages(Matheretal.2016)
EX)SimilaremergingevidenceforZambiawithswitchtoe-voucher(Kuteyaetal.2016;Machinaetal.2017)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
4 insights from descriptive studies on FSPs and private sector involvement
2. InvolvingtheprivatesectorinthehandlingoffertilizerforFSPscanreduceprogramcosts
Profitmotiveofprivatefirmsoftenleadstogreaterefficiency,lesswaste,andreducedbureaucracyrelativetomoregovernment-centricprograms
(SOASetal.2008;Chirwa&Dorward2013;Kuteyaetal.2016;Kuteya&Chapoto2017)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
4 insights from descriptive studies on FSPs and private sector involvement3. Trustbetweengov’tandprivatesectoractorsisparamountfor
sustainedinvolvementoftheprivatesectorinFSPs,andtothedevelopmentofprivatesectorfertilizermarketsmorebroadly.Trustiseasilyerodedanddifficulttorebuild.
EX)Delayedpayments(Ghana,Malawi,Tanzania,Zambia)andlastminutedecisionstoexcludeprivatesectorretailers(Malawiin2008)
(SOASetal.2008;Kellyetal.2010;Chirwa&Dorward2013;Mather2016;Musonda2008)
EX)OpaquetenderingprocessesforFSPfertilizer,andallegationsofcorruptionandpolitically-motivatedawardingoftenders(Zambia,Nigeria)
(Wanzala-Mlobela etal.2013;Resnick&Mason2016)
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
4 insights from descriptive studies on FSPs and private sector involvement
4. ItisimportanttoinvolverepresentativesfromallpartsofthefertilizervaluechainindiscussionstosetmarketingmarginsforFSPs.
EX)ThiswasdoneinTanzania/NAIVSbutnotinGhana,whereonlygovernmentandimporterswereinvolved.Asaresult,inGhana,severaldistributorsandretailersdecidednottoparticipateintheFSP(Mather2016).
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Concluding remarks• OurPEMEFAteamhasbeenscouringtheliteratureforempiricalevidenceonwhatworks/doesn’tre:enablingenvironmentsforprivatesectorinvestmentinfertilizervaluechains
• Mostliteratureisonsubsidyprograms(butgapsonsupply-sideeffects)• Therearesomegenerallyacceptedbroadprinciplesonbestpracticesforfertilizerpolicies,laws,andregulations,butverylittleempiricalevidencethatmovingtowardthesebestpracticesactuallyimprovessmallholderfarmers’accesstoaffordable,goodqualityfertilizers
• Nextphaseofourprojectwillaimtofillsomeoftheseknowledgegaps• Weareseekingmorecollaborators,soifthisinterestsyou,pleaseletusknow!
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Thank you! Questions? Acknowledgements• MSUAllianceforAfricanPartnership• MSUAfricanStudiesCenter
PEMEFAteam• JoshuaAriga (IFDC,[email protected])• Katrin Kuhlmann (NML,[email protected])• NicoleMason(MSU,[email protected])• MariaWanzala-Mlobela(AFAP,[email protected])• CharlesJumbe(ReNAPRI,[email protected])• MeganGlaub (NML,[email protected])• KillianBanda(AFAP,[email protected])
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Pleasestickaroundforthereceptionaftertheseminartocontinueinteractingwithspeakersandeachother!
ThispresentationwasfundedbyagrantfromtheAllianceforAfricanPartnership,anew,innovative
initiativeatMSUthatseekstodevelopacollaborativeandcross-disciplinaryplatformfor
addressingtoday’sglobalchallenges.
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
References – crowding in/outKenya:
Mather,D.,&Jayne,T.S.(2018).Fertilizersubsidiesandtheroleoftargetingincrowdingout:EvidencefromKenya.FoodSecurity,DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0773-8
Jayne,T.S.,Mather,D.,Mason,N.M.,Ricker-Gilbert,J.,&Crawford,E.(2015).RejoindertothecommentbyAndrewDorwardandEphraimChirwaonT.S.Jayne,D.Mather,N.Mason,andJ.Ricker-Gilbert.2013.Howdofertilizersubsidyprogramsaffecttotalfertilizeruseinsub-SaharanAfrica?Crowdingout,diversionandbenefit/costassessments.AgriculturalEconomics, 44(6),687-703.AgriculturalEconomics,46(6),745-755.
Malawi:Ricker-Gilbert,J.,Jayne,T.S.,&Chirwa,E.(2011).Subsidiesandcrowdingout:Adouble-hurdlemodeloffertilizerdemandin Malawi.AmericanJournalofAgricultural
Economics, 93(1),26-42.Jayneetal.(2015)– seeaboveforreferenceRicker-Gilbert,J.,&Jayne,T.S.(2017).Estimatingtheenduringeffectsoffertilisersubsidiesoncommercialfertiliserdemandandmaizeproduction:Paneldataevidencefrom
Malawi.JournalofAgriculturalEconomics, 68(1),70-97.Nigeria:
Takeshima,H.,&Nkonya,E.(2014).Governmentfertilizersubsidyandcommercialsectorfertilizerdemand:EvidencefromtheFederalMarketStabilizationProgram(FMSP)inNigeria.FoodPolicy, 47(August),1-12.
Liverpool-Tasie,L.S.O.(2014).Fertilizersubsidiesandprivatemarketparticipation:ThecaseofKanoState,Nigeria.AgriculturalEconomics, 45(6),663-678.Tanzania:
Mather,D.,&Minde,I.(2016).Fertilizersubsidiesandhowtargetingconditionscrowdingin/out:AnassessmentofsmallholderfertilizerdemandinTanzania.(GISAIA/TanzaniaWorkingPaperNo.5).EastLansing,MI:MichiganStateUniversity.
Zambia:Xu,Z.,Burke,W.J.,Jayne,T.S.,&Govereh,J.(2009).Doinputsubsidyprograms‘crowdin’or‘crowdout’commercialmarketdevelopment?Modelingfertilizerusedecisions
inatwo-channelmarketingsystem.AgriculturalEconomics, 40(1),79-94.Mason,N.M.,&Jayne.T.S.(2013).Fertilisersubsidiesandsmallholdercommercialfertiliserpurchases:Crowdingout,leakage,andpolicyImplicationsforZambia.Journalof
AgriculturalEconomics, 64(3),558-582.Jayneetal.(2015)– seeaboveforreference(samedataasMason&Jayne(2013))
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Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
Partnership for Enabling Market Environments for Fertilizer in Africa (PEMEFA)
References – supply-side effectsChirwa,E.W.,&Dorward,A.R.(2013).TheroleoftheprivatesectorintheFarmInputSubsidyProgrammeinMalawi (WorkingPaperNo.64).Brighton,UK:FutureAgricultures
Consortium.Kaiyatsa,S.,Jumbe,C.,&Ricker-Gilbert,J.(2017).Supply-sidecrowding-outandcrowding-ineffectsofMalawi’sFarmInputSubsidyProgramonprivate-sectorinputmarketing:A
quasi-experimentalfieldstudy.Mimeo.Kelly,V.,Boughton,D.,&Lenski,N.(2010).MalawiAgriculturalInputsSubsidy:Evaluationofthe2007/08and2008/09program– inputsupplysectoranalysis.EastLansing,MI:
MichiganStateUniversity.Kuteya,A.,&Chapoto,A.(2017).E-voucherperformanceandrecommendationsfornationwiderolloutduringthe2017/18farmingseason (PolicyBriefNo.89).Lusaka,Zambia:
IndabaAgriculturalPolicyResearchInstitute.Kuteya,A.,Lukama,C.,Chapoto,A.,&Malata,V.(2016).Lessonslearntfromtheimplementationofthee-voucherpilot (PolicyBriefNo.81).Lusaka,Zambia:IndabaAgriculturalPolicy
ResearchInstitute.Machina,H.,Sambo,J.,&Nzila,M.(2017).Hastheelectronicvouchersystemcreatedemployment?ThecaseoffivedistrictsofZambia (WorkingPaperNo.128).Lusaka,Zambia:
IndabaAgriculturalPolicyResearchInstitute.Mather,D.(2016).Lessonslearnedfromprivatesector-friendlyinputsubsidyprogramsinTanzaniaandGhana (GISAIA/TanzaniaWorkingPaperNo.6).EastLansing,MI:Michigan
StateUniversity.Mather,D.,Waized,B.,Ndyetabula,D.,Temu,A.,Minde,I.,&Nyange,D.(2016).TheeffectsofNAIVSonprivatesectorfertilizerandseedsupplychainsinTanzania.(GISAIA/Tanzania
WorkingPaperNo.3).EastLansing,MI:MichiganStateUniversity.Musonda,C.(2008,January13).Fertilizercrisisleavessmall-scalefarmersfoodless.TheTimesofZambia.Resnick,D.,&Mason,N.M.(2016).Whatdrivesinputsubsidypolicyreform?ThecaseofZambia,2002-2016 (ResearchPaperNo.28).EastLansing,MI:FeedtheFutureInnovation
LabforFoodSecurityPolicy.SchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies(SOAS),WadondaConsult,MichiganStateUniversity,andOverseasDevelopmentInstitute.(2008).Evaluationofthe2006/07AgriculturalInput
SubsidyProgramme,Malawi– FinalReport.London,UK:SOAS.Wanzala-Mlobela,M.,Fuentes,P.,&Mkumbwa,S.(2013).Practicesandpolicyoptionsfortheimproveddesignandimplementationoffertilizersubsidyprogramsinsub-Saharan
Africa.(NEPADAgencyPolicyStudy).MuscleShoals,AL:InternationalFertilizerDevelopmentCenter.
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