AGFACTS

AGFACTSAGFACTS Phalaris

PasturesAgfact P2.5.1, second edition July 2000R. W. Watson, formerly District Agronomist,Scone (now consulting agronomist, Scone)W.J. McDonald, Technical Specialist,Pastures, TamworthC. A. Bourke, Senior Research Scientist(Poisonous Weeds), Orange AgriculturalInstitute

Order no. P2.5.1 Agdex 137/00

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Contents

Distribution of phalaris ......................................3Phalaris advantages and disadvantages ........... 3

Advantages....................................................... 3Disadvantages ..................................................3

Soil requirements ................................................3Climatic requirements ........................................4

Rainfall .............................................................4Temperature ....................................................4

Phalaris varieties ................................................4Growth pattern and yield...................................8Persistence of phalaris ........................................8Sowing rates ........................................................ 9Sowing time ....................................................... 10Sowing mixtures of phalaris ............................10Phalaris seed...................................................... 10Phalaris establishment .....................................10

Conventional .................................................. 11Direct drilling ................................................12Aerial seeding ................................................12

Fertiliser requirements .....................................13Phosphorus ....................................................14Sulphur...........................................................14Nitrogen .........................................................14Potassium ....................................................... 15Acid soils ........................................................ 15

Management after sowing ................................ 15Insects, mites and slugs .................................16Pasture establishment ...................................17Weed competition .......................................... 17

Control annual grasses .....................................17Weed control after sowing ............................20

Grazing management .......................................20Establishment phase .....................................20Established pasture .......................................21Degraded phalaris pastures .........................21Drought ..........................................................21Grazing management and persistence ........ 22Maintaining legumes .....................................23

Pasture quality ..................................................24Livestock performance on phalaris ................25Sheep performance ........................................... 25Cattle performance ........................................... 26Phalaris poisoning ............................................ 27

Phalaris staggers ........................................... 27Sudden death .................................................28

Diseases of phalaris ........................................... 28Certified seed ....................................................29Growing your own seed ....................................29Acknowledgments .............................................32

Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) is the most persistentand productive temperate perennial pasture grasswhich can be sown in the Tablelands and Slopesregions of New South Wales; hence it is the basisfor much of the pasture development programs inthese regions.

Phalaris is a native of southern Europe, northwest Africa and the Mediterranean region. It wasfirst introduced into Australia from the UnitedStates in 1884 under the name Phalaris commutataby Mr R. Harding, later the curator at ToowoombaBotanic Gardens, where it became known asToowoomba Canary Grass for some time.

Phalaris may also have arrived in a collection of21 packets of grass seeds received in 1883 fromItaly. Harding reported that the seeds were plantedin the nursery and germinated well. However,frosts killed all plants except those of Phalariscommutata. Within two years it overran the wholeplot in the nursery, the grass having grown fromself sown seed. The grass had to be moved, andalthough the clumps were dumped in a comer onhard ground, they continued to grow despite dryconditions and frost.

In the United States, the standard common namefor phalaris is Harding Grass in recognition of MrHarding’s efforts in evaluating and distributingphalaris.

The New South Wales Department ofAgriculture (now NSW Agriculture), through theinterest displayed in this grass by Mr R. H.Gennya, Glen Innes Agricultural Research StationManager, obtained seed early in 1905 fromToowoomba for trial. This seed was sown atHawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, andat Glen Innes, Bathurst, Wollongbar (Lismore),Grafton, Cowra and Wagga Agricultural ResearchStations. In September 1908, the Departmentdistributed 6,000 roots of this grass to farmers.

Two New England graziers, Mr F. J. White,‘Saumarez’, Armidale, and Mr G.M. Simpson,‘Stonehenge Station’, Stonehenge, obtained seedfrom Toowoomba in about 1908, and after raising alarge number of plants put them out into paddockareas. Most of the seed initially used inestablishing phalaris pastures in this and otherstates originated from these sources—the GlenInnes Agricultural Research Station, and from afew New England graziers.

Australia was the first country to recognise anddemonstrate the usefulness of phalaris as apermanent pasture species.

Phalaris was formerly recognised botanically asP. commutata, P. bulbosa, P. stenoptera andP.tuberosa but botanists have now accepted itsnaming as Phalaris aquatica.

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DISTRIBUTION OF PHALARIS

There are more than 1.6m hectares of pasturecontaining phalaris in NSW. A survey by DistrictAgronomists in 1990 indicated that the potentialarea of phalaris based pastures in NSW was 3mhectares.

Phalaris is largely confined to the Tablelands,Slopes and some coastal districts of NSW.

Major plantings of phalaris exist in the NewEngland and Central and Southern Tablelandsdistricts where phalaris has been traditionally sownsince the early 1900’s. Following the developmentof Sirosa and Sirolan in the mid 1970s, the areasown to phalaris increased significantly in theTablelands districts as well as in the low tomedium rainfall Northern, Central and SouthernSlopes areas where phalaris was not traditionallysown.

In New South Wales, very little phalaris is sownbeyond the 550–600 mm average annual rainfallisohyet.

At present Sirosa is the predominant variety inmost districts of the state. It accounts for more thanhalf of the total phalaris pasture area. Since itsrelease in 1974, it has been widely sown andsuccessfully established in a range of environmentsthroughout New South Wales.

The more recently released variety Holdfast isincreasing in area and gradually replacing Sirosa insome districts, especially in southern NSW.

Australian was the only variety of phalarisavailable in Australia for 60 years and henceaccounts for about 320,000 hectares or 40 per centof the phalaris pasture area.

Although Australian is sown over a significantarea, its relative importance and sowing isdeclining in most districts. Australian is nowmainly sown as a mixture with Sirosa or Sirolanphalaris and is rarely sown on its own or as themain grass in the pasture mixture. Australian willbe increasingly replaced by Uneta and newer semi-winter dormant varieties. Sirolan is sown in mostdistricts of New South Wales but is the minorvariety. However, it tends to be the dominantvariety in the hotter and drier slopes districtstowards the western edge of the phalaris belt orlower rainfall sections of districts. Sirolancontinues to be sown at a relatively stable rate witha trend towards slight increase in usage.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OFPHALARIS

The advantages of phalaris are:• most persistent and drought tolerant temperate

perennial grass species commercially availablein Australia;

• productive perennial species providing goodquality grazing for all types of grazing livestock(cattle, sheep, horses and goats) for 8–12 monthsof the year, depending on the environment andmanagement;

• competitive robust plant recognised as one of thebest pasture species for controlling andexcluding many serious weeds of pastures suchas serrated tussock, thistles, St John’s wort andPaterson’s curse;

• tolerant to extended periods of heavy grazing;• ease of establishment as a result of new cultivars

with improved seedling vigour;• excellent recovery after bushfires;• good regrowth following attack by plague

locusts and wingless grasshoppers;• field resistance to underground grass grub attack,

cockchafer, black beetle and Argentine stemweevil;

• good performance in poorly drained andwaterlogged soils;

• excellent frost resistance and high productivityduring the winter;

• very few diseases cause serious productionlosses on phalaris;

• excellent resistance to livestock trampling,particularly on wet, clay soils or under irrigation;

• responds quickly to autumn rainfall or irrigation.The disadvantages of phalaris are:• susceptible to competition from annual grasses

such as annual ryegrass, barley grass and vulpiaduring the establishment phase;

• requires good grazing management to maintaingrass-legume balance. Phalaris can dominatepastures and exclude all legumes causing adecline in pasture quality and production;

• Requires attention to grazing managementthroughout the year, in particular during springto enhance the plant’s survival and vigour,

• some potential, although the incidence is verylow, to induce phalaris poisoning;

• sensitive to soil acidity.

SOIL REQUIREMENTS

Phalaris is adapted to a wide range of soils fromshallow, moderately acidic, sedimentary soils todeep, self-mulching alkaline clays.

However, phalaris grows best on deep, heavytextured soils of high fertility, or soils havingreceived regular applications of phosphorus orsulphur fertiliser, or both, to promote good clovergrowth which will meet the high nitrogenrequirements of phalaris.

As rainfall decreases, soil type becomes morecritical in determining the drought tolerance,persistence, plant vigour and the suitability ofphalaris to an area.

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W McDONALDPhalaris pastures can be used to replaceunproductive pastures or major weed infestations.

Phalaris is particularly suited to heavy black claysoils and deep self-mulching red volcanic loams indistricts with good summer rainfall. However, inregions with dry summers, the deep cracking ofself-mulching soils has killed phalaris probablybecause of root damage. It will grow and persistsatisfactorily on lighter textured soils if there is amoisture retentive clay subsoil within 30 cm of thesurface.

The deeper the soil profile the deeper the rootsystem, hence the greater the drought tolerance.Phalaris can also be successfully grown in mediumto lower rainfall areas if it is grown on deep soilsof high moisture holding capacity. The shallower,sedimentary soils are satisfactory for phalaris inmore favoured rainfall areas, such as the valleysand lower slopes in Tableland districts.

Most cultivars can withstand extended periods ofwaterlogged soil, however summer flooding hasbeen observed to cause significant loss.

The currently popular phalaris cultivars (Sirosaand Sirolan) are moderately tolerant of acid soilproblems (low soil pH combined with high levelsof exchangeable soil manganese and aluminium).

However, phalaris is more sensitive to soilacidity than cocksfoot, ryegrass and tall fescue.Phalaris shows excellent tolerance to high soilmanganese but is sensitive to high exchangeablesoil aluminium levels. Sirosa and Sirolan seedlingshave a slightly superior tolerance to highexchangeable aluminium when compared tocultivars Australian, Seedmaster and Uneta, whichare quite sensitive. However, the greater spreadingability of Australian often allows it to maintain adenser stand on moderately acid soils than Sirosaand Sirolan.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Phalaris originated in the Mediterranean region andhence is well adapted to survive the typicalMediterranean climates of mild, moist winters, and

hot, dry summers, typical of much of southernAustralia.

RainfallPhalaris is best adapted to the medium to highrainfall areas of the northern, central and southernTablelands and Slopes regions of New South Wales.

It will persist in winter-dominant rainfall areaswhere the average annual rainfall is 500 mm.Phalaris is not very productive in districts with lessthan 500 mm except in very favourable situations.It is important for phalaris that most of this rainfalls in autumn to late spring to coincide with itsmain growth period. Except in cool environments,phalaris grows very little in summer.

In southern New South Wales rainfall shouldexceed 450–500 mm per annum; in northern NewSouth Wales 600–700 mm is needed to ensureadequate rainfall during autumn-spring (see figure1 – map). Suitable areas for phalaris may be moreaccurately defined as areas receiving more than300 mm of effective rain between April andOctober (the main growing season). Phalaris canbe grown at lower rainfalls in southern New SouthWales due to higher incidence and greaterreliability of cool season rainfall.

TemperaturePhalaris is very tolerant to variations intemperature, surviving both low wintertemperatures and severe frosts on the Tablelands aswell as high summer temperatures in the inlandSlopes districts. Its maximum growth period isduring autumn and spring, and it has moderategrowth in mild winters. Phalaris grows best attemperatures between I5–250C (typical of autumnand spring).

Winter growth is very slow in the colderTablelands districts but growth can extend into thesummer in these districts.

In much of New South Wales, except in someTablelands districts, phalaris normally exhibits amoderate dormancy during summer. Thisdormancy generally lasts until temperatures declinein late February to early March when activeregrowth follows autumn rains.

PHALARIS VARIETIES

There are a number of phalaris varieties inAustralia. They can be grouped according to theirwinter growth rate and their dormancy duringsummer. Their classification is as follows :

Semi winter dormant, moderate summerdormancy: Australian, Uneta. Grasslands Maru,Australian II

Winter active, low to moderate summerdormancy : Sirosa, Sirolan, Holdfast, Landmaster

Winter active, highly dormant in summer:Atlas PG

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Figure 1. Phalaris climatic zones showing annual rainfall isohyets

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AustralianAustralian was the first variety used in Australia. Itwas introduced to Australia in I884 from the NewYork State Department of Agriculture. This seed isbelieved to come from Italy via the United Statesof America.

Australian is the second most important varietyestablished throughout Australia today. However,its significance is declining due to the breeding andrelease of superior varieties such as Sirosa andSirolan.

Australian has a prostrate, spreading growthhabit and is most persistent under heavy grazingand drought in cool, high rainfall Tablelanddistricts.

It is very tolerant to insect attack. It displaysinferior persistence in drier marginal rainfall areas.The variety’s limitations include poor seedlingvigour, low winter production, greater risk ofphalaris poisoning and poor seed retention.

UnetaDerived from the Australian cultivar, it wasselected firstly by CSIRO, Canberra, and later bythe University of New England (UNE) Armidale inNew South Wales.

Uneta was derived from a single plant whichstood out in a population of the Australian cultivarof phalaris grown from certified seed because itretained all seed firmly in the heads at fullmaturity. The other plants in the area bycomparison had lost an average of 50 per cent oftheir seed 2 weeks after the first seed matured. Thisnatural seed retaining mutant was crossed withother Australian phalaris to produce a non-shattering Australian phalaris type.

A disadvantage of Uneta is its poor seed yieldingability relative to other varieties, a feature whichmay jeopardise its future. CSIRO has selected animproved line from crosses between Uneta andAustralian, to be released as Australian II. Uneta isidentical to Australian in characteristics, but isslightly less vigorous and productive, due to theinbreeding caused by its single plant origin.

Grasslands MaruGrasslands Maru was selected and bred by theGrasslands Division of DSIR (now AgResearch) inPalmerston North, New Zealand, in 1979 fromphalaris seed lines obtained from Argentina. Thisvariety is currently licensed with Agricom (NewZealand).

Table 1. A comparison of currently available phalaris cultivars (as at Dec. 1999)

S S H L A U A M AI I O A U N T A UR R L N S E L R SO O D D T T A U TS L F M R A S RA A A A A P A

N S S L G LT T I I

E A AR N N

II

Seedling vigour . *** *** ** ** * * *** * *Winter production *** *** ** ** * * * * *Total production *** *** *** *** ** ** ** ** **Growth habit SE E SE SE P P E P PLateral spreading * * * * *** *** * ** ***Acid soil tolerance ** ** *** *** * * * * *Persistence under drought, *** *** *** *** ** ** ** ** **floods and optimal rainsGrazing tolerance at heading * * * * *** *** * ** ***Suitability to Tablelands *** ** *** *** *** *** * ** ***Suitability to Slopes ** *** ** ** * * *** * *Potential for phalarispoisoning: staggers form * * * * *** *** * * ***sudden death form *** *** ** *** *** *** *** *** ***Summer dormancy ** ** ** ** ** ** *** ** **Seed retention * * *** *** * *** *** * ***Tolerance to waterlogging ** ** ** ** *** *** ** ** ***PBR Protection No No Yes Yes No No Yes No YesApproved variety Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No

Comparative performance : Growth habit*** High SE semi erect** Medium E Erect* Low P Prostrate

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Observations on growth habit in NSW indicatethat it is intermediate between Australian andSirosa in seedling vigour and winter yield.However, it has a lower tryptamine alkaloidconcentration than Australian. In New South Walesit has not displayed any outstanding qualities overand above currently available lines, howeverlimited testing indicates improved tolerance tosalinity than other varieties.

In general, its agronomic performance is inferiorto Sirosa and Sirolan, similar to Australian andUneta but superior to Seedmaster.

SirosaSirosa was also bred by CSIRO Canberra andreleased in 1974. Sirosa is by far the most widelysown variety in Australia although it is now beingreplaced by Holdfast. Sirosa was developed from acomplex breeding and selection program using awide range of material from the Mediterranean andselected lines of the variety Australian. Sirosa isvariable in growth habit—on average it is moreerect than Australian but more prostrate thanSirolan.

It displays excellent seedling vigour, high winterproduction, moderately low tryptamine alkaloidlevels and good seed production and retention.Sirosa adapts well in Slopes and Tablelandsdistricts. It tends to flower slightly later thanSirolan and is better suited to cooler, higher rainfallareas. Sirosa is not quite as drought tolerant asSirolan but is superior to Australian and isapproved for the main phalaris zone throughout thestate.

SirolanSirolan is a low alkaloid variety released in 1978 toreplace Sirocco. It was bred by CSIRO Canberrafrom selections and crosses of Sirocco, Australianand lines introduced from the Mediterraneanregion. It has high seedling vigour, good survivalover summer, high winter production and lowtryptamine alkaloid levels.

Sirolan is the second most widely sown varietyin Australia after Sirosa. It was developed for thedrier marginal phalaris areas in eastern andsouthern Australia.

It is the most persistent variety in marginalrainfall areas such as the northern, central andsouthern Slopes regions of New South Wales, andhas also performed well in better rainfallTablelands districts. Sirolan is less summerdormant than Sirocco and Atlas PG, more summerdormant than Australian and still retains excellentdrought tolerance.

HoldfastHoldfast was selected and bred by CSIRO andreleased in 1991. It was derived from selected

plants of Australian which displayed excellent seedretention. It was then back-crossed with Sirosa andSirolan material followed by out-crossings withselected lines from the Mediterranean.

It has similar agronomic characteristics toSirolan and Sirosa but has superior seed retentionwhen fully mature. Holdfast can be sown in themain and drier phalaris growing districts. Holdfastis a suitable replacement for Sirosa.

LandmasterLandmaster was bred by CSIRO and released in1996 for use on skeletal, relatively infertile, mildlyacid soils. The cultivar is primarily based onHoldfast related lines but also a summer dormantline and other lines of diverse backgrounds wereinvolved.

Landmaster is very similar to Sirosa andHoldfast in appearance, being a winter-active, erectand sparsely tillered cultivar. It retains seed in thehead similarly to Holdfast.

On lower fertility soils to which Landmaster issuited, it produces more forage than either Holdfastor Sirosa.

It is protected under Plant Breeders Rights.

Atlas PGAtlas PG was bred by CSIRO and is based onMoroccan material including Sirocco and El Golea.It is adapted to dry summer growing conditions,and should suit areas to the west of traditionalphalaris areas in NSW.

The variety is similar to Sirocco in being winteractive, and having erect and sparse tillers, but itwas selected for greater seed retention to overcomethe low seed yields of Sirocco. It flowers later thanSirocco, and its regeneration buds are a little lesssummer dormant, but still much more dormantthan the buds of other varieties available. As aresult, this cultivar is best suited to summerdrought areas where dry conditions may beinterrupted by a few rainfall events with coolconditions.

Atlas PG is protected by Plant Breeders Rights.

Australian IIBred by CSIRO, and based on Australian andUneta varieties being very similar to Australian butwith much increased seed retention. The proportionof flowers producing seed in Australian II isgreater than in Uneta. Seed production potentialshould be superior to that of Uneta.

Australian II flowers a little later than Australian.The seedlings are larger than Uneta and similar insize to Australian.

As seed becomes available, Australian II isexpected to overcome the shortage of seed ofprostrate varieties, of particular importance where

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a spreading plant is required in tableland pasturesto assist with weed control and at the same timeprovide reliable production.

GROWTH PATTERN AND YIELD

Phalaris is a more productive, stable and reliablespecies than other temperate grasses such ascocksfoot, fescue and perennial ryegrass as it hassuperior long term persistence, deep rootdevelopment and drought tolerance.

Its most vigorous growth period is in autumnand spring. It is very quick to respond to earlyautumn rainfall.

In the Slopes area of New South Wales, whichexperience milder winters than Tablelands districts,phalaris can also make excellent growth in winter.Following its vigorous spring growth associatedwith the flowering-seed set stage, phalaris tends toexhibit a strong summer dormancy. Duringsummer, in cool, high rainfall Tablelands districts,phalaris can still make reasonable pasture growth.

The dormancy of phalaris can be broken bysummer storms followed by periods of cool-mildtemperatures The degree of summer dormancyvaries between varieties but can be influenced bymanagement and climate.

Current phalaris varieties have a high potentialgrowth rate if they are well managed and havegood soil fertility and moisture.

Total and seasonal growth of phalaris is largelyinfluenced by rainfall and temperature. Growthpatterns between Tablelands and Slopes areas vary,

as do growth rates from season to season and yearto year.

Established dryland phalaris pasture inTablelands districts produce on average 7,000kg/ha of dry matter (DM) a year of which 20 percent is produced during summer, 30 per cent inautumn, 5 per cent in winter and 45 per cent inspring.

In the medium rainfall Slopes districts, phalarispastures produce 4,000–6,000 kg/ha of DM a yearand up to 8,000–10,000 kg/ha when well managedunder good growing conditions. Due to the oftenhotter and drier conditions during the summer toearly autumn, and milder temperatures in winter,phalaris tends to produce only 5 per cent of itsannual growth in summer, 15 per cent in autumn,30 percent in winter and 50 percent in spring.

Irrigated phalaris pastures produce l0,000–13,000 kg/ha of DM a year.

The winter active varieties Sirosa and Sirolanproduce 30–50 per cent more winter feed thanAustralian, Uneta or Seedmaster. In some locations

Figure 2. Growth pattern of phalaris dry matterproduction.

Figure 3. Phalaris comparison of average dry matterproduction (1985–86) in dryland conditions.

Sirosa and Sirolan have produced twice theautumn-winter feed of Australian, particularly inthe establishment year.

Sirosa and Sirolan have maintained a significantannual yield advantage of 20–30 per cent morethan other varieties when evaluated in severalenvironments over a number of years. Holdfast hasperformed similarly to Sirosa in southern districts,however experience in northern areas is limited.

PERSISTENCE OF PHALARIS COMPAREDTO OTHER TEMPERATE PERENNIALGRASSES

Phalaris has a long and well-deserved reputationfor its excellent persistence and droughttolerance—far superior to all other temperatepasture grasses such as cocksfoot, fescue andperennial ryegrass.

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Research has clearly shown the superior long-term persistence of the phalaris cultivars over allother temperate perennial grasses when grown inmedium to high fertility, non acid soil types. Thegrasses were ranked in order of greatest to lowestpersistence as follows: phalaris—cocksfoot—fescue—perennial ryegrass.

The comparative persistence of individualvarieties is influenced by environment (that is. soiltype, fertility, acidity, rainfall, and climate) andgrazing management (see Table 1).

In favourable environments or where cattlegrazing predominates, Australian, Sirosa andSirolan have similar levels of persistence.However, under continuous, heavy sheep grazing,Australian has superior persistence to Sirosa,Sirolan and Holdfast. (For more information see‘Grazing management’.) In this situationAustralian phalaris should be included in thepasture mixture with one of the other phalarisvarieties or selected temperate grasses.

As yet, commercial experience with Landmasterand Atlas PG and Australian II is limited.

The hotter and drier the district, the greater andfaster the difference in levels of persistence will beexpressed between the different species oftemperate grasses as well as the varieties ofphalaris.

Conversely, the cooler and wetter theenvironment, the smaller the differences inpersistence levels; thus the pasture persists longerat productive population densities. Extended andannual seasonal droughts are a feature of our

environment. Phalaris has the best ‘design features’to survive the stresses of our environment. Thedrought resistance of phalaris comes from thecombination of its unique plant features. Theyinclude;• moderate seedling vigour to improve its

reliability of establishment;• early flowering habit which ensures crown bud

and seed development under more reliablemoisture conditions before onset of summer;

• strong summer dormancy of the undergroundcrown buds which reduces the risk of the plantcommencing regrowth during the hot, drysummer months as a result of summer storms;

• large, bulbous underground stem bases forcarbohydrate storage to help maintain growthduring periods of stress;

• extensive and deep fibrous root system whichcan exploit soil moisture to a depth of twometres thus supplying moisture to the plantduring periods of low rainfall.

SOWING RATES

Sow 2–4 kg of viable seed/ha on a preparedseedbed in a pasture mixture with appropriatelegumes. With a seed count of 600,000 seeds/kg at80 per cent germination, 2 kg/ha would result inapproximately 96 viable seeds/m2. Underconventional seedbed conditions, often only 10–50per cent of the seed establishes. Therefore, if only30 per cent of the viable seed actually establishes,it would result in about 30 plants/m2. This densityof seedlings would result in a dense phalarispasture. A final establishment of 10–20 plants/m2 isadequate.

When establishing phalaris by direct drilling oraerial seeding, often only 5–15 per cent of the seedsown establishes, therefore it is necessary to sow3–4 kg/ha.

In each phalaris variety, there are bothmoderately tolerant and extremely aluminiumsensitive plant types. In acid soils, higher seedingrates are recommended to allow for death ofsensitive plants in the seed population. Thisensures sufficient numbers of acid soil toleranttypes are present to establish the pasture.Landmaster has a higher percentage of these types.Including cocksfoot or fescue in the pasture mix isalso advisable on acid soils due to their greatertolerance to acid soil problems.

Use the higher seeding rates when sowingphalaris under irrigation, or where it is desirable tohave high plant numbers early in the life of thepasture for weed control or for soil revegetationand conservation.

Check the germination of seed before sowing.Adjust the seeding rate to ensure the recommendedrate of viable seed/ha is sown. For example, to sow

Figure 4. Perennial grass comparison of average drymatter production (1985–86) in dryland conditions.

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2 kg/ha of viable seed and the sample has a recenttest of 70 per cent germination, then the amount ofseed needed is :

Seed weight required = Desired seed rate × 100germination %

i.e. 2 kg/ha × 100 = 2.9 kg/ha70

Sowing too much seed can be as bad as notsowing enough. Sowing the recommended seedingrates using the recommended sowing techniquesand management practices will result in more thanadequate phalaris density.

SOWING TIME

The best time to sow phalaris varies from district todistrict and sometimes year to year.

However, in most districts in most years,phalaris is best sown in autumn to early winter(April-June). In some high altitudes in high rainfallTablelands districts, spring sowings (August-September) give more reliable establishment.Contact your nearest NSW Agriculture District/Extension Agronomist for specific advice.

Phalaris germination and seedling growth isgreatest when average daily temperatures arel5–200C.

Late sowing of phalaris when average dailytemperatures are less than 10°C significantlyretards germination and seedling development.

Germination of phalaris seed can extend overseveral weeks. This staggered germination patterncan often be associated with seed maturity atharvest and inherent seed dormancy factors.

SOWING MIXTURES OF PHALARISVARIETlES

If strong weed control is needed or where pastureswill be heavily stocked for long periods,particularly in spring, sow equal amounts ofAustralian or Uneta with Sirosa or Sirolan toenhance the long term density of the pasture.

Australian and Uneta phalaris have a moreprostrate growth habit than other varieties whichgives better weed control. They are also less likelyto be damaged by hard grazing than the moreupright Sirosa and Sirolan.

Compared to Australian, Sirosa and Sirolan havea number of superior agronomic features whichmake them preferred varieties. Refer to Table Iwhen considering variety selection. Consider allaspects of each variety before selecting the variety.

PHALARIS SEED

There are about 600,000 phalaris seeds/kg,although seed numbers can vary between 500,000to 700,000 seeds/kg.

Commercial certified phalaris seed must have agermination greater than 60 per cent. However,

most samples have 70–80 per cent. Lowgermination seed has either been harvested in animmature condition or is several years old.

Seed colour is a reliable guide to seed qualityand germination ability.

Ripe, high germination seed is buff brown tobrown in colour. Deep olive coloured seed alsoindicates ripe seed but there is a higher percentageof dormant seed in this colour group. However,germination of dormant seed generally improveswith storage (called ‘after ripening’).

Immature seeds are straw and light green incolour. These seeds were not ripe when harvestedand hence have not developed to the viable seedstage. These seeds are light weight, small and havea low germination. They will not ‘after ripen’.

‘Streaky’ or ‘flecked’ seeds will not germinate.The streaking is possibly the result of seedsweating due to high moisture and inadequateventilation of newly harvested seed.

The colour of the seed hulls is related to thecolour and size of the seed. Ripe, mature seed fillsthe hulls and are dark brown; the greener the hulls,the lighter the colour and the thinner and smallerthe seeds. Their germination percentage and vigourare also lower.

Mechanical damage to the seed is obvious andcan be seen by eye in the sample. The germinationof damaged seed is also significantly reduced asthe seed embryo is often split, bruised or damaged.

Good seed is comparatively long-lived whenstored under good conditions.

Air temperature of the storage area is important.If air temperatures are high then the humidity inthe storage area must be kept low or the percentageof viable seed will fall. If temperatures are low,humidity is not important. Protect seed fromdampness and insect attack.

Do not store newly harvested seed with a highmoisture content in airtight, sealed containers orplastic bags as this encourages fungal growth onthe seed and causes overheating and reduced seedviability. Under good cool conditions, seed hasremained viable for up to eight years. Germinationtesting is advisable, however, after storage formore than three years. Seed with a highgermination level has a better storage life. Seedgermination and purity tests are available fromsome private analytical laboratories.

PHALARIS ESTABLISHMENT

Phalaris can be successfully established byconventional, direct-drilling or aerial seedingpasture establishment techniques.

ConventionalThis technique involves sowing the pasture into acultivated seed bed. The seedbed should be well-

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prepared, with a level fine surface tilth.Phalaris seed is best sown just under the soil

surface to a depth of 5–10 mm. Do not sow seeddeeper than 20 mm. Many establishment failuresare caused by producers not paying enoughattention to seed placement and seeding depthduring sowing.

P CREGANPhalaris must be sown shallow. The use of a levellingbar and bandseeder have proved very successfulwhen sowing into prepared seedbeds. Rollers areuseful on non-crusting soils to encourage quick,uniform establishment.

Specially designed bandseeders and modifiedsmall seed boxes on combines have greatlyimproved the reliability of pasture establishmenton prepared seedbeds. Bandseeders arerecommended for sowing most pasture species onprepared seedbeds.

When sowing a new pasture, the best method isto band or drill the phosphorus based fertiliser intothe seedbed at sowing. Do not exceed 15 kgnitrogen/ha in the drill row (at 18 cm spacings).Another option is to broadcast the fertiliser beforesowing. Banding or drilling fertiliser with seed ispreferred.

The use of rubber-tyred rollers and precisionpress wheels have significantly improved (2–10fold increase) establishment of phalaris oncultivated seedbeds. Rolling, or using presswheels, is recommended on soils which do notcrust or seal.

If you want reliable and uniform establishmentas well as productive phalaris pastures do notestablish phalaris under a cover crop. Cover cropssuch as oats, wheat and barley compete toostrongly with phalaris seedlings. Shading andcompetition for moisture drastically reduces thedensity, vigour and survival of phalaris seedlings.

It also reduces the density and productivity ofthe phalaris pasture in following years: phalarisproduction the year after establishment can bedramatically affected by a cover crop in theestablishment year. During the following autumn towinter, dry matter production of phalaris sown

under a cover crop is l0–60 per cent of a phalarispasture sown without a cover crop.

It can take three years before a phalaris pasturesown under a cover crop becomes as productive asone established without a cover crop. If a covercrop was used, light grazing and careful grazingmanagement is needed in these years to ensure itsfull development hence grazing production will bereduced in this period.

Sirosa and Sirolan have superior seedling vigourto Australian; however, they are still severelyaffected by cover crops. This was clearlydemonstrated in a trial at Merriwa during 1988when Sirolan phalaris was sown alone at 2 kg/ha,and with wheat at 15 kg/ha and 30 kg/ha.

Plant establishment, plant size, root developmentand dry matter production of the phalaris wereseverely reduced by the cover crops even at 15 kg/ha, despite a very favourable season forestablishment.

Pasture establishment trial at Merriwa in 1988

Treatment Phalaris yield Wheat yieldkg/ha t/ha

Phalaris only @ 2 kg/ha 5,100 –Phalaris + wheat @ 15kg/ha 701 1.9Phalaris + wheat @ 30 kg/ha 200 2.2

(Also see Figure 5.)

Undersowing in more favourable areas such asthe tablelands has been more successful than indrier areas. This has usually been under crops asopposed to forages and where crop sowing rateshave been reduced substantially.

If you sow phalaris under a cover crop, minimisethe impact of the cover crop on the pasture and therisk of pasture failure by,• using barley in preference to wheat—do not use

oats• if using wheat, use short season, early maturing

varieties• use only low cereal sowing rates (maximum of

15 kg/ha)• sow crop on alternate or wide rows• increase pasture sowing rates by 25–50 per cent• only undersow pastures in paddocks with low

weed pressure.In some cool, high altitude, high rainfall

Tablelands districts, phalaris pastures aresuccessfully established under brassica foragecrops (fodder rape) sown at low seeding rates(1kg/ha) during spring. Under this system, grazingmanagement is critical to ensure pastureestablishment. Another major concern whenundersowing pastures is the intended herbicide usewith the cover crop. Many herbicides used incereals kill or damage the undersown pastures.Before undersowing a pasture, consider the

12

potential weed problems and herbicides likely to beused. An undersown pasture severely restricts theherbicide options available.

W. McDONALDDirect drilling of phalaris is a successfulestablishment technique. The paddock must besprayed with herbicide before sowing to completelycontrol all competition.

The application of herbicide is essential beforeestablishing phalaris based pastures by either directdrill or aerial seeding.

R. WATSON

Figure 5. Do not sow cover crops when establishingphalaris in most districts.

Carefully plan your pasture program. You areplanting a phalaris pasture for long-term grazing(10 years plus). Don’t jeopardise its potential bytaking short cuts. Do it once and do it right. Forfurther information, read Agfact P2.2.3, Pastureestablishment.

Direct drillingThousands of hectares of phalaris based pasturehave been successfully established using thistechnique.

Direct drilling needs particular attention todetail; it also requires additional managementprocedures compared to the conventional seedbedtechnique.

The system depends heavily on controllingcompetition to the seedling using grazing,herbicides, timing of operations, correct selectionand setting of direct drilling machinery, and postsowing management. For more information readNSW Agriculture’s Prime Pastures EstablishmentGuide.

Aerial seedingPhalaris based pastures have been successfullyestablished using aerial techniques in manydistricts of New South Wales, since 1962.

Aerial seeding has continued to increase sinceSirosa and Sirolan were released (in 1978) as theyhave better seedling vigour.

Herbicide is sprayed to control competition fromweeds and existing pasture, followed by sowing ofpasture seed and fertiliser. These operations arecarried out by aircraft such as agricultural planes orhelicopters. The technique is often referred to asthe ‘aerial-spray-sow’ technique.

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W. McDONALDThistles and barley grass can be replaced by phalarisand clover to form a highly productive droughttolerant, stable pasture.

13

W. McDONALDA pasture of phalaris and companion legumesestablished in rocky terrain. Direct drilling andaerial seeding have a role in sowing such areas.

To ensure the success of pasture establishmentby this technique, it is important to consider:• management of the paddock before and after

sowing• timing of herbicide and seeding• accuracy of aerial operations.

Producers should be aware of the requirementsof the Native Vegetation Conservation Act (1997)before replacing or modifying native vegetation.Consult the Department of Land & WaterConservation for details.

For further information, read Agfact P7.6.1, StJohns Wort control, Agfact P7.6.30, Serratedtussock control, Agfact P7.6.38, Poa tussockcontrol.

FERTILISER REQUIREMENTS

A productive phalaris pasture has very highrequirements for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),potassium (K) and sulphur (S).

A typical dryland phalaris pasture producing6,000 kg of DM/ha per year requires:

210 kg/ha of nitrogen18 kg/ha of phosphorus150 kg/ha of potassium18 kg/ha of sulphurplus a balance of minor nutrients such asmolybdenum, zinc and copper.The total nutrient requirements of grazed

phalaris pasture are significantly lower than this asmuch of the nutrients in the pasture material arecontinually recycled back onto the pasture bylivestock; however, these figures highlight the highnutrient requirement of a phalaris pasture.

Cocksfoot and fescue tolerate low soil fertilitybetter than phalaris or ryegrass. Phalaris andryegrass respond to increased soil fertility morethan cocksfoot or fescue.

The fertiliser requirements of a phalaris pasturecan vary widely from paddock to paddock,property to property and district to district. Consultyour nearest NSW Agriculture District orExtension Agronomist for specific fertiliserrecommendations.

You can use soil tests, leaf analysis and fertilisertest strips to determine likely fertiliserrequirements. Use laboratory analysis of phalarisleaf samples to identify nutritional disorders andassist in determining the pasture’s fertiliserrequirements.

When collecting leaf tissue samples of phalaris,pluck only the youngest fully expanded leaves on alarge number of plants from the area you wish tohave analysed. Do not contaminate samples withfertiliser or soil.

Contact your local NSW Agriculture District orExtension Agronomist for further details on theprocedure for collecting plant tissue samples.

As a guide, the following nutrient levels shouldbe present in phalaris leaf tissue samples:

Growth stage at samplingVegetative Floweringnutrient % nutrient %

Nitrogen (N) 4.0–5.0 2.0–3.5Phosphorus (P) 0.35–0.40 0.25–0.40Potassium (K) 2.0–2.5 1.5–3.5Sulphur (S) 0.3–0.35 0.2–0.4Calcium (Ca) 0.25–0.3 0.25–0.5Magnesium (Mg) 0.16–0.20 0.20–0.35Copper (Cu) 6–7 ppm 4–10 ppmZinc (Zn) 14–20 ppm 15–50ppmManganese (Mn) 60–250 ppmBoron (B) 5–15 ppmMolybdenum (Mo) 0.3–0.4 ppmCobalt 0.3–0.7 ppm

A phalaris pasture growing in fertile conditionswill produce more dry matter and have higher feedquality (protein, metabolisable energy) and mineralcontent than one growing on low fertility soils.

The quality of feed will significantly impact onyour livestock’s performance. In general, a regulartopdressing program with single superphosphate orequivalent on low to medium phosphorus countryor sulphur fortified superphosphate or equivalenton high phosphate, sulphur deficient country mustbe carried out to ensure that vigorous phalaris andlegume components of the pasture are maintained.

The legumes in the pasture help meet the highnitrogen requirements of the phalaris promotingvigour and productivity. Unless a strong legumecomponent is maintained, the phalaris will run-down in production and quality due to nitrogendeficiency.

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PhosphorusLike all pastures, phalaris requires adequate levelsof available soil phosphorus. Phosphorus is a keyelement that can be maintained by applyingphosphorus based fertilisers such as singlesuperphosphate.

Phalaris is best sown in areas naturally high insoil phosphate (basalts) or in areas having a goodhistory of superphosphate application. If sowingphalaris on areas with low to moderate soilphosphorus, apply high rates of phosphorus andsulphur (250 kg/ha single superphosphate orequivalent) in the initial years to build up soilphosphate levels and encourage legume growth.Applications at lower rates (125 kg/ha) ofsuperphosphate annually or every second year willmaintain soil phosphorus levels thereafter. Applymolybdenum (Mo) treated fertiliser as required.

Where phalaris pastures are established byconventional or direct drilling techniques on low-medium phosphate areas that have low nitrogen,sow the pasture with a compound fertilisercontaining nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphurinstead of superphosphate which only providesphosphorus and sulphur.

These starter type fertilisers provide similarquantities of phosphorus and sulphur to singlesuperphosphate as well as additional nitrogen for asimilar cost per hectare. (15:13:0 (N:P:K) at 75 kg/ha provides equivalent amounts of phosphorus assingle superphosphate at 100 kg/ha.) Do notexceed 15 kg/ha of nitrogen in the drilled row. Theadded nitrogen in the starter fertilisers promotesearly growth of phalaris until legumes begin toeffectively nodulate and maintain the nitrogenrequirements of the pasture.

If direct drilling a pasture, select the fertiliserwith the higher sulphur content. For example, usee.g. 15:13:0 (N:P:K) (10 per cent sulphur) inpreference to MAP or DAP (3 percent sulphur).

As direct drilling causes minimal soildisturbance and breakdown of organic matter,which stimulate the release of sulphur in the soil,temporary sulphur deficiencies can occur.Therefore apply a fertiliser with a high sulphurcontent when direct drilling than when sowing on afully prepared seedbed.

SulphurPhalaris is one of the few grass species that ishighly sensitive to sulphur deficiency. Therefore,on deficient soils, apply fertilisers containingsulphur (single superphosphate) to ensure adequatesulphur is available.

A phalaris based pasture needs 6–10 kg ofS/ha/year. This normally is adequately met withannual topdressing programs of, for example,125–250 kg/ha of single superphosphate on low to

medium phosphate soil. On a high phosphate soilwith an expected sulphur deficiency, apply sulphurfortified superphosphate at 70–100 kg/ha every2–4 years.

A sulphur deficient phalaris pasture has a similarunthrifty appearance to a nitrogen deficient one,but a sulphur deficiency generally causesyellowing of the young, newly emerging leaves;nitrogen deficiency causes yellowing of the olderleaves (the new leaves on the plant remain ahealthier green colour).

It is possible for both nitrogen and sulphurdeficiencies to occur in the same paddock,particularly in old established pastures with alimited fertiliser history and legume component.

NitrogenPhalaris has a very high requirement for nitrogen. Tomeet its high nitrogen need, a phalaris pasture mustcontain a strong legume component or receiveseasonal applications of nitrogen fertiliser. If thepasture does not contain a strong legume component,phalaris will display severe to mild nitrogendeficiencies very quickly. This seriously limits itsproduction as well as its overall feed quality.

R. WATSONPhalaris is very responsive to high rates of nitrogen.High rates of nitrogen are needed to rectify severenitrogen deficiencies.

Regular applications of nitrogen fertiliser todryland pasture is not widely practised orrecommended as their application enhances thephalaris growth to the detriment of the all-important legume component, reducing legumedensity. The cost effectiveness of applying highrates of nitrogen to extensive areas of drylandpastures can be questionable.

However, strategic applications of moderaterates of nitrogen (75 kg N/ha or 100–150 kgurea/ha), in autumn and again in early spring toselected or special purpose fattening paddocks, canbe profitable.

From a series of dryland fertiliser trials in theUpper Hunter, between 1986 and 1990, on nitrogendeficient phalaris pastures, profitable responses

15

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were achieved with very high rates of nitrogenfertiliser. These trials showed a direct relationshipsuch that for every 1 kg N/ha (2 kg urea/ha) thephalaris pasture generally produced an extra 20–50kg dry matter/ha throughout the season.

These trials also demonstrated that splitapplications are better than single applications. Forexample, 50 kg N/ha in autumn plus 50 kg N/ha inearly spring produced more feed during the yearthan one application of 100 kg N/ha in the autumnonly.

Under favourable rainfall conditions, orsupplementary irrigation, or more severe nitrogendeficiency, increased rates (75–100 kg N/ha or150–200 kg urea/ha) in both autumn, winter andspring can be cost effective, assuming efficientutilisation of additional feed grown.

Figure 6. Phalaris has a high nitrogen requirement.

If phalaris based pastures are grown under fullirrigation, additional nitrogen fertiliser applicationsare easily justified. Split applications of (75–100kg N/ha or 150–200 kg urea/ha) in autumn, winterand spring are recommended.

When deciding whether to apply fertilisernitrogen to an established dryland phalaris pasture,there are a number of factors to consider includingwhether the extra pasture growth will be fullyutilised. Other factors include:• subsoil moisture level at the time of the

proposed application• probability of follow-up rainfall and seasonal

outlook• the severity of nitrogen deficiency• the density of phalaris.

A pasture containing a good legume component(30–40 percent of pasture) such as white clover,sub clover, lucerne or medic is capable of meetingthe high nitrogen requirements of a phalarispasture (see grazing management section).

PotassiumMost soils in New South Wales have adequatelevels of available potassium for phalaris pastures.However, some soils in the northern Tablelandsand many soils in the Coastal and Sydney regionare low in potassium.

Grasses such as phalaris are far more tolerant ofpotassium deficiency than legumes which have ahigh requirement for potassium. Soil and planttissue testing can help to identify potassiumdeficient areas.

If additional potassium is required, apply muriateof potash fertiliser at 250 kg/ha/year. Splitapplications in early autumn and early spring areoften desirable. Ensure additional feed produced isefficiently utilised.

Acid soilsPhalaris is moderately sensitive to soil acidity (lowpH (CaCl

2), less than 4.5 with high levels of

exchangeable aluminium). All phalaris varieties aresensitive to low levels of aluminium but are verytolerant to high soil manganese levels. The cultivarLandmaster, and Holdfast to a lesser degree, havesome tolerance to these acid soil conditions.

To establish and maintain phalaris on acid soils,the application and incorporation of lime at 2.5 t/haor the use of lime:superphosphate at 500 kg/hadrilled with seed is often needed to reduce oreliminate acid soil problems.

Accurate diagnosis and a soil analysis must beobtained to determine the need for lime. Requesttests for soil pH, available phosphorus (Bray),cation exchange capacity (CEC), calcium (Ca),magnesium (Mg) potassium (K), sodium (Na) andaluminium (Al) to assist in the diagnosis of an acidsoil problem.

In areas with acid soils, select or include moreacid soil tolerant pasture species such as cocksfoot,ryegrass or fescue in preference to phalaris.

Sow selected acid soil tolerant legumes, such aswhite and sub clover, particularly in non-arablepaddocks (aerial seeding and direct drilling) wherelime cannot be applied and incorporated. (For moreinformation on treatment of acid soils, see AgfactP1.4.1, Liming problem acid soils.

MANAGEMENT AFTER SOWING

The first 6–8 weeks is a critical period for theestablishing pastures as it is very susceptible toinsect attack, weed competition and grazing.Regular and close observations of the pasture (3times a week) are required during this period.

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W. McDONALDGet down on your hands and knees and makeregular and close observations (two to three times aweek during the early establishment phase of thepasture) for insect damage, weed problems andpasture growth.

Excellent establishment and early growth of aphalaris pasture.

WATSON

You must make these regular inspectionswhether it be a conventionally sown, direct-drilledor aerially sown phalaris pasture. This ensures thatyou can make appropriate decisions or seek adviceto ensure the successful establishment of thepasture.

After germination and emergence of the pasture,check (on your hands and knees) for insectdamage, density of sown pasture species and weedcompetition.

Insects, mites and slugsPhalaris pastures are sometimes seriously damagedby blue oat mite, redlegged earth mite, aphids,seedharvesting ants, field crickets, white curl grubs(scarab grubs) and slugs and snails during theestablishment stage. Established phalaris pasturesare usually more resistant to insect attack, andrarely require the application of insecticides toprotect them.

Only a few insects damage seedling phalaris.However, the few that do cause serious damagerequire close observation to determine theiractivity and damage levels and hence the need fortreatment.

Blue oat mite (BOM) and redlegged earthmite (RLEM) are major insect pests of seedlingphalaris. Both species cause serious damage topasture seedlings soon after germination. Damagewill be observed more on sown pasture legumesthan on sown grasses, but serious damage can stilloccur on the seedling grasses.

BOM and RLEM feed by a rasping and suckingaction on the leaves of the seedlings and youngplants. Feeding is normally from late afternoonuntil early morning, but continues during thedaytime in calm overcast weather. In sunnyweather, look for mites under small clods and litter.

Grass leaves damaged by BOM and RLEMinitially have greyish or silvery streaks similar tofrost injury and later the tips turn brown and die. Iffeeding continues the leaves die back from the tipsand turn brown. Very severely damaged plants dieand severely damaged plants remain stunted andweak.

BOM and RLEM damaged legume plants havemottled and then whitened cotyledons and leaves.Sometimes the cotyledons are completelywhitened, but the true leaves are either leftuntouched or only slightly damaged. Severecotyledon damage can reduce nodulation, survivaland growth of the plants. Check the paddock,fencelines and adjoining areas prior to sowing formites. They can be controlled, if necessary.

More than one post sowing barrier or foliarspray may be needed to protect an establishingpasture if mite activity is severe.

Recent research has identified the existence ofthree species of BOM. The tolerance toinsecticides may vary between these species.

Ensure insecticides are registered and followlabel instructions, especially those concerningwithholding periods and danger of drift to nontarget areas.

Aphids are often observed feeding on seedlingphalaris plants but their presence and damagerarely warrants treatment as plants generallycontinue to grow. Aphids tend to be moredamaging to the legumes in the pasture. Onoccasions very heavy populations of aphids havebeen observed on both seedling phalaris and sownlegumes. They may occasionally warrant treatmentbut generally insecticide treatment is not justifiedover extensive dryland pastures.

Seed harvesting ants and field crickets.Considerable quantities of seed sown onto thesurface of uncultivated ground may be removed byeither seedharvesting ants or field crickets. Seed

17

harvesting ants can often be observed collectingsurface sown seed. Seed treatment with aregistered insecticide before aerial sowingeffectively controls their activity. All seed to beaerially sown must only be treated with aninsecticide registered for that purpose. Treatmentof direct drilled seed may also be necessary ifgermination is likely to be delayed by dry weather,or if the seed is partially exposed.

M CAMPBELLSeed harvesting ants can collect all surface-sownseed in less than 24 hours. Treat all seed withinsecticide before aerially sowing pasture seed.

Damage by crickets can be particularly severe inautumns after dry summers, especially on soilswhich crack deeply in summer or on stony ground.Check these areas during December to Februaryfor signs of cricket build-up and, if necessary,control them by baiting or spraying with aregistered insecticide.

Slugs and snails. Under wet autumn-winterconditions or where there is heavy pasture litter atsowing snails and slugs can be serious pests. Theyhave caused problems in some direct-drilled andaerial sown pastures, due to retention of litterwhich harbours these pests.

They are rarely a problem in conventionallysown pastures except around the edges ofpaddocks as seedbed preparation tends toeffectively destroy them and the trash they harbourunder.

Placing wet hessian bags or pieces of masonitesheeting around the paddock 3–4 weeks beforesowing will give you a good indication of theirpresence and populations. A decision on thepotential need for treatment can be made after suchassessment. Inquire through your District orExtension agronomist or adviser for the latestcontrol measures.

The success of proprietary baits relies onphysical contact or ingestion. They should only beused during periods of high surface activity byslugs and snails. Sometimes, spot baiting aroundtrees with grass borders in paddocks may be allthat is needed.

White curl grubs (scarab grubs). These larvaecut off roots and feed on underground stems ofyoung plants, which wither and die or becomestunted. Infestations are scattered within paddocksand damage may be only light thinning or thedevelopment of large bare patches. Pastures directdrilled, or sown into cultivated seedbeds on landthat has been under pasture or grass weeds forseveral years may be seriously damaged.

For advice on the latest insecticide information,contact your local NSW Agriculture DistrictAgronomist or adviser.

Pasture establishmentIf pasture establishment appears too disappointing,assess the population of sown pasture species todetermine if reseeding is needed before theoptimum sowing time passes.

As a guide, the achievement of the followingindicate excellent establishment• 10–30 phalaris seedlings/m2 on conventional

seedbed and direct drilled sowings; OR• 20–40 pasture legumes/m2 would be an excellent

establishment.Lower populations of phalaris can still make an

excellent pasture if carefully managed. Be carefulnot to ‘write-off’ a paddock as a failure too early.Seek advice before deciding to resow an area.

Weed competitionHeavy weed competition is often the major factorcausing failure of many newly sown pastures.Early assessment and treatment is essential toensure effective weed control and to avoid weedcompetition. To decide if you will need strategicgrazing or a herbicide application or both, assessthe density and species of weeds.

CONTROL ANNUAL GRASSES

Many phalaris sowings fail as they cannot competewith dense infestations of annual grasses such asryegrass, barley grass, vulpia, annual phalaris andsoft brome during establishment. As phalaris doesnot thicken readily from seed drop, the initialestablishment density is critical.

To avoid these failures, significantly reduce theannual grass density in the years leading up topasture sowing. At present these grasses can not beselectively controlled in seedling pasturescontaining phalaris.

The seed set of annual grasses can be effectivelyreduced in pasture paddocks by fallowing in spring(‘spring fallow sprayout’), spray topping or pasturetopping during the spring prior to pasture sowing.They can also be controlled by a herbicide programassociated with cropping activities or commencingpaddock preparation with a spring fallow usingherbicides or cultivation prior to seed set. Paddock

18

preparation using spring fallow sprayout or pasturetopping has proved a popular, effective andimportant part of many pasture improvementprograms. Contact you local NSW AgricultureDistrict Agronomist or adviser for further advice.

During spring (October 1985), a paddockheavily infested with annual ryegrass was spraytopped to prevent its seed set. An untreated areawas allowed to complete seeding. The spraytopped area was prepared for pasture sowing thefollowing autumn. A pasture containing phalaris,lucerne and clover was sown over the whole areain May 1986. The benefits of spray topping andalso the detrimental effects of annual grasscompetition on the establishment and productivityof the phalaris pasture were very evident from soonafter sowing to well after the pasture becameestablished.

Consider spray topping or pasture topping on allpaddocks with annual grass problems, irrespectiveof whether they are to be sown by conventional,direct drilling or aerial seeding techniques.

During spring in the establishment year, seedlingphalaris pastures heavily infested with annualgrasses have also been successfully spray topped toreduce the competition from annual grasses thefollowing year. This allows the sown pasture toimprove in density and vigour. Seek advice onherbicide selection before treatment.

The re-invasion of annual grasses into anestablished phalaris pasture should also bepreventable by proper grazing management (see‘Grazing management’) and a sound fertiliserprogram. Follow-up spray topping or pasturetopping can also help to reduce annual grassproblems.

Arable areas. A cereal crop program usingwheat, oats or barley for at least two years prior tosowing a permanent pasture is a good way ofreducing barley grass and vulpia, and annualryegrass.

Strict attention to weed control in the cereal cropis important in this strategy.

In cropping paddocks, broadleaf weeds andgrasses can be effectively controlled by cultivation,strategic use of knockdown fallow sprays, the useof pre-emergent and post-emergent herbicides anda carefully planned crop rotation program. Whenusing herbicides during the cropping phase in theyear before pasture sowing, check the label for theresidual life of the herbicide and the recommendedplant back period for pasture species.

Figure 9. Spray topping improves phalaris pasturecomposition. These results were taken 18 monthsafter spray topping.

Figure 7. Spray topping in spring reduces annualgrass problems during establishment.

Figure 8. Spray topping improves phalarisestablishment. These results were taken 7 monthsafter sowing.

Herbicides used regularly in cropping programswhich may cause concern where pastures are sownthe following year include the sulfonylurea group

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The area on the left of the photo was spraytopped the previous spring. The area on the right was untreated.Note the heavy ryegrass infestation and poor phalaris growth in the untreated area.

R WATSON

(e.g. Glean®, Ally®, Logran®, Harmony M®) as wellas atrazine, Tordon® herbicides, Lontrel®, andtrifluralin. A number of these herbicides restrict thesowing of pasture species for 6–18 monthsfollowing their application.

As new herbicides with some soil residualactivity are being developed, you should consultthe label or the chemical manufacturer for adviceon recommended plant back periods for pastureprior to their use.

Non-arable areas. In non-arable areas wherephalaris is to be established by direct drill or aerialseeding methods, the density of annual grass andbroadleaf weeds also must be reduced by a plannedweed control program in the one, two or threeyears before sowing to pasture.

A high degree of weed control in some non-arable situations is more difficult to achieve butevery effort should be made to reduce majorannual weed infestations in these areas. Majorbroadleaf weeds such as thistles, Paterson’s curse,capeweed and turnip weed can be controlled by anumber of means.

The use of ‘crash’ or strategic mob grazing ofhill country paddocks with sheep can be effective.Some temporary electric subdivisional fencing maybe required to achieve the desired effect on theweeds.

Running goats in paddocks for 2–3 years beforepasture sowing can also greatly reduce majorthistle and woody weed problems.

The application of selective herbicides, or wherethe spray graze technique can be used properly canbe very cost effective. Follow label instructionsand ensure herbicides are registered for yoursituation. If native vegetation is involved checkwith the Department of Land and WaterConservation to ascertain if there are anyimplications from the Native VegetationConservation Act.

Wherever possible spray topping to preventannual grasses setting seed in the spring prior tosowing should be carried out. Unfortunately inmost non-arable hill country it is difficult toachieve the uniform grazing pressure needed topromote uniform seed head emergence on annualgrasses—this is needed to enable the herbicide tobe effective. Therefore spray topping is generallynot attempted in hill country due to the likelihoodof poor results.

It is much better to control grass and broadleafweeds before sowing a pasture as there are morecontrol options and herbicide treatments availablein this period and only a few after the pasture issown.

This is critically important with annual grassesas there are no herbicides currently available toselectively control them in seedling phalarispastures while there are a number of optionsavailable to control broadleaf weeds in seedlingpastures.

20

Figure 10. Early weed control is essential.

Use a well maintained and accurately calibratedboom spray tested with a reliable marking spray.

R WATSON

Unfortunately, pasture legumes such as lucerne,medic and subterranean clover which need to besown with phalaris, are often more sensitive toherbicides. Therefore herbicide selection is largelygoverned by the herbicide tolerance of the sownlegume and the resident weed problem.

Seek advice about selection and timing ofherbicide for use on pastures.

Selection can depend on weed type, stage,density, pasture species present, climatic conditionsand soil type.

For further information on herbicide tolerance ofpasture species and herbicide recommendations,obtain a copy of the NSW Agriculture handbook,Weed control in lucerne and pastures which isupdated biennially. It is available from your localNSW Agriculture District or ExtensionAgronomist.

GRAZING MANAGEMENT

Grazing management needs to be considered alongwith a sound fertiliser, weed and pest controlprogram to achieve good production andpersistence

When planning grazing management strategiesfor your paddocks and farm as a whole, paddocksize and stocking rate need to be considered, aswell as any implications that phalaris poisoningmay have ( See Phalaris poisoning).

Establishment phaseManagement should encourage the development ofan adequate number of large robust seedlings bylate spring. Large plants have deeper root systems,stronger tillers, and develop larger crownsenhancing the prospects for survival throughsummer and regeneration next autumn.

In most situations, avoid grazing until afterflowering and seed set are complete. This allowsyoung plants to fully develop and enter a strongperiod of dormancy over their first summerensuring they survive until the following autumn.

Where sowing is early into fertile soils and goodsoil moisture is likely through spring and summer(e.g. under irrigation and high rainfall tablelandconditions), light to moderate grazing pressurewhen pastures are about 20–25 cm tall can enhancetillering and plant development (graze to about10–15 cm high). If annual weeds are a problem, aquick grazing once plants are well anchored, mayreduce the potential damage of weeds.

Where possible, keep sheep off newly sownpastures for the first 6–12 months. Cattle arepreferred if early grazing is appropriate. Ensurethat plants are well anchored before grazing.

If late spring and summer soil moisture isunreliable, grazing should be limited to allowsufficient time for plants to flower and set seed.

Weed control after sowingEarly weed control is essential. Newly sownpastures are best sprayed when seedling phalarishas 3–5 leaves (7–10 cm high), sown legumes have2–8 trifoliate leaves and broadleaf weeds are small(2–6 true leaves or 10–20 cm in diameter forrosette forming broadleaf weeds such as thistle,turnip weed, capeweed and Paterson’s curse).These growth stages will mostly occur at a similartime. It is important that the weeds are treated atthe correct stages.

Although a limited number of herbicides areavailable for selective weed control in seedlingphalaris-legume pastures, the majority of broadleafweed problems can be controlled with theseproducts.

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Avoid cutting young pastures for hay or silage.

Established pastureOnce the phalaris pasture is well established (theyear following sowing), grazing managementshould aim to enhance persistence and productionas well as maintain the legume content of thepasture (see sections on ‘Grazing management andpersistence’ and ‘Maintaining clover content’).

Generally, the grazing management of anestablished phalaris pasture would follow thefollowing program.

AutumnBefore the autumn break, reduce litter to

encourage clover germination. Following thebreak, defer grazing for about six weeks, to buildup feed availability to around 1500 kg/ha green drymatter or better. Apply moderate pressure untilclover is established.

WinterRotational grazing (maintaining green dry matter

above 800–1000 kg/ha) has been satisfactoryespecially in southern districts. If paddocks are setstocked, maintain green dry matter above1000–1200 kg/ha. Where phalaris is vigorous anddominating in autumn, reducing the residual totaldry matter to around 1000–1500 kg/ha will allowsub clover to grow satisfactorily.

SpringGraze livestock to keep pasture at less than 3000

kg/ha dry matter. This will encourage white cloverin high rainfall areas and sub clover to set seedelsewhere. Where annual grasses are a problem,use short periods of grazing to keep feed between1500–3000 kg/ha of green dry matter.

In less favourable phalaris growing areas (e.g.western slopes) rest paddocks between stemelongation and the flowering/seed set stage. Thisprevents regeneration buds from shooting andpromotes dormancy in buds. Delay any hay/silagecutting until after seed head emergence. Recoveryfrom earlier cutting can be successful, wheregrowing conditions following cutting arefavourable for the grass to send up seed heads.

SummerAfter seeding, the bulk of dry feed needs to be

gradually reduced, but sufficient cover needs to beleft to protect against erosion. In ‘summer dry’environments, some carry-over stubble isconsidered useful. In elevated areas (tablelands)that receive reasonable summer rain, keep pasturesshort and leafy through summer.

In hotter areas, with more erratic summer rainfall(e.g. Northern Slopes), more carry over feed withflowering stems (e.g. 1500 kg/ha) preventsregeneration buds from shooting prematurely. Lack

of follow-up rain and hot weather can deplete rootenergy reserves and kill some small shoots wherenew growth occurs. This bulk then needs reducingat the end of summer (e.g. to about 1500 kg/ha) toallow legumes to develop. Where erosion is not aproblem, this bulk can be reduced further, toenhance clover establishment. Some bare ground(e.g. 10–15%) should be adequate to allowlegumes to establish. Phalaris leaf litter canadversely affect the establishment of sub clover.

Degraded phalaris pastures: Phalaris does notthicken readily from its own seed because ofcompetition, seed theft by ants etc. Graze and reststrategically to encourage pastures to recover andincrease phalaris vigour, plant size and enhance thechances of seedling recruitment. Defer grazinguntil after the autumn break for about six weeks.This allows around 1500 kg/ha of dry matter toaccumulate. Then use long rests (8 weeks) andshort grazing periods (1–2 weeks) through theremainder of autumn and winter.

If annual grasses are a major problem, use highstocking rates in rotation. Consider herbicides to‘winter clean’ or ‘spray top’ to reduce dominanceof annual grass and use selective herbicides tocontrol broad leafed weeds. Reduce stockingpressure in spring to allow seed set of both phalarisand sub clover. They should not be heavily grazedduring summer.

DroughtRecent research has indicated that the survival ofperennial grasses is greatly enhanced if paddocksare not hard grazed, even in moderately dryconditions. A residual amount of total dry matter ofaround 1000 kg/ha is a worthwhile target.

A well managed established phalaris pasture iscapable of providing high quality feed for largenumbers of stock for extended periods.

R WATSON

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Phalaris regrows from buds which are set at the baseof old tillers. Seen below is the new tiller emergingfrom the crown bud. Dormant buds can also be seenat the base of the old tiller.

R WATSON

W McDONALDLax grazing allows phalaris to dominate the pasture,excluding the legumes. It also allows the phalaris tobecome tall and rank. At this stage its quality hasdeclined markedly.

Graze phalaris down late in summer to reduceresidue. This helps promote regrowth following theautumn break as well as improve cloverregeneration.

R WATSON

W MCDONALDMaintain grazing pressure during the late autumn toearly spring period. Do not overgraze pastures in thespring.

Grazing management and persistenceAs a general rule subdivide large paddocks toenable phalaris to be managed correctly.

Spring grazing management is important for thepersistence and regeneration of phalaris, especiallyin those cultivars that are more erect, andespecially if regrowth is stopped by dry conditionsbefore new buds are developed.

Hard, repeated or continual grazing of phalarisswards in spring can reduce plant vigour, regrowthand density the following autumn.

The more stressful the environment (shallowsoils, acid soils, low soil fertility, northern orwestern aspects, cracking soils, low rainfall), themore critical grazing management (particularlyduring the spring) becomes for phalaris. In morefavourable environments or seasons (high rainfall,irrigation, high soil fertility, deep soils), phalaris isbetter able to cope with and recover from periodsof hard grazing.

During spring (September-November), survivalover the summer and regrowth the followingautumn is determined. As phalaris stems grow anddevelop seed heads, crown buds develop at thebase of the stems.

Crown buds enable the plant to survive summerdrought and produce new growth in autumn. Thenumber of buds set (and their size) depends on thenumber and vigour of flowering stems whichdevelop in the spring.

If the plant grows to the head emergence stage,the lower leaves become unpalatable, and the plantdevelops high numbers of large crown buds whichremain dormant over summer. Heavy repeatedgrazing of phalaris earlier in spring can reduce thenumbers of stems able to develop crown buds aswell as reduce the potential energy reserves it canstore in the crown and roots.

Removal of stems by grazing or cutting in springcan stimulate a percentage of formed crown budsto re-shoot just before going into the summer. The

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plant then continues to use energy reserves for newleaf growth rather than storing them for survivalover the summer or for next autumn’s regrowth. Ifhot dry conditions follow, then it is likely that thesenew shoots will die, leaving fewer buds forautumn.

In marginal rainfall districts, heavy or repeatedspring grazing has caused the rapid decline ofphalaris pastures. You should therefore considerthese points when organising your grazingmanagement strategies for spring, particularly withthe more erect varieties. Varieties with summerdormant buds, (e.g. Atlas PG) persist better thanother varieties in districts that experience onlyoccasional summer rain events.

In autumn and winter, phalaris paddocks areoften overgrazed, especially in colder districts.Winter active varieties of phalaris are often morepalatable than other species in the pasture.Rotational grazing can be used in these areas toreduce this problem.

Give phalaris a spell whenever possible,particularly following extended periods of hardgrazing. The harder the paddocks are grazed, thelonger the rest period needed.

Maintaining legumesMaintaining legumes in phalaris swards is a matterof balancing the needs of the pasture with those ofthe livestock which is not always easily achieved.In a mixed pasture, the grazing requirements oflegumes are often at variance with those ofphalaris. There is a need to balance the need of thephalaris and legumes for grazing and resting topromote balanced composition, persistence andseed production with those of the livestock grazingthe pasture.

The three key pasture legumes sown withphalaris are lucerne, subterranean clover and/orwhite clover.

Lucerne is a deep rooting perennial like phalarisand tends to have a complementary growth rhythmwith phalaris. Although lucerne can compete withphalaris, it makes a compatible and excellentpasture species to include with phalaris in themedium rainfall slopes districts where otherpasture legumes are less persistent and reliable.Lucerne requires frequent spelling and rotationalgrazing—2 to 3 weeks on and 5 weeks off—topromote persistence.

It will compete strongly with phalaris for soilmoisture under dry conditions. In most areas, thedensity of lucerne in a mixed pasture declines after3–4 years.

White clover is a shallow rooted, relativelypersistent species in high rainfall or irrigationareas. It is well adapted to sowing with phalarisunder these conditions. It is also a useful species to

include with lucerne and subterranean clover whenestablishing phalaris pastures in medium and highrainfall areas of the Slopes and Tablelands. Toallow white clover to develop in the pasture, applymoderate grazing pressure so stock only grazeleaves, not stolons or runners. If white clover diesout during drought, it may regenerate from seed(especially Haifa white clover) or more seed mayhave to be sown.

Subterranean clover is well suited to grow withphalaris; both are of Mediterranean origin, both areactive from autumn to spring, and both tolerateheavy grazing.

Graze phalaris hard in the summer to earlyautumn (before autumn rains) to reducecompetition and maximise the establishment ofsubterranean clover seedlings. After a rest to allowthe establishment of clover seedlings, grazingduring winter should produce a pasture with asatisfactory clover content. Allow pasture to growin spring; by easing the grazing pressure, phalarisshould not smother clovers which would reducetheir seed set.

A large residue of dry grass remaining oversummer can reduce the breakdown of subterraneanclover hard seed as well as inhibiting clovergermination, establishment and growth; this willgive a poor clover regeneration in autumn. Smallseeded clovers such as balansa and cluster cloverneed similar conditions for establishment andcombine well with phalaris.

However, such residue can improve the vigourof regrowth from phalaris plants as shading mayreduce water loss from crown buds and soil. Thebest compromise is to allow phalaris to head in latespring and then stock to remove cover and residuegradually over summer.

Phalaris management must take account of theneeds of the grazing enterprise; however, graziersalso need to accept the concept of strategic grazingmanagement to enhance the vigour, persistence andbotanical composition of phalaris pastures.

Climatic variability and stocking rate restrictionswill mean that from time to time phalaris is placedunder severe grazing pressure or is significantlyunder-grazed. You will need to rest the pasturefollowing severe periods of stress to allow it torecover and, if necessary, renovate using mobstocking, ploughing or deep ripping and reseedclovers into under-grazed stands.

As a phalaris pasture is a dynamic system withmany components and interacting variables, it isunreasonable (in the Australian climate) to assumethat a perfect state of grass and clover balance, andhigh yield, can be attained all the time or withoutsignificant input from grazing management.

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Phalaris based pastures are widely used on the major thoroughbred horse studs.R WATSON

PASTURE QUALITY

Phalaris is able to carry high stocking rates as wellas produce high quality pasture for all livestock(beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, horses, goats anddeer).

Phalaris, like all grasses, has its highest qualityduring the tillering-vegetative stage and thendeclines in quality as it approaches flowering andmaturity (see Figure11). The important feature ofthis information is the marked fall in quality as theplant passes from tillering to maturity.

matures, fibre increases, and protein, digestibilityand metabolisable energy decrease giving a lowerfeed value. This can be significant whenconsidering the best stage to graze phalaris.

The lower quality may not be an important issuein a good mixed grass/legume pasture as livestock,particularly sheep, are highly selective in theirgrazing habit, and they will preferentially selectgreen material, and sometimes legumes, in aphalaris pasture at the later growth stages (or ifthere is considerable carryover of the previousseasons growth)

Under these conditions, sheep can still maintaina good intake of high quality, green forage andmaintain satisfactory performance. Cattle are lessable to do this and are more affected by an overalldecline in pasture.

When compared at identical stages of growth,the feed quality (protein, fibre content, digestibilityand metabolisable energy) of phalaris is equivalentto other grasses such as cocksfoot, fescue andryegrass.

There is unlikely to be any difference in thequality of foliage of different varieties when grownunder the same conditions and at the same stage ofgrowth.

Grasses are generally lower in protein anddigestibility and are therefore lower inmetabolisable energy when compared to pasturelegumes. A balance of grass and legumes is neededfor a stable, productive and nutritious pasture.

Figure 11. Feed quality of phalaris. Phalaris is at itsbest when it is leafy and actively growing.

Fresh active leaf growth is of excellentnutritional value to livestock; while tall, rank,mature phalaris is of little feed value. As the plant

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LIVESTOCK PERFORMANCE ONPHALARIS PASTURES

Always remember with all livestock enterprises‘that more than half the breeding goes down thethroat’. Pastures are grown to produce livestock.

A well managed phalaris pasture carries morelivestock per hectare and often also gives moreproduction per animal, resulting in a significantincrease in total production per hectare relative tomost annual and native grass pastures. Research byNSW Agriculture and the CSIRO since the early1960’s demonstrates the favourable performance ofphalaris-based pastures in sheep and cattleproduction compared to other temperate grassesand pastures such as lucerne.

Research confirms there are only minordifferences in animal performance from varioustemperate pasture grasses grazed for a number ofyears under similar conditions.

Tall, rank mature growth like this is low in protein,digestibility and metabolisable energy. Phalaris atthis stage is of low value to stock.

R WATSON

low to moderate production during summer. (Insummer the plant becomes more dormant or low infeed quality, or both, following maturity.) It isimportant to select a pasture that best matches thefeed requirements of the livestock enterprisethroughout the year while maintaining importantattributes such as ease of establishment, persistenceunder grazing, tolerance and resistance to drought,tolerance to mismanagement, and so on.

The phalaris cultivar Australian was evaluated inmost of the livestock research discussed in thispublication. Given the proven superiority of bothSirosa and Sirolan phalaris in winter productionand total production over Australian phalaris,further improvements can be expected with themore erect types.

Sheep performanceConsiderable research has been conductedthroughout New south Wales on the performanceof sheep (Merino versus crossbred, wool versusprime lamb production, and adult sheep versusyoung sheep) on phalaris-based pasture relative toother temperate pastures including lucerne.

Phalaris-based pastures are capable of livestockproduction similar to lucerne and equal or betterthan other temperate grass species.

Phalaris gives the highest weight gains in ewesduring winter and lambs in spring. It also gives thehighest ewe fleece weight (in spring), but thelowest weaner gains during summer.

A comparison of crossbred and Merino breedingewes reproduction, wool production, ewe weight,lamb mortality, weaning percentage and lambgrowth on lucerne or phalaris pastures in theSouthern Tablelands concluded that:• Annual fleece weights of merino and crossbred

ewes grazing phalaris pasture declined less foreach additional ewe carried over a range ofstocking rates of 9–18/ha.

• Annual fleece weights of ewes grazing phalariswere heavier than those grazing lucerne.

• there was a greater need for supplementaryfeeding in late pregnancy to avoid losses frompregnancy toxaemia of ewes grazing lucerne.

• Phalaris pastures were less sensitive to increasesin stocking rates, mismanagement andunfavourable physical and chemical soilconditions (low pH, waterlogging) than lucerne.There was no advantage in growing lucerne forwool production by breeding ewes.

• Ewes grazing phalaris had more multiple birthsthan those on lucerne.The disadvantages were:

• Ewes grazing on lucerne were heavier at joiningand gained more weight in the weeks beforejoining than did ewes on phalaris pastures.

However, there are some significant differencesin the performance of livestock relative to theseasonal growth pattern of the pasture throughoutthe year.

Phalaris is capable of high livestock productionduring autumn, winter and spring, with only very

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Table 2. Pasture species under grazing and sheep performance. (The figures are averages for the 5 years(1962-66).

Australian Perennial Tasmanian Brignoles Currie Demeter Annual SemiPhalaris Ryegrass Ryegrass Cocksfoot Cocksfoot Fescue Soft Dormant

Brome Lucerne

Average fleece weight (kg) 3.62 3.49 3.26 3.35 3.44 3.2 3.31 3.5Ewe weight gain in winter (kg) 3.62 1.36 0.45 -1.8 0.9 1.36 2.29 1.36Ewe weight Nov. (kg) 51 50 47 46 48 46 46 51Lamb growth g/day 208 199 181 181 181 172 158 208Source: A Axelsen and F Morley (1968). Proceedings Animal Production Society of Australia 7:92–98

• Spring lambing Merino and crossbred ewesgrazing dryland lucerne were generally heavierthroughout the year than ewes grazing phalarissubterranean clover mix pastures even thoughthey experienced greater weight loss in winter.These losses were largely overcome by thecompensatory weight gains during spring andsummer.

• Lambs on lucerne were significantly heavierthan those on phalaris pasture at both 6 and 12weeks of age due to the higher quality andgreater availability of lucerne during latesummer-early autumn.

• Crossbred lambs grazing lucerne had a higheraverage daily growth rate of 210 g/head/daycompared to 170 g/head/day for lambs grazingphalaris and subterranean clover pastures during1970–71.Weaning percentages were similar on lucerne

and phalaris pasture.Optimum stock rates for phalaris pastures were

9–13.5 dry sheep equivalent (DSE)/ha.Phalaris based pastures are suitable for breeding

ewes and wool production, while lucerne wassuperior for spring-born prime lamb production.

Other grazing research with pure swards ofSirosa phalaris, Australian phalaris and Demeterfescue at Glen Innes showed there were slightdifferences between liveweights and woolproduction of animals grazing the various pastures.However, there were obvious changes in bodyweight in response to growth patterns of thegrasses. Sheep on phalaris tended to be heavier inwinter and spring and lighter in summer comparedto those on fescue.

Cattle performanceResearch on beef cattle grazing phalaris basedpastures in Australia is limited.

Studies at Trangie in New South Wales during1973–74 evaluated the performances of sevencombinations of irrigated perennial pastures.Sirocco phalaris was sown with Woogenellupsubterranean clover and Jemalong medic. Phalariswas compared to perennial and annual ryegrasspasture. The pastures were stocked from April toNovember at an average 3–4 steers/ha (250–350 kgliveweight) and fattened during this period.

Phalaris pastures maintained moderate cattlegrowth rates throughout the period, with peakproduction in winter.

Average liveweight gains over the period fromthe phalaris and subterranean clover pasturecombination were 0.54 kg/hd/day in April-June;1.26kg/hd/day in June-mid August; 0.89kg/hd/day in September-November. These weightgains are similar to those achieved by cattlegrazing oats over the same period.

Pasture quality of the phalaris was moderate tohigh ranging from 12–18 per cent crude protein inthe dry matter throughout the growing season.

The performance of cattle on dryland pastures ismuch more variable. Cattle liveweight gain islinked with the amounts of green pasture available.

Pastures affect animals through differences inavailability and quality which are themselvesconsequences of pasture type and also the effectsof animals grazing the pasture.

W MCDONALDPhalaris based pastures are widely used on manycattle breeding and fattening properties throughoutNSW.

Differences in the amount of green pasture onoffer are largely a consequence of the season(rainfall and temperature) and stocking rate. Thesefactors may also influence the botanicalcomposition of the pasture which can in turninfluence the quality of the pasture.

At Canberra over four years at stocking rates of1.5 steers/ha, 2.0 steers/ha and 2.5 steers/ha, cattle

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grazing lucerne based pastures had marginallybetter liveweight gains than those grazing phalarispastures.

A phalaris and subterranean clover pastureproduced daily weight gains in autumn (0.53 kg/head/day) and winter (0.25 kg/head/day) as didpure lucerne pasture.

But cattle performed slightly better on thelucerne pastures compared to the phalaris basedpastures in late spring to summer (0.7–1.0kg/head/day, largely due to the greater response oflucerne to late spring and summer rains. The studyalso indicated that the advantages of pure lucernemay be nullified by the costs of bloat, includingboth treatment, deaths and extra management.

Cattle have a limited ability to select the moreattractive components of the pasture, and usuallyare unable to avoid ingesting relatively largeamounts of dead, low quality herbage even whengreener foliage is available. Animal intake could berestricted and weight loss could occur in winter orin summer if mature herbage is carried over from aprevious season.

In the Canberra trial, the botanical compositionof the two pasture types was assessed at thebeginning and end of the trial—the density andground cover of the phalaris remainedunchanged—an indication of its stability while thelucerne declined in density. The maximum grossmargins on each pasture were obtained at 2yearling steers/ha.

Commercial dryland pastures in the UpperHunter which have a mixture of phalaris, lucerneand clover pastures have been reported to carry anaverage stocking rate of 1–2.5 steers/ha (300 kgliveweight or 10–15 DSE/ha) during April-November and produce liveweight gains of0.9–1.2 kg/head/day.

PHALARIS POISONING

Phalaris can sometimes poison sheep, cattle, goatsand horses. The low alkaloid cultivars, such asSirosa and Sirolan, are potentially just as poisonousas older varieties. Research at the OrangeAgricultural Institute identified the different formsof phalaris poisoning, and in the process uncoveredprevious errors in the classification of phalarispoisoning syndromes. The following information isbased on that research.

Phalaris can produce the following potentiallypoisonous substances: indole alkaloids, thiamine orpyridoxine antagonists, and tyramine compounds.The first group cause phalaris staggers, and thesecond probably cause the PE(polioencephalomalacia-like) form of suddendeath. Phalaris, like many grasses, can alsoaccumulate nitrate and cyanide compounds, butthese rarely reach significant levels. The two major

causes of stock losses on phalaris pastures arephalaris staggers and the PE form of sudden death.

Phalaris staggersThis nervous disorder can sometimes occur inlivestock grazing phalaris dominant pasturesgrowing on soils with moderate to low cobaltlevels or high manganese levels. Limestone,sandstone, and granite associated soils pose thegreatest risk, and basalt associated soils the least. Ifinsufficient cobalt is present in the rumen of theanimal then the indole alkaloids in the grass are notbroken down fast enough and can be absorbed intothe animals’ bloodstream. These alkaloids can thenaffect the brain and spinal cord.

With older varieties such as Australian thisprocess can occur fairly quickly and an outbreak ofstaggers may develop after only one to threeweeks. With the lower alkaloid varieties such asSirolan and Sirosa, it may take up to three to fourmonths of grazing before the staggers develops.However, sheep and cattle affected by the loweralkaloid varieties can be much slower to recoverand many may never fully recover. In addition thephenomenon of delayed onset of clinical signs ismuch more common with the lower alkaloidvarieties. These animals appear perfectly normalwhen moved off a phalaris pasture but go on todevelop staggers several weeks or months later.

Sheep affected by phalaris staggers display thefollowing signs: excitability, tremors, twitches,head shakes, head nodding, leg weakness, legstiffness, bounding, hopping, jumping, saw horserocking, kneeling, buckling over, and frequentfalling followed by vigorous struggling to get upagain. Some affected sheep will fully recover overa few weeks, but others will never recover, and apercentage of sheep will die as a result ofmisadventure.

Affected cattle develop slightly different signs tosheep. They become very excitable but don’tdevelop the severe tremors that occur in sheep.They display a mild hind limb weakness and mildincoordination. Many lose weight or fail to gainweight because, unlike sheep, cattle suffer damageto the nerves supplying the face and jaw, whichmakes it difficult for them to chew and swallow.The tongue may protrude slightly much of the timeand the animal may drool saliva.

Phalaris staggers may be prevented byincreasing the amount of cobalt in the rumen whilstthe phalaris is being grazed. This can be done bythe oral administration of cobalt bullets, byaddition of cobalt to pasture topdressing programs,by the provision of cobalt-containing stock lickblocks, or by the incidental daily ingestion by stockof soil with moderate to high cobalt content. Themost reliable form of cobalt administration is useof oral cobalt bullets every one to two years.

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Soil manganese and cobalt levels areinterrelated. High soil manganese results in lowcobalt availability to plants. In addition cobalt andmanganese are only available to plants when theyare in their reduced state. This process is dependenton soil temperature and moisture levels.Consequently in south-eastern Australia pasturecobalt levels will generally be at their highestbetween November and March, and at their lowestbetween June and September. To prevent phalarisstaggers, it is essential on many soil types toprovide supplementary cobalt to livestock duringthis latter period.

Phalaris sudden deathThe PE form of sudden death can cause largesheep losses in a very short period of time. Thepoisons responsible appear to rise rapidly in newphalaris shoots during periods of moisture stress.Concurrent frosting will make this situation worse.In dry years the period of greatest danger is at thestart of the growth season from February to June.Sometimes the risk can re-emerge duringDecember. The short, fresh shoots produced inresponse to light, intermittent rain, are the mostpoisonous. PE sudden death has occurred onAustralian, Sirocco, Sirosa, Sirolan and Holdfastphalaris cultivars.

The period of greatest stress is the first 48 hoursafter livestock are placed on the toxic pasture. Testgrazing the pasture for less than 12 hours at a timewill give no indication of the pasture’s potentialtoxicity. Sheep managed under a restrictive grazingsystem, such as rotational or cell grazing, will be atgreatest risk, as will sheep that have recently beentransported a long distance, or held off feed forextended periods in stock yards or shearing sheds.If sheep are allowed to adapt to the phalaris poisonmore slowly, they are able to successfully detoxifyit.

The cardiac form of sudden death occurs muchless frequently, and affects far fewer sheep, thanthe PE form. The cardiac form occurs in flocks thatmay have been grazing phalaris for several weekswithout a problem. However, the ingestion ofsignificant amounts of the causal poison, placesthese sheep at risk of experiencing a heart attackshould they be inadvertently forced to exercise.This generally happens when the flock is mustered.Affected sheep will suddenly collapse, have anabnormal heart beat, abnormal breathing, and darkdiscolouration of the mucous membranes aroundthe eyes. Some will die rapidly but others willspontaneously recover. Horses can also be affectedby this form of phalaris sudden death.

Note that occasional death in horses has beenassociated with a related species Phalariscoerulescens. This species is known to occur in

NSW. If poisoning is suspected as a result ofhorses grazing pastures containing P. coerulescens,it is essential that an accurate identification of theplant is made.

The many benefits of phalaris far outweigh therisks of poisoning. Considering the large area ofphalaris pastures sown throughout south-easternAustralia, and the many millions of animals thatgraze these pastures each year without ill effects,the incidence of phalaris poisoning is very low.

In summary:• If you see symptoms of phalaris staggers or

phalaris sudden death, move stock immediatelyto alternative feed and consult a veterinarian.

• There are two different, unrelated forms ofphalaris poisoning, sudden death and staggers.

• All ages, breeds and sexes of sheep aresusceptible to phalaris poisoning.

• Sudden death and phalaris staggers of cattleoccur, but they are not common.

• Sudden death occurs more commonly onphalaris pasture regrowth just after the break of adry season, or during drought periods.

• Hungry sheep are the most likely to be poisoned.• Frosts have often preceded major outbreaks of

sudden death.• Phalaris poisoning can occur on old and newly

sown pastures.• All varieties of phalaris can cause phalaris

poisoning.• Sudden death is favoured by rotational grazing

management systems, and by placing recentlytransported sheep on previously spelled phalarispastures.

• Phalaris staggers can be prevented byadministering cobalt bullets when the phalarisgrazing season starts.

DISEASES OF PHALARIS

Several parasitic diseases of phalaris are known inNew South Wales but most of them rarely causesevere damage. The most troublesome are the ergotdiseases and stem rust.

ErgotThere are two ergot fungi known on phalaris inNew South Wales. The are Claviceps purpurea andClaviceps phalaridis.

C. purpurea is a common ergot found widely oncereals and many grasses.

It produces dark purple to black bodies oninfected florets (flowers). Usually only a fewflorets in a head are infected and in phalaris it doesnot usually occur in sufficient quantities to cause aproblem.

In seed crops, the ergot sclerotia are harvestedwith the seed and should be cleaned out.

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Common ergot is a toxic fungus and if floretscontaining ergots are eaten by grazing animals,symptoms of poisoning can develop.

The other ergot, C. phalaridis, occurs in thesouthern half of New South. Unlike C. purpureawhich infects only a few florets, C. phalaridisinfects all florets in a head and infected plantsproduce no seed. The fungus is present in allabove-ground parts of the plant and, once aperennial grass like Phalaris aquatica is infected,it never produces seed again.

Every year, the ergot fungus in the plant convertsall the florets into small, pale-fawn, ergot sclerotia.In seed crops, this results in lowered seed yield andcauses a problem in cleaning out the ergots fromharvested seed. This can be difficult and expensiveas the ergots are similar in size to phalaris seed.

C. phalaridis can also infect several othergrasses including rye grass, cocksfoot and otherintroduced and native species.

Stem rustStem rust (Puccinia graminis) occurs commonlyon phalaris. The occasional heavy infections onstems and leaves cause damage.

Other diseasesThe grass downy mildew fungus (Sclerophthoramacrospora) occasionally causes thickening,twisting and distortion of leaves and shoots inisolated plants.

Various minor leaf spots caused by the fungiBipolaris spp., Stagonospora foliicola andRamularia pusilla have been recorded but arerarely severe.

Lodging of plants due to lower stem damage bythe wheat eye spot fungus Pseudocercosporellaherpotrichoides is seen occasionally in dampsprings in southern districts; root and crown rotsare rarely observed.

The common cereal and grass powdery mildewErysiphe graminis has not been seen on perennialphalaris, Phalaris aquatica, but occurs on otherspecies such as annual phalaris, P. minor.

Barley yellow dwarf virus occasionally causesstunting of plants, with red and yellowdiscolouration of the leaves.

A new disease Stagonospora foliicola hasrecently been identified on phalaris in Victoria,where it is widespread in wet winters. It is a fungusnot previously reported in Australia. The extentand importance of this disease is not known inother parts of Australia. The disease is known tooccur on Phalaris arundinacea (reed canary grass)in North America and Europe but it is only ofminor importance in these areas. Symptomsgenerally appear on older leaves as dark brownelongated spots about 1 mm by 2 mm, and up to 3

mm by 9 mm. The spots are sometimesaccompanied by yellowing of the leaf. Heavyinfestation of leaves in pastures can causeyellowing of the entire leaf resulting in symptomssimilar to those attributed to waterlogging (that is,yellowing and reduced growth of plant). On large(roadside) clumps of phalaris, moderate infectioncauses premature browning off of the leaf tip sothat the plant looks rather ragged.

These are few published accounts of this diseaseor any basic research anywhere in the world. Moreinformation is needed. Plants suspected of beinginfected with this or other diseases should beforwarded to your nearest NSW Agriculture officefor identification and recording.

CERTIFIED SEED

Depending on seasonal conditions, 300–500 tonnesof certified and 50 tonnes of uncertified phalarisseed are grown in Australia each year

About 75 per cent of this seed harvest is used inAustralia and the remainder is exported.

Seed production varies each year, depending onseasonal conditions.

Certified seed production from phalaris is aspecialised enterprise requiring true-to-type stands,special production techniques and equipment, anda sound knowledge of the agronomic requirementsof the crop. Like most seed production, it requiresspecialisation and attention to detail.

Seed certification guarantees the varietal purityof a seed lot by a series of inspections, checks andtests by NSW Agriculture Seed Certificationofficers.

Copies of the certification rules and furtherinformation on seed certification are available fromany NSW Agriculture Seed Certification Officer orDistrict or Extension Agronomist.

The only way a buyer can be assured of thevarietal purity of the purchased seed is byrequesting certified seed. Only seed producedunder the supervision of an officer of NSWAgriculture can be sold as certified seed.

For information on commercial seed productionof phalaris contact your nearest NSW AgricultureSeed Certification Officer.

GROWING YOUR OWN SEED

Under good seasonal conditions, you can harvestseed from phalaris pastures.

There is no restriction on harvesting seed ofpublicly owned varieties for your own use, butthere are requirements to be met under the NSWSeeds Act 1982 if you wish to offer seed for sale.Seed of varieties protected by Plant BreedersRights (PBR) cannot be sold without complyingwith the license and PBR provisions, which are

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Buy only certified seed. Always request to see a recent germination and seed purity report on seed you intendto buy. Commercially harvested seed contains seed of a range of colours. Light to dark brown seed colour canbe a guide to seed maturity and viability.

R WATSON

available from the owner of the variety. Most newcultivars of phalaris are protected by PBR.Landmaster, Atlas PG, Australian II and Holdfastare examples of PBR protected varieties. Farmerscan harvest seed of these varieties for their ownuse, but cannot sell or trade the seed without acontract with the head licencee.

The vendor or owner of the seed must provide ananalysis to comply with the Act. Under the NSWSeeds Act 1982, uncertified seed offered for salemust have:• an identifying code or number to distinguish the

seed lot on the bags and the label fixed to thebag.The label must state the:

• crop species and variety• minimum percentage of pasture seed• maximum percentage of all other seed• minimum germination percentage• names of any chemical applied after harvest• weight of bag• list of declared weeds and number per kilogram.

No seed can be offered for sale which containsprohibited weed seeds. A full list of prohibited anddeclared weed seeds is contained in ‘The SeedsRegulation 1994’. This document and the NSWSeeds Act 1982 is available from the GovernmentPrinter or may be viewed on the Internet-Foundation Law site (www.fl.asn.au).

To obtain the information for the label, you mustcollect a representative sample of the harvestedseed and have a complete seed analysis and reportcarried out by a reputable analytical testinglaboratory. A list of seed testing companies can beobtained from your local NSW Agriculture Districtor Extension Agronomist. If you want to grow yourown seed, the following guidelines are provided toassist you:• Select one area and manage it specifically for

seed production.• Select a high fertility paddock supporting a

dense stand of the desired variety of phalaris oralternatively sow an area to the chosen variety.Use high quality certified seed to sow this crop.

• Select a paddock free of stones, stumps orobstructions which could cause damage toequipment used during harvesting.

• Select the area required based on an expectedseed yield of 50 kg/ha.

• Control all weeds in the phalaris by grazingmanagement, a fertiliser program or herbicideprogram, or both. A wide range of herbicides canbe used safely in pure swards of phalaris toprovide complete weed control. Weed control iscritical to ensure high yields of clean seed.Maintain a phosphorus and sulphur fertiliser

program at all times.

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Pure or dense swards of phalaris will neednitrogen fertiliser to promote tillering and seedproduction. Topdress selected paddocks with40–60 kg/ha of nitrogen (100–150 kg/ha or urea orNitram) during April to May and again at the firstsigns of stem elongation (usually early to midSeptember).

Graze the area evenly and lightly during autumn-winter. Remove all stock in mid to late August toallow phalaris to commence flowering andcomplete seed set. Leave stock out until afterharvest.

Control insect pests, particularly during theflowering to seed ripening stage (heliothis, armyworm, thrips).

Phalaris seed heads flower and ripen in a definitepattern, with seed developing and ripening at thetop first and the bottom last. When the plants arenearing maturity, you can see ripe seed at the top ofthe head, while the lower seeds are green and oftenimmature. The Australian, Sirosa and Sirolanvarieties are very prone to shattering when they aremature resulting in a large seed loss. The timing ofharvesting can be very critical. A delay of one daycan be too much. The timing of harvesting ofphalaris by different methods are as follows:

Troughing. This is a simple and inexpensivemethod of harvesting but it is an inefficientoperation as much of the seed shatters and falls tothe ground during harvesting.

Troughed seed is usually of high quality becauseonly the very ripe dry seed is harvested and it isnot damaged by threshing.

Equipment consists of a solidly constructed sheetmetal trough mounted on the front of a tractor or afour-wheel-drive vehicle. Mounting the trough on afront-end loader is ideal as it can be raised orlowered to suit the crop.

The trough should be about 2–3 m wide, 30–45cm deep at the front, 90 cm deep at the rear and30–40 cm from front to back.

Troughs can be fitted with dished fingers madefrom heavy grade flat sheet metal. These comb theheads and catch the seed shaken out as the troughpasses through the crop. The fingers increase theamount of seed harvested. The seed vibrates downthe fingers into the trough. At the rear of thetrough, in front of the radiator, fly screen gauze isfitted to a height of 50–60 cm across the trough toreduce the entry of seed head material into theradiator.

The shaker fingers should be about 60 cm long,15 cm wide at the trough end, 6 cm wide at thepoint and 3 cm deep. They should be about 4 mmapart at the trough end with the gap getting wider

towards the tips. The fingers have a shiveringeffect on the stalks so the ripe seed falls into thedished shaped fingers and roll back into thecollecting trough.

Start trough harvesting when ripe seed starts toshed from the top of the seed head. To determine ifthe seed head has any ripe seed, rub some seedheads in your hand or walk through crop with yourarms held out beside you so as to hit the seedheads. Look for ripe seed.

Drive the trough through the crop in onedirection slowly (about 7 km/h) first to establishharvesting wheel tracks and than all later harvestsat a faster speed of 17–18 km/h. Repeat harvestsevery 2–3 days until most, or sufficient, seed isharvested.

Direct heading. This involves directlyharvesting the seed with a header when the seed isat 17–18 per cent moisture. Test a sample with amoisture meter. This seed moisture content oftencorresponds with when the top one third of theseed has shed its seed and the lower two thirds areyellow to tan in colour. Green seed is immatureand has high moisture. If the seed is drier than this,it will crack; if it contains more moisture it willbruise and its viability will decline.

The header must be carefully set up to produce aclean sample, free of excessive green material.

Phalaris seed is easily damaged by excessivedrum speed and insufficient concave clearance.Adjust settings as necessary.

Direct harvested seed will need to beimmediately dried to 9 per cent moisture,otherwise germination percentage will declinerapidly.

Small quantities of seed can be dried by laying itout in a thin uniform layer 5–10 cm deep over ashed floor or on hessian on a slatted shearing shedfloor. Rake and mix the seed daily to promotequick, even drying.

Alternatively seed can be dried by commercialseed drying machines.

In addition to drying the seed, in some cases, theseed may need to be graded to remove excess huskand straw material to allow sowing throughseeding machinery.

Producing and harvesting phalaris seed is aspecialist operation. High yields are needed tojustify the time and cost. For older cultivars,producers are better served by buying certifiedhigh quality phalaris seed rather than attempting togrow their own. However, Uneta (Australian type)and Holdfast (Sirosa type) retain their seedstrongly at maturity and can be harvested reliablyby direct heading.

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FURTHER INFORMATION

For further information contact your local NSWAgriculture District or Extension Agronomist orSeed Production Officer.

FURTHER READING

The following Agfacts contain information onphalaris. The Agfacts are available at your localNSW Agriculture office.

P7.6.38 Poa tussock controlP7.6.30 Serrated tussock controlP7.6.1 St Johns Wort control

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank the following people for theirinput into this publication:Dr Rex Oram, Division of Plant Industry, CSIRO,CanberraDr Richard Culvenor, Division of Plant Industry,CSIRO, CanberraDr Ken Archer, Program Manager, (Pasture andRangelands), Division of Plant Industries, HeadOffice, OrangeDr Mike Hill, Senior Research Scientist, CSIROWembley WA. Formerly NSW Agriculture, SconeDr Greg Lodge, Principal Research Scientist,Centre for Crop Improvement, TamworthDr David Kemp, Senior Research Scientist, OrangeAgricultural Research InstituteMichael Priest, Plant Pathologist, AgriculturalResearch Institute, OrangeGraeme Stewart, Seed Production Officer andNigel Phillips, Seed Coordinator, Albury andWagga Wagga respectively.Dr Alan Bishop, Senior Research Scientist,GosfordDr Jim Virgona, former Research Agronomist,Agricultural Research Institute, Wagga Wagga

© 2000 NSW AgricultureThis publication is copyright. Except as permittedunder the Copyright Act 1968, no part of thepublication may be reproduced by any process,electronic or otherwise, without the specific writtenpermission of the copyright owner. Neither mayinformation be stored electronically in any formwhat ever without such permission.

ISSN 0725-7795Edited by Bill NoadDesigned by Diane GardollProduced by staff of NSW AgricultureDubbo, September 2000

DisclaimerThe information contained in this publication isbased on knowledge and understanding at the timeof writing (December 1999). However, because ofadvances in knowledge, users are reminded of theneed to ensure that information upon which theyrely is up to date and to check currency of theinformation with the appropriate officer of NewSouth Wales Department of Agriculture or the user’sindependent adviser.The product trade names in this publication aresupplied on the understanding that no preferencebetween equivalent products is intended and that theinclusion of a product name does not imply endorse-ment by NSW Agriculture over any equivalentproduct from another manufacturer.Recognising that some of the information in thisdocument is provided by third parties, the State ofNew South Wales, the author and the publisher takeno responsibility for the accuracy, currency, reliabil-ity and correctness of any information included inthe document provided by third parties.Notes on Pasture ImprovementPasture improvement may be associated with anincrease in the incidence of certain livestock healthdisorders. Livestock and production losses fromsuch disorders is possible. Management may need tobe modified to minimise risk. Consult your veteri-narian or adviser when planning pasture improve-ment.The Native Vegetation Conservation Act (1997)restricts some pasture improvement practices whereexisting pasture contains native species. Inquirethrough your office of the Department of Land andWater Conservation for further details.Always read the labelUsers of agricultural or veterinary chemical prod-ucts must always read the label and any permit,before using the product, and strictly comply withthe directions on the label and the conditions of anypermit. Users are not absolved from compliancewith the directions on the label or the conditions ofthe permit by reason of any statement made or notmade in this publication.