AGE OF ANXIETYTHE INTERWAR YEARS

I am young, I am twenty years old; yet I know nothing of life but despair, death, fear, and fatuous superficiality cast over an abyss of sorrow. I see how peoples are set against one another, and in silence, unknowingly, foolishly, obediently, innocently slay one another. I see that the keenest brains of the world invent weapons and words to make it yet more refined and enduring. And all men of my age, here and over there, throughout the whole world see these things; all my generation is experiencing these things with me. . . . What do they expect of us if a time ever comes when the war is over? Through the years our business has been killing; -- it was our first calling in life. Our knowledge of life is limited to death. What will happen afterwards? And what shall come out of us? (Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet on the Western Front, 1929)

Never such innocence,Never before or since,

As changed itself to pastWithout a word--the menLeaving the gardens tidy,

The thousands of marriagesLasting a little while longer:Never such innocence again.(Philip Larkin, MCMXIV)

World War I was a Staggering Blow to Western Civilization Many people felt increasingly adrift in a

strange, uncertain, and uncontrollable world. People saw themselves living in an age of

continual crisis (until at least the early 1950s)

Modern Philosophy Pre-1914 most people still believed in

progress, reason and the rights of the individual.

After the war, new and upsetting ideas began to spread through the entire population

Some actually from pre-war Rejected the general faith in progress and

the power of the rational human mind.

Friedrich Nietzsche "God is Dead" --

Christianity = “slave morality” because glorified weakness

only creativity of a few supermen could successfully reorder world

Bergson & Sorel Henri Bergson: 1890s, convinced many

young people that immediate experience and intuition >= rational and scientific thinking

Post-war Thinkers Expanded on Earlier Pessimism Logical empiricism (logical positivism) -- took root

in English-speaking universities Developed by Ludwig Wittgenstein (part of

Vienna Circle in 1920s and 1930s) Abstract concepts regarding God, freedom, morality,

etc, are senseless since can neither be tested by scientific experiments nor demonstrated by logic of math.

Only experience is worth analyzing.

Post-war Thinkers Expanded on Earlier Pessimism Existentialism saw life as absurd individual has to find his own meaning; most

were atheists Jean-Paul Sartre: Humans simply exist Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers and Albert

Camus also prominent

Post-war Thinkers Expanded on Earlier Pessimism Christian Existentialists shared loneliness

and despair of atheistic existentialists Stressed human beings’ sinful nature, need

for faith, and the mystery of God’s forgiveness

Broke with Christian "modernists" of late 19th century who reconciled Bible & science

Science "New Physics," much popularized after

WWI, challenged long-held ideas

Science - Max Planck Developed basis for quantum physics

in 1900 Postulated matter & energy might be

different forms of the same thing. Shook foundations of 19th century

physics that viewed atoms as the stable, basic building blocks of nature, with a different kind of unbreakable atom for each element.

Science - Albert Einstein (1879-1955) 1905, Theory of relativity of

time and space challenged traditional ideas of Newtonian physics (E=MC2)

United apparently infinite universe with incredibly small, fast-moving subatomic world.

Matter and energy are interchangeable and that even a particle of matter contains enormous levels of potential energy

Rutherford & Heisenberg Ernest Rutherford: 1919, demonstrated the

atom could be split. Werner Heisenberg: 1927, “principle of

uncertainty”-as it is impossible to know the position and speed of an individual election, it is therefore impossible to predict its behavior. Heisenberg’s principle: The dynamics of an

experiment alters the state of the subject.

Impact of “New Physics” on the Common Mind new universe strange and troubling Universe now “relative,” dependent on

observer’s frame of reference. Universe uncertain, undetermined, w/o stable

building blocks Physics no longer provided easy, optimistic

answers, or any answers for that matter.

Freudian Psychology human unconscious is driven by

sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires, humans are therefore NOT rational!

Sex is apparently the answer Shattered enlightenment view of rationality and progress. Freud agreed with Nietzsche that mechanisms of rational

thinking and traditional morals values can be too strong on the human psyche They can repress sexual desires too effectively, crippling

individuals and entire peoples with guilt and neurotic fears Many opponents and some enthusiasts interpreted Freud as

saying that the first requirement for mental health is an uninhibited sex life

After WWI, the popular interpretation of Freud reflected and encouraged growing sexual experimentation, particularly among middle-class women.

Literary Figures Such as Marcel Proust, T.S. Eliot, and

James Joyce (Ulysses) experimented with language in attempt to reflect dynamics of society.

“Stream-of-consciousness” developed by Virginia Woolf (1882-1941)

Entire novel seen through mind of a single character

JAMES JOYCE (1882-1941) his novel Ulysses, published in 1922, was banned in both Britain and the United

States until the 1930s. Joyce has been recognized as the writer who gave the novel a new subject and a new style. The author of Ulysses is not a narrator describing a subject outside himself. He is instead a recorder of what is sometimes called "the stream of consciousness" -- the haphazard progress of reflection, with all its paradoxes, irrelevancies and abrupt shifts of interest.

Ulysses was the culmination of Joyce's early career. It was the fulfillment of the pledge made by the character Stephen Dedalus at the end of the Joyce's novel, The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man: "to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race." Through his work with epiphanies, Joyce had regarded this task as a long encounter with reality, the literal texture of Dublin life.

So it was that Ulysses, which relates the events of a single day in the lives of two Dubliners on June 16, 1904, makes Dublin as familiar a place as the London of Charles Dickens. Joyce visited Dublin for the last time in 1912.

D. H. LAWRENCE (1885-1930) Lawrence was constantly prosecuted

for obscenity. The problem with some of his novels

lay in his frank approach to human sexuality and the use of words not permitted in polite discourse.

Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) In her novel, Mrs. Dalloway¸ the

main character, Mrs. Dalloway, cannot endure her life as the wife of a leading politician -- the whole thing simply bores her.

Anti-Utopian Authors Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) –

The Decline of the West Every culture experiences a life cycle

of growth and decline; Western civilization was in its old age, and death was approaching in the form of conquest by the yellow race.

T. S. Eliot, "The Wasteland": Depicted a world of growing desolation.

T.S. Eliot

Anti-Utopian Authors Franz Kafka: Portrays helpless

individuals crushed by inexplicably hostile forces. The Trial; The Castle; The

Metamorphosis George Orwell (1903-1950) –

1984: "Big Brother" (the dictator) & his totalitarian state use a new kind of language, sophisticated technology, and psychological terror to strip a weak individual of his last shred of human dignity.

Dada -- In Paris in 1919, a group of writers and artists launched a protest against everything. Everything was nonsense: literature, art, morality, civilization.  Action is vain, art is vain, life is vain, everything is absurd. Or, as Tristan Tzara (1896-1963)  announced:

DADA DOES NOT MEAN ANYTHING

Tristan Tzara, one of Dada's Swiss founders, made poetry by clipping words from newspaper articles, putting them in a bag, shaking them up and then taking them out at random. Here's the result of one such exercise:

The airplane weaves telegraph wiresand the fountain sings the same songAt the rendezvous of the coachman the aperitif is orangebut the locomotive mechanics have blue eyesthe lady has lost her smile in the woods

Art Functionalism in architecture

Late 19th century U.S.: Louis Sullivan pioneered skyscrapers -- "form follows function"

In 1905, architectural leadership shifted to German-speaking countries (until Hitler in 1930s)

Bahaus movement: Walter Gropius broke sharply with the past in his design of the Fagus shoe factory at Alfeld, Germany. Clean, light, elegant building of glass and iron. Represented a jump into the middle of the 20th century.

Walter Gropius Bauhaus Bldg. [1928]

Walter Gropius Bauhaus Bldg. [1928]

Bauhaus

Painting Pablo Picasso (1881-1973): most important

artist of the 20th century Developed cubism along with Georges Braque Cubism concentrated on a complex geometry of

zigzagging lines and sharply angled, overlapping planes.

Often tried to portray all perspectives simultaneously

Dadaism & Surrealism Dadaism was a thing of the moment -- but in

the 1920s it became the vanguard of another artistic and literary movement -- surrealism.

Surrealism became a kind of mysticism -- its practitioners tended to tap sources of inspiration beyond the realm of rational concepts

Monet

Picasso

Dali

Vincent van Gogh

George Grosz

Grey Day

(1921)

George Grosz

Grey Day

(1921)

DaDa

George Grosz

The Pillars of Society

(1926)

George Grosz

The Pillars of Society

(1926)

DaDa

Picasso Studio with Plaster Head [1925]

Picasso Studio with Plaster Head [1925]

Cubism

Music Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971): Most

important composer of the 20th century "Rite of Spring" experimented with new tonalities

(many of them dissonant) and aggressive primitive rhythms

Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951): pioneered "12-tone" technique (atonality), abandon traditional scale

Movies Moving pictures first shown as a popular novelty in

naughty peepshows and penny arcades in the 1890s, esp. in Paris.

Charlie Chaplin (1889-1978), Englishman, became the king of the “silver screen” in Hollywood during the 1920s.

German studios excelled in expressionist dramas—e.g., The Cabinet of Dr., Caligari (1919).

Advent of “talkies” in 1927 resulted in revival of national film industries in 1930s, esp. France

Motion pictures became the main entertainment of the masses until after WWII.

POLITICS IN THE 1920s

Germany, France, Great Britain, & Italy

From the German Point of View

From the German Point of View Lost—but not forgotten country.

Into the heart You are to dig yourself these words as into stone: Which we have lost may not be truly lost!

1919ism Fear of Bolshevism

swept through Europe (also known as "Red Scare")

“Spartacists” : Karl Liebknecht & Rosa Luxemburg took over Berlin for a week in January

Sparticist PosterSparticist Poster

The Spartacist LeagueThe Spartacist League

Rosa Luxemburg[1870-1919]

murdered by the Freikorps

Rosa Luxemburg[1870-1919]

murdered by the Freikorps

Weimar Republic To Germans of all political parties, the Versailles

Treaty represented a harsh, dictated peace, to be revised or repudiated as soon as possible. France was most eager to punish Germany Britain believed a healthy German economy was essential

to a healthy British economy. John Maynard Keynes (most significant economist

of 20th century) criticized Versailles Treaty declaring its punishing of Germany would damage the European economy.

Friedrich Ebert:First President of the Weimar

Republic

Friedrich Ebert:First President of the Weimar

Republic

Weimar Republic: New Constitution in August 1919 Reichsrat: upper chamber represented the

Federal states. Reichstag: lower house elected by universal

suffrage supplied the Chancellor and Cabinet. President elected for a 7-year term.

The German Government:

1919-1920

The German Government:

1919-1920

Weimar Germany: Political Representation

[1920-1933]

Weimar Germany: Political Representation

[1920-1933]

Political Parties in the Reichstag

May 1924

Dec. 1924

May1928

Sep.1930

July1932

Nov.1932

Mar.1933

Communist Party (KPD)

62 45 54 77 89 100 81

Social Democratic Party (SDP)

100 131 153 143 133 121 120

Catholic Centre Party (BVP)

81 88 78 87 97 90 93

Nationalist Party (DNVP)

95 103 73 41 37 52 52

Nazi Party (NSDAP)

32 14 12 107 230 196 288

Other Parties

102 112 121 122 22 35 23

Weimar Republic: Problems Faced the New Gov't Its forced acceptance of “the dictated peace”

(Versailles Treaty) undermined its prestige. Communist rebellions in various parts of the

country created climate of instability. Ruhr Crisis, 1923

The French in the

Ruhr: 1923

The French in the

Ruhr: 1923

The French Occupation of the Ruhr

The French Occupation of the Ruhr

Weimar Republic: Ruhr Crisis Reparations: Allies announced in 1921 Germany had to pay

almost $34 billion Germany's economy weak and it could not pay all the

reparations. 1923, France, led by Raymond Poincarè, occupied industrial

Ruhr region of Germany. German gov’t ordered Ruhr people to stop working & passively

resist French occupation. Runaway inflation occurred when Germany printed money to

pay reparations Brought about social revolution in Germany: Accumulated

savings of many retired and middle-class people were wiped out; middle-class resented gov't; blamed Western gov't, big business, workers, Jews, and communists for nation's woes.

The GermanMark

The GermanMark

The German MarkThe German Mark

Weimar Republic: Beer Hall Putsch 1923 Adolf Hitler failed to take

overthrow state Bavaria and sentenced to jail where he wrote Mein Kampf.

The Beer Hall Putsch: 1923The Beer Hall Putsch: 1923

The Beer Hall Putsch Idealized

The Beer Hall Putsch Idealized

Hitler in Landesberg PrisonHitler in Landesberg Prison

Mein Kampf [My Struggle]Mein Kampf [My Struggle]

Weimar Republic: End of Ruhr Crisis Gustav Stresemann assumed leadership in

1923 Called off passive resistance in Ruhr; agreed to

pay reparations (but also consideration of Germany's ability to pay); Poincarè agreed

Streseman restored Germany to normal status in European community with Locarno Pact

European Debts to the United States

European Debts to the United States

Weimar Republic: Pacts & Plans Dawes Plan, 1924: Restructured Germany's debt with U.S.

loans to Germany to pay back Britain and France, who likewise paid back U.S.; resulted in German economic recovery

Young Plan (1929): continuation of Dawes Plan (moot when Great Depression hit)

Locarno Pact, 1925: Germany agreed to existing borders ("spirit of Locarno" = peace)

Germany joined League of Nations, 1926 Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928: Renounced war as "illegal"

except for self-defense; signed by 62 nations but had no real enforcement mechanism

The Dawes Plan (1924)The Dawes Plan (1924)

The Young Plan (1930)The Young Plan (1930)

For three generations, you’ll have to slave away!

$26,350,000,000 to be paid over a period of 58½ years.

For three generations, you’ll have to slave away!

$26,350,000,000 to be paid over a period of 58½ years.

France

Raymond Poincaré & the Conservative Right

Raymond Poincaré & the Conservative Right He sent French troops into the

Ruhr in 1923.

Pushed for large-scale infrastructure reconstruction programs [counting on German reparations to pay for them].

After 1926-29:

• New taxes & tightened tax collections.

• Drastic decline in govt. spending that stabilized the franc [the threat of runaway inflation was avoided!]

He sent French troops into the Ruhr in 1923.

Pushed for large-scale infrastructure reconstruction programs [counting on German reparations to pay for them].

After 1926-29:

• New taxes & tightened tax collections.

• Drastic decline in govt. spending that stabilized the franc [the threat of runaway inflation was avoided!]

France: Economic problems (similar to Germany) Death, devastation, and debt of WWI created

economic chaos and political unrest Throughout the 1920s, the gov’ (multi-party system)

dominated by the parties on the right (conservatives), which supported status quo and had backing of business, army, and Church.

1926, Raymond Poincaré recalled to office while prime minister Briand replaced but remained minister of foreign affairs.

Gov’t slashed spending and raised taxes, restoring confidence in the economy.

Edouard Herriot & the French

Socialists

Edouard Herriot & the French

Socialists 1924-1926.

Progressive social reform.

Spoke for the lower classes, small businessmen, and farmers.

Committed to private enterprise and private property.

Fervently anti-clerical.

1924-1926.

Progressive social reform.

Spoke for the lower classes, small businessmen, and farmers.

Committed to private enterprise and private property.

Fervently anti-clerical.

Great Britain Wartime trend toward greater social equality continued,

helping maintain social harmony. Representation of the Peoples Act (1928): women

over 21 gained the right to vote. (Representation of Peoples Act of 1918 had given women over 30 the right to vote).

Unemployment was Britain's biggest problem in 1920s: about 12% Did not recover from economic losses suffered during WWI 1926, General Strike: support of miners who feared a

dramatic drop in their low wages swept the country. Gov’t outlawed such labor actions in 1927

1926 General Strike1926 General Strike

Trades Disputes Act (1927):

All general or sympathy strikes were illegal.

It forbade unions from raising money for political purposes.

Trades Disputes Act (1927):

All general or sympathy strikes were illegal.

It forbade unions from raising money for political purposes.

Great Britain Labour party rose as a champion of the

working classes and of greater social equality and took power briefly (9 months); led by Ramsay MacDonald Came to replace Liberal Party as main opposition

to conservatives. Conservatives under Stanley Baldwin (1867-

1947) ruled Britain between 1924 and 1929.

Ramsay MacDonald: 1924, 1929

Ramsay MacDonald: 1924, 1929

Labour PartyLabour Party

Stanley BaldwinStanley Baldwin

Conservative PartyConservative Party

Great Britain - The Irish Question After Easter Rebellion (1916) the extremist Sinn

Fein faction gained prominence in Ireland. Prompted a civil war between the Irish Republican

Army (IRA) and the Black and Tan, England’s special occupation forces there.

October 1921, London created the Irish Free State, from which Ulster withdrew, as part of the British Commonwealth (Northern Ireland)

In 1922, Britain granted southern, Catholic Ireland full autonomy after failing to suppress a bitter guerrilla war.

Italy

Benito Mussolini [1883-1945]

Benito Mussolini [1883-1945]

Italian FascesItalian Fasces

March on Rome [1922]March on Rome [1922]

Fascist YouthFascist Youth

The Great Depression(1929-1933)

The Great Depression [1929-1941]

The Great Depression [1929-1941]

Paris in 1930Paris in 1930

London in 1930London in 1930

Great Depression Shattered the fragile optimism of political

leaders in the late 1920s Causes

Long-term problems with the U.S. economy: weak international economy, overproduction, unstable banking, certain weak industries, 1/2 of all Americans lived below poverty line.

Stock Market Crash (1929) may have triggered U.S. depression that spread world wide

Impact on Europe Decline of production occurred in every country (except Russia

with its command economy). Mass unemployment resulted: Germany hit hardest (43%);

Britain 18%, U.S. 25% In 1931, Britain went off the gold standard; 20 other countries

followed suit 1930, U.S. instituted extremely high tariff which resulted in

retaliation by 23 other countries. New York bankers began recalling loans made to Germany and

other European countries, thus exacerbating Europe’s economic crisis.

Mass unemployment

German Unemployment: 1929-1938

German Unemployment: 1929-1938

German Election Results in 1933

German Election Results in 1933

“New Deal” Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" in U.S.

sought to reform capitalism with increased gov't intervention in the economy Influenced certain European countries Keynesian approach (developed by John

Maynard Keynes) used after 1938 to permanently prop up the economy through public works programs and subsidies.

British Recovery Orthodox economic theory followed after 1929:

went off gold-standard, reorganized industry, increased tariffs, reformed finances, cut gov’t spending, balanced budget (although unemployed workers received barely enough welfare to live on)

Economy recovered considerably after 1932. Years after 1932 actually better than in the 1920s. Like the U.S. Britain came out permanently from

depression due to rearmament for WWII

France & Great Depression Felt impact of depression later as it wasn't as

highly industrialized as Britain, Germany & US The depression increased class tensions and gave

birth to a radical right that supported gov’t reorganization along fascist lines.

Popular Front: Threat of fascism prompted coalition of republicans, socialists, communists and radicals; led by Leon Blum

“French New Deal” Inspired by US New Deal, encouraged union

movement and launched far-reaching program of social reform, complete with paid vacations and a 40-hr work week.

Failed due to high inflation and agitation from fascists and frightened conservatives in the Senate.

France French divisions

resulting from Spanish Civil War destroyed Popular Front in 1936

France remained divided as Germany continued its rearmament in late 1930s Leon Blum

The Maginot Line

The Maginot Line

CHAPTER CONTENT REVIEW

Uncertainty in Modern Thought Modern Philosophy

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844−1900) was the most influential member of a group of philosophers who challenged the prevailing belief in progress and the rationality of the human mind.

Nietzsche believed that social conventions hindered the development of superior individuals.

World War I fueled the movement against established certainties in philosophy.

In English-speaking countries, many philosophers moved toward logical empiricism.

French philosophers led the existentialist movement.

The Revival of Christianity

Loss of faith in human reason led to renewed interest in spirituality in general and Christianity specifically.

Philosophers and theologians of all denominations articulated the relevance of Christianity to the modern world.

The New Physics

The work of Marie Curie (1867−1934) and Max Planck (1858−1947) combined to undermine the belief that atoms were fundamental, eternal particles and to blur the distinction between matter and energy.

Albert Einstein’s (1879−1955) theory of special relativity called into question basic tenets of Newtonian physics.

The new physics seemed to offer little connection between the physical universe and human experience.

Freudian Psychology

Sigmund Freud (1856−1939) argued that human behavior is basically irrational.

Freudian psychology was incompatible with the belief that the human mind had progressed over the course of human history.

Twentieth-Century Literature

Anxiety, alienation, and pessimism were reflected in twentieth-century literature.

Some novelists focused their attention on the exploration of the complexity of a single human mind.

Others used the stream-of-consciousness technique to depict the fractured, irrational, and nonlinear nature of human consciousness.

Anti-utopias articulated pessimistic visions of the future.

Modern Art and Music Architecture and Design

Functionalist architects believed that everything about a building should serve the function for which it was designed.

Louis H. Sullivan (1856−1924) built skyscrapers that transformed the city of Chicago and the Bauhaus of Walter Gropius (1883−1969) had a lasting impact on all areas of design.

Modern Painting and Music Modern painting began as a reaction against French impressionism. Expressionists sought to depict complicated psychological and

emotional perspectives. Expressionists and postimpressionists focused on form instead of

light. The movement toward abstract, nonrepresentational art was a move

away from the traditional subject matter. Non-Western artistic traditions played an increasingly important

role in European art. Dadaism attacked all accepted standards of what constituted art. Developments in modern music paralleled those in painting.

Movies and Radio Public Culture

Movies and radio were the dominant forms of public entertainment.

The United States took the lead in the silent-film industry.

German filmmakers created some of the great films of the 1920s.

Every major country developed a national broadcasting network.

Radio was used for the dissemination of political propaganda.

The Search for Peace and Political Stability

Germany and the Western Powers Most Germans believed the Treaty of Versailles represented a

harsh and unfair resolution to the war. Great Britain favored revision of the treaty in Germany’s favor.

France favored strict application of the treaty’s provisions. In 1923, French armies occupied the Ruhr in an effort to force

the payment of war reparations. The conflict between France and Germany escalated, creating

economic chaos in Germany. Moderate political forces forged a compromise solution, but not

before damage had been done to European stability.

Hope in Foreign Affairs (1924−1929)The Dawes Plan (1924) eased the burden of reparations on Germany. The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) repudiated war as an instrument

of national policy. The German government moved toward genuine democracy and

better relations with other Western powers. In Germany and France, however, deep political and social

divisions hovered just below the surface. Great Britain met the challenge of unemployment with expanded

social welfare programs. In 1922, Great Britain granted southern Ireland full autonomy.

The Great Depression (1929−1939) The Economic Crisis

The crash of the U.S. stock market in October 1929 was the catalyst for the Great Depression.

A vicious circle of reduced production, leading to greater unemployment, leading to reduced production, depressed the U.S. economy.

The collapse of the U.S. economy produced similar problems around the world.

Countries were unprepared to deal with the crisis and unable to halt economic decline.

Mass Unemployment Mass unemployment created enormous suffering and

serious social upheaval. Disenfranchised workers lost faith in their countries’

institutions and leaders.

The New Deal in the United States President Franklin Roosevelt attempted to reform

capitalism in order to save it. Social welfare programs and economic planning were

introduced as part of a New Deal for America. The New Deal was only partially successful.

The Scandinavian Response to the Great Depression Scandinavian socialism offered the most successful

response to the Great Depression. A tradition of cooperative social action helped

Scandinavians develop effective responses to the crisis.

Recovery and Reform in Great Britain and France Great Britain managed a slow recovery as its

economy turned inward. The Great Depression came late to France, but

resulted in a bitter, polarized political landscape when it struck.