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South Asia DepartmentDecember 2002

by Ali Azimi and David McCauleyby Ali Azimi and David McCauleyby Ali Azimi and David McCauleyby Ali Azimi and David McCauleyby Ali Azimi and David McCauley

© Asian Development BankAll rights reserved

This publication was prepared by staff and consultants for theAsian Development Bank. The findings, interpretations, and con-clusions expressed in it do not necessarily represent the views ofthe Bank or those of its member governments. The Asian Devel-opment Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data includedin this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for anyconsequences of their use.

Editor: Lisa Kircher LumbaoCover design: Ram CabreraTypesetting:Wickie BaguisiCover photograph: Ali Azimi (taken in Shakar-dara, Parwan Prov-ince, Afghanistan)Page photographs: Ian Gill, pages 6, 10, 12, 13, 17, 19;Ronald Petocz, page 15Secretarial support: Edna Atangan

The Asian Development Bank encourages use of the materialpresented herein, with appropriate credit.

Published by the Asian Development BankP.O. Box 7890980 Manila, PhilippinesWebsite: www. adb. org

ISBN: 971-561-478-7Publication Stock No.010103

ASIA IS A LIVING BODY, AND AFGHANISTAN IS ITS HEART

IN THE RUIN OF THE HEART LIES THE RUIN OF THE BODY

SO LONG AS THE HEART IS FREE, THE BODY REMAINS FREE

IF NOT, IT BECOMES A STRAW ADRIFT IN THE WIND

MOHAMMED IQBAL (1876-1938)

Contents

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1Background ........................................................................................................................................ 1Environment Sector Needs Assessment ............................................................................................... 1Afghanistan’s Environment .................................................................................................................. 2Defining the Environment Sector .......................................................................................................... 5Environmental Links between Humanitarian and Development Assistance ............................................. 6SUBSECTOR NEEDS AND PERSPECTIVES ........................................................ 9Renewable Resource Management ...................................................................................................... 9

Water .........................................................................................................................................................9Forests ..................................................................................................................................................... 12Rangelands .............................................................................................................................................. 13Biodiversity/Protected Areas ................................................................................................................. 13Desertification ......................................................................................................................................... 17

Pollution and Environmental Health .................................................................................................... 17Urban and Industrial Pollution ................................................................................................................. 17Agrochemicals ......................................................................................................................................... 18Residuals of Warfare .............................................................................................................................. 19

DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK FOR THE ENVIRONMENT SECTOR ......... 21Policy Framework ............................................................................................................................ 21Environmental Governance ................................................................................................................ 22WORK PLAN FOR SECTOR PLANNING AND CAPACITY BUILDING ......... 23Short Term ....................................................................................................................................... 23

Refinement of Interim Policy and Programming Framework ................................................................. 23Coordination of Relief and Development Assistance .............................................................................. 23

Long Term........................................................................................................................................ 23Policy and Institutional Framework Development ................................................................................... 23Mainstreaming Environmental Considerations into All Sectors ............................................................... 24

SHORT-TERM TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PLAN ............................................. 25Establishing Capacity for Implementing Environmental Safeguards ...................................................... 25Environmental Information Development ............................................................................................ 25Environmental Management Capacity Building Needs Assessment ..................................................... 26Sustainable Water Resources Management ........................................................................................ 26Sustainable Forest Management ........................................................................................................ 27Sustainable Rangelands Management ................................................................................................ 27Renewable Energy Development ....................................................................................................... 27Protected Areas Management ........................................................................................................... 28DONOR COORDINATION .................................................................................... 29

APPENDIXFurther References on Environmental Management in Afghanistan ...................................................... 31TABLESTable 1: Land Use in Afghanistan, 1981 ............................................................................................... 2Table 2: Estimates of Agricultural Land Use 1990/1993 ....................................................................... 5Table 3: Preliminary Water Balance for Afghanistan ........................................................................... 11Table 4: Designated Protected Areas ................................................................................................. 16Table 5: Proposed Protected Areas ................................................................................................... 16FIGURESFigure 1: Map of Afghanistan .............................................................................................................. 3Figure 2: Land Use of Afghanistan ....................................................................................................... 4Figure 3: Deforestation in Southeast Afghanistan .................................................................................. 5Figure 4: Land Use Distribution ........................................................................................................... 5

Abbreviations

AACA Afghan Assistance Coordination AuthorityADB Asian Development BankAIA Afghan Interim AuthorityATO Afghan Tourist OrganizationCNA Comprehensive Needs AssessmentFAO Food and Agriculture Organizationha hectareIDP internally displaced personsITGA Islamic Transitional Government of AfghanistanIUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resourceskm3 cubic kilometerm meterm3 cubic meterNGO nongovernment organizationPNA Preliminary Needs AssessmentSAVE Society for Afghanistan Volunteer EnvironmentalistsUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment Programme

NOTEIn this report, “$” refers to US dollars

Foreword

As Afghanistan struggles to recover from decades of war and depravation, many urgent needs are competing forthe attention of the Islamic Transitional Government of Afghanistan (ITGA) and donor community. Whileat first thought it might seem that environmental issues are not a top priority, in fact they lie at the heart of

current efforts to reestablish the basis for sustainable livelihoods for the country’s people and a sound economicfooting for broad-based development.

In addition to the demands of current residents, millions of refugees and internally displaced persons arereturning to their homes—placing an incredible strain on Afghanistan’s already seriously degraded natural resourcesand the ability to provide even the most basic urban environmental services. Safe drinking water and solid wastemanagement services need to be supplied to rapidly growing urban populations to prevent widespread disease. Theproductivity of agricultural systems must be reestablished largely based on the rehabilitation of irrigation and animalhusbandry systems if the rural population is to be fed. Deforestation is so advanced that there are severe shortages offuelwood and building materials. Unless this trend is reversed, the country will endure heavy costs from upstreamerosion and downstream siltation and seasonal flooding. Environmental issues are indeed day-to-day survival issuesand are not luxuries to be dealt with later.

With this in mind, the donor community fielded to Afghanistan a team led by the Asian Development Bank(ADB) and included members from the United Nations Environment Programme and the Norwegian Agency forDevelopment Cooperation to assess Afghanistan’s environmental sector needs. This was in response to a PreliminaryNeeds Assessment for the sector presented at the Ministerial Meeting of the Afghan Reconstruction Steering Groupin Tokyo in January 2002. The environmental team met with a range of stakeholders during their visit in March 2002and gathered information on the most pressing environmental issues facing the country. They developed a preliminarypolicy and institutional framework and gained an indication of the highest priorities for donor support for near-termtechnical assistance. The “comprehensive needs assessment” that resulted from this mission formed the basis for thisreport, which was compiled by Ali Azimi of ADB’s South Asia Department and David McCauley, an environmentalpolicy consultant to ADB. The report also will serve as ADB’s “Country Environmental Assessment” as required byits new environment policy.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to the ITGA for guidance provided and to the line ministries andothers who gave valuable assistance, information, and guidance to the team. Along with its planned support for otherkey sectors such as transport, energy and agriculture and natural resources, ADB looks forward to working with theAfghans to establish the basis for sound environmental and natural resource management, especially in view that itsecological base underpins the economy.

YOSHIHIRO IWASAKI

Director GeneralSouth Asia Department

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background

This report provides perspectives on the most sig-nificant environmental issues currently facing Af-ghanistan as it emerges from years of conflict and

isolation, and also recommends a set of approaches toaddress the highest priority problems identified. It is basedon a needs assessment exercise undertaken by the AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB), the United Nations Devel-opment Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank. APreliminary Needs Assessment (PNA) was conductedduring December 2001 to assist the Afghan Interim Au-thority (AIA) with the identification and programmingof high priority reconstruction and development activi-ties across all sectors. The PNA outlined strategic choicesfor the country’s redevelopment and presented these in aprioritized manner to the donor community with indica-tive funding requirements, including immediate needs(first year), short-term options (2 years) and long-termdevelopment initiatives (10 years).

The PNA exercise was finalized in January 2002after further consultations with Afghan civil society rep-resentatives in Islamabad and members of the AIA inKabul. The final PNA report was presented at the Min-isterial Meeting of the Afghan Reconstruction SteeringGroup in Tokyo from 20 to 21 January 2002 and helpedto form the basis for international assistance commit-ments to Afghanistan of some $4.5 billion.

Environment SectorNeeds AssessmentAt the Tokyo Ministerial Meeting it was agreed thatmissions would be organized and undertaken to prepare

Comprehensive Needs Assessments (CNAs) for each of18 sectors relating to Afghanistan’s recovery and recon-struction. Accordingly, a multi-donor Environment Mis-sion1 visited Afghanistan from 16 to 28 March 2002 toconduct a detailed needs assessment leading to a CNAfor the environment sector. The objectives of the Envi-ronment Mission were to ascertain the needs of Afghani-stan in the environment sector and to gain an indicationof donor support for environmental aspects of the urgentpriorities identified in the PNA report. As in the case ofother CNA efforts, the aim of the Environment Missionand subsequent environment sector analysis was to pro-duce a program owned by the Islamic Transitional Gov-ernment of Afghanistan (ITGA) and adhered to by thedonors so that both external and internal financing can bechanneled in a coordinated fashion—especially to avoidoverburdening the limited implementation capacity ofthe ITGA.

The Environment Mission consulted with keystakeholders to produce a preliminary framework for theenvironment sector comprising a policy and institutionalframework and a set of interim donor coordination ar-rangements; and proposed technical assistance for near-and medium-term implementation. This report onAfghanistan’s environment in transition builds on thework of the Environment Mission and provides an ex-pansion of these elements as the basis for coordinatedaction to address high priority environmental concernsin Afghanistan.

1 The Mission was led by ADB, and comprised: Ali Azimi of ADB as mission leader;Stefan Micallef and Purna Rajbhandari of the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP); and Kjell Esser of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation.David McCauley, an ADB staff consultant, also assisted with preparation of this report,and Ronald Petocz contributed to the section on biodiversity conservation and pro-tected areas management.

Introduction

2 Afghanistan’s Environment in Transition

Those involved in this planning and coordinationexercise express their deep appreciation for the guidanceprovided by the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) and thethe ITGA throughout this process, particularly throughthe Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority (AACA),and for the cooperation and assistance of the line minis-tries and others who have provided information and guid-ance. This is meant to be a living document subject torefinement as comments are received and the extremelyweak database on Afghanistan’s environmental resourcesis improved. Peer review is ongoing, and comments arewelcome. Due to the limitations of time and information,this document is certainly not comprehensive in its cov-erage. It is hoped, however, that it will serve as a usefulreference and starting point for the coordination of sorelyneeded environmental assistance to Afghanistan.

Afghanistan’sEnvironmentAfghanistan’s population of roughly 23.5 million is largelydependent upon the country’s natural resource base forits economic well being. These resources have been se-verely degraded as a consequence of past political insta-bility and weakly implemented environment and resourcemanagement policies. To remedy the situation, both short-term measures to address immediate needs and a long-term plan will need to be developed and executed torehabilitate and protect the natural resource base whileproviding the country’s people with the means for theirlivelihoods through sustainable resource use.2

Afghanistan is a landlocked country whose geogra-phy and natural resources share many characteristics withits Central Asian neighbors: Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,and Uzbekistan to the north; Iran to the west; and Paki-stan and the People’s Republic of China to the south andeast (see Figure 1). Mountains dominate the central andeastern part of Afghanistan, covering about three fourthsof the country. Extensions of the Hindu Kush Mountainscover the central and northeast parts of the country, withmany peaks exceeding 6,000 meters (m) in elevation. Themountains are young, characterized by narrow valleys andsteep rugged peaks; in a number of places the effect ofglaciers are evident. To the west the mountains becomelower and their slopes gentler, often turning into plateauswith the surrounding peaks protruding above them. Inthe north the topography is characterized by hot and arid

northern plains as well as several high basins. The west-ern and southern regions are dominated by desert ecosys-tems, the largest being the sand desert in Registan andthe clayey-rocky Dasht Margo. Steppes form wide beltsof intermediate elevation and receive an average level ofrainfall—more than the dry lowlands and less than thewet highlands.

The sources of the country’s rivers lie in the moun-tains, and water levels in the rivers oscillate greatly. Thehighest flows are in the spring and early summer fed bysnowmelt. During the other seasons the rivers may be-come small streams or disappear entirely. Lakes are scarce.Those in the mountains are small, mostly of postglacialorigin, while those in the desert are often highly salineand dry up in the summer.

A complex of five small lakes at Band-i-Amir, lo-cated in the Koh-i-Baba Mountains, is of exceptional natu-ral beauty and has the potential to be an ecotourism site.

Land use in each zone is largely determined by theavailability of water from precipitation, groundwater, orrivers (see Figure 2). The natural vegetative patterns alsoclosely follow the influence of water availability and alti-tude. In those river valleys with reasonably secure year-round water supplies, human settlements and irrigatedagriculture are prevalent. As indicated in Table 1, theFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated in1981 that 84% of land was used as rangeland (54.7 mil-lion hectares [ha]). Though there are no reliable currentestimates of these figures, it is clear that changes haveoccurred over the past 20 years. Both irrigated agricul-ture and grazing activities would be expected to declinesubstantially because of damage to water delivery sys-tems and loss of livestock during the period of conflict.There are indications that agricultural area—particularlyrainfed cultivation—has expanded at the expense of range-lands. Table 2 shows agricultural land use data from pro-vincial records of the early 1990s that indicate a decreasein grazing area and increase in cultivated area. Defores-tation in the past decade occurred at an alarming rate,

Table 1: Land Use in Afghanistan, 1981

Use Category Area Percent (thousand ha)

Uncultivated 3,900 6.01Irrigated 2,586 3.99Rainfed 1,424 2.19Grazing Lands 54,700 84.31Forest 1,900 2.93Tree Crops 372 0.57Total 64,882 100Source: UNDP/FAO. 1981. Afghanistan National Parks and WildlifeManagement: A Contribution to a Conservation Strategy. Rome.

2 For more detailed analysis of the agriculture, forestry, rangelands, and other naturalresource-based sectors, see: ADB. 2002. Afghanistan Natural Resources and AgricultureSector Comprehensive Needs Assessment—Draft Report. Manila.

3

Figure 1: Map of Afghanistan

Introduction


Figure 2: Land Use of Afghanistn

5

and social redevelopment, but it is difficult to preciselydefine an “environment sector.” In practice, waste man-agement and environmental protection are essential con-siderations in all infrastructure-related investments, suchas in the transport, energy, or urban sectors. Likewise,sustainable natural resource management lies at the coreof the agriculture, forestry, and pastoral sectors. For thisreason, the subject of environment has been taken to becross-cutting in nature for the CNA exercise, and no en-vironment-specific investment projects are separatelyidentified in this document.

Rather than an investment plan, this report presentsa summarized set of perspectives on and high prioritydemands for environmental management in the country,and these are cross-referenced when possible with analy-ses presented in CNA reports covering other sectors.3 Adevelopment framework for the “sector” also is suggested,which covers both policy and institutional needs. A workplan is then given for putting this developmentframework into immediate action and further refining it

Table 2: Estimates of Agricultural Land Use 1990/93

Category Area (ha)

Cultivated Land 7,724,227Irrigated 3,206,511Rainfed 4,517,716

Rangeland 32,672,733Total Agricultural Land 40,396,960

Source: FAO. 1999. Provincial Land Cover Atlas of the Islamic State ofAfghanistan.

especially in the eastern part of the country. Figure 3 showsthe extent of deforestation in southeastern Afghanistanover the past 30 years, from 1971 to 1999. Figure 4 givesanother picture of the relative proportions of differentland uses.

Afghanistan is endowed with a wide variety of veg-etative types and habitats that contribute to its uniquebiological resources. Short-lived vegetation grows in thesandy semi-deserts, and salt-tolerant vegetation is foundin the salt semi-deserts. The most common trees foundon humid soils are oaks, ashes, willows, poplars, planes,and fruit trees in orchards. Forests of the Himalayan type,including evergreen oak woods, grow in the borderlandbetween Afghanistan and Pakistan (in Nuristan andPaktia) at an altitude of 2,400 m above sea level. Pine,spruce, and cedar trees grow at 3,500 m, whereas alpinemeadows extend even higher. The slopes of Tirbandi arecovered with pistachio trees.

The fauna of Afghanistan is similar to that of otherCentral Asian countries. Beasts of prey, like the snow leop-ard, brown bear, wolf, striped hyena, jackal, and fox are stillfound in the mountains, though their populations are as-sumed to be in decline. Hoofed mammals are representedby the Marco Polo sheep, markhor, ibex, and others. Sur-veys have been conducted sporadically over the past 30 years,but there are no reliable current estimates of wildlife popu-lations. It is obvious that hunting and habitat degradationhave decimated the indigenous fauna and flora of the coun-try. Management of the existing network of protected areasalso is in disarray. Given the country’s poverty, any efforts togenerate sustainable economic benefits from these re-sources—through ecotourism or other means—will needto pay close attention to the needs and aspirations of com-munities living in and adjacent to protected areas.

Defining theEnvironment SectorSound environmental management will help to establishthe necessary conditions for sustainable economic growth

3 The most important CNA in this regard is that dealing with natural resources andagriculture, already cited above, covering forest, land, and water management.

Figure 4. Land Use Distribution

45

37.3

75

2.3 2.15 0.6 0.45 0.15 0.050

5

10

15

20

25

30

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40

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ren

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over

ed

Fore

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Wat

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Orc

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Urb

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Figure 4: Land Use Distribution

Figure 3. Deforestation in Southeast Afghanistan

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

P aktia Logar N angahar Kunar Laghm an Total

Heactres

Prov

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Forest A rea 1999

Hec

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s

Province

Figure 3: Deforestation in Southeast Afghanistan

Introduction

Source: FAO, 2000


over the longer term withfull participation of Afghanstakeholders. Though in-vestment projects relating toenvironmental manage-ment have been covered bythe other CNAs, this reportincludes an agenda forshort-term technical assis-tance to achieve rapidprogress in establishingnecessary institutional ca-pacity and dealing with highpriority environmentalproblems. Finally, sugges-tions are made concerningan interim donor coordina-tion mechanism for the en-vironment sector.

Afghanistan faces adearth of information across all sectors, including on thesubject of Afghanistan’s current environmental resourcesand challenges to enable priorities to be set. The devel-opment of an environmental baseline database to aid plan-ning and monitoring is one of the high priority earlyactions recommended by this report. Materials identi-fied in the course of preparing this summary report arelisted in the Appendix for those seeking further informa-tion on the subject.4

Environmental Linksbetween Humanitarianand DevelopmentAssistanceEnvironmental considerations are not a luxury uncon-nected to humanitarian aid or the immediate reconstruc-tion effort. In fact, one of the most pressing immediateissues facing Afghanistan is the impact of the return ofrefugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) on bothits natural systems and the ability to provide urban envi-ronmental services. Between 1.4 and 2 million refugeesare expected to return to their homes over the next few

years along with perhaps hundreds of thousands of IDPs.It would appear to be overly simplistic to assume that allthose who originally came from the countryside will re-turn to their villages. At least in the short run, it seemslikely that many returnees will either still have concernsfor their security or have lost touch with their agricul-tural roots and willingness to face the harsh realities ofAfghan rural life. This leads to the conclusion that a largeportion of refugees and IDPs will settle (at least tempo-rarily) in the cities. Indeed, this has been the pattern dur-ing the times of greatest civil unrest in the country overthe past 20 years.

For those who do return to rural areas, the carryingcapacity of the land to support them will depend upon itsinherent productivity and the inputs available. As will beindicated below, the productive capacity of most naturalsystems has been greatly diminished during the period ofconflict. In the short run, many inputs will need to beprovided through external assistance. This donor-sup-ported help will include: temporary food supplies tobridge the period until agricultural systems are once againproductive; rehabilitation of agricultural systems, par-ticularly to provide irrigation; seeds and fertilizers; con-struction materials for housing and other needs; andtechnical assistance associated with all of these inputsand their uses. If this support is not forthcoming, both thereturning refugees and the local populace are much morelikely to practice environmentally degrading and unsus-tainable methods of resource exploitation in order to ekeout an existence. When those in rural areas—especiallyreturning refugees—can no longer survive on what is left

4 Four reports, though dated, have been of particular use: (1) UNDP. 1993. AfghanistanRehabilitation Strategy: Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation. Kabul. (2) Sayer, J.A. andA.P.M. van der Zon. 1981. National Parks and Wildlife Management: Afghanistan: A Con-tribution to a Conservation Strategy, Vol. I: Text and Vol. II: Appendixes. Rome: UNDP/FAO. (3) United Nations Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian and Eco-nomic Assistance Programmes Relating to Afghanistan. 1991. Opportunities for Im-proved Environmental Management in Afghanistan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. (4) UnitedStates Agency for International Development. 1992. Afghanistan Environmental Profile:Phase I. Washington, D.C.

Children at the Zhare Dasht UNHCR settlement camp outside Kandahar

7

in the countryside, they may join the urban poor, creatingadditional demands for employment, housing, andenvironmental services (e.g., water supply and both solidwaste and wastewater management) in the cities to whichthey migrate.

The return of refugees and IDPs thus raises a va-riety of questions with far-reaching environmentalimplications that will need to be considered jointly bythose managing humanitarian and development as-sistance programs. Despite the attempts by the ITGA,donors, and nongovernment organizations to betterunderstand these processes, many questions remainunanswered. Does Afghanistan have sufficient prop-erly irrigated land to support both the resident popu-lation and returnees? Where will returning refugeesobtain materials for shelter and fuel? Is it realistic to

expect large numbers of refugees to return toAfghanistan’s countryside? If they do return to theseareas, will Afghanistan’s rural ecosystems experienceswift and possibly irreversible degradation in theabsence of substantial investment in improved ruralinfrastructure and the human skills needed to sustaina productive environment? If Afghanistan’s cities arelikely to be the main locus for returning refugees—either initially or following unsuccessful attempts atrural relocation—should not these urban environ-ments be a major focus of attention for the provisionof environmental services? Answers to such questionslie in studies being undertaken, although geographicrelocation patterns for refugees and IDPs will not beclear until the process of their resettlement has beenfurther analyzed.

Introduction

9

CHAPTER II

SUBSECTOR NEEDS ANDPERSPECTIVES

· water supply, drainage and wastewater managementin urban areas;

· rural water supply for domestic purposes;· agricultural water use for various forms of irrigation

as well as animal husbandry;· generation of hydropower;· water for large and small industries and associated

wastewater treatment; and· water to support natural systems such as forests,

rangelands, and wetlands.The majority of Afghans do not have access to safe

water, which together with a lack of sanitation and hy-giene have serious consequences for the health and wellbeing of the populace. Even before the period of conflict,only 8% of the country’s settled population had access tosafe water, and it must be assumed that the situation iscurrently worse. Wastewater collection and drainageproblems are particularly serious in urban areas, wheresewage (and refuse) often is discharged directly into thestreets.

Several water-related issues are of special significancefrom a natural resource management perspective, includ-ing land degradation from poor irrigation practices,groundwater management, and hydropower development.Problems of salinization from poorly planned agricul-tural drainage schemes and inefficient on-farm irriga-tion practices should be avoided as irrigation systems arerehabilitated. The recharge rates of many groundwateraquifers are poorly understood, so their exploitation—especially through the use of tubewells for agriculturalpurposes—should be handled with care. There is evi-dence that many deep aquifers already are being depletedat unsustainable rates, and shallow groundwater resourcesare susceptible to pollution. Any efforts to develop thecountry’s enormous hydropower potential through other

5 See also: ADB. 2002. Afghanistan Natural Resources and Agriculture Sector Comprehen-sive Needs Assessment—Draft Report. Manila, especially Appendix 3: Water ResourcesManagement, upon which this section has relied heavily.

Renewable ResourceManagement

Water

No natural resource is more precious inAfghanistan than water, and water managementsystems throughout the country have been

severely damaged during the years of internal strife. Asthe country looks ahead to peace and prosperity, both ru-ral and urban residents alike are looking first to the resto-ration of water management systems to support domesticsupplies, irrigation, industry, and the natural environment.It is important that an overall planning framework beadopted that is based on the principles of integrated wa-ter resources management—taking into account the needto balance urban, rural, agricultural, industrial, and envi-ronmental uses—and preferably framed within a riverbasin context that considers both surface and groundwa-ter resources.5

Efforts are underway to identify the highest priorityinfrastructure investments for water management, andmany of these are included in the assistance programsrelating to water supply, sanitation, and agriculture (seethe separate CNA documents for these project conceptsand plans). Though not all water uses are consumptive innature, competition under conditions of chronically shortsupply found in Afghanistan can be intense. The key wa-ter uses and concerns that should be considered are asfollows:

Subsector Needs and Perspectives


than mini-hydropower schemes also will need to applyaccepted international norms for environmental and so-cial planning and protection such as those based on therecommendations of the World Commission on Dams.

Wetlands are another important “user” of river wa-ter that should not be forgotten in establishing sustain-able rates of upstream water withdrawals. Many ofAfghanistan’s rivers have no outlet to the sea and draininto a series of depressions from which water is lost byevaporation. This results in the formation of large shal-low saline lakes and marshes, which are biologically pro-ductive ecosystems of international importance formigrating and wintering water birds. These ecosystemsalso produce fish, down feathers, and reeds harvested bylocal populations that represent important sources of in-come. Failure to take these values into account when com-petition has occurred for scarce water resources has ledto the degradation of wetlands from low and increasedsalinity flows resulting in loss of natural habitat and sub-sequent elimination of wildlife species.

Another important consideration in the redevelop-ment of water management institutions relates to respect

for traditional water resource rights at all scales—fromthe well or karez system (underground water channels) tothe stream or irrigation canal and even to the level of theriver basin. Special care should be taken to understandpast, and often sustainable, patterns of water resource useand allocation as the basis for introducing any suggestedinfrastructure improvements.

Traditional farming in Afghanistan has been prac-ticed since historical times and provides the most effi-cient use of the limited water supply from glacial streams,springs, and karez systems, which are prevalent in the aridparts of the country. Karez systems comprise a network ofwells connected through underground tunnels, and rep-resent one of the most efficient ways of collecting unpol-luted water. Only traditional technology is required tobuild them and they have low maintenance costs. The3,000-year-old karez system is labor intensive, conserveswater and soil, and creates a diverse biotic environment.This system has little adverse effect on aquifers, as thewater is supplied by springs. However, the functioning ofkarez systems has been severely compromised by thebombing of mountainous areas of the country.

Karez systems and other traditional agricultural prac-tices in Afghanistan conserve natural resources, whilelarge-scale agricultural projects have created serious en-vironmental problems such as the salinization of soilsand drying up of major wetlands. In Afghanistan’s aridenvironment, the few existing wetlands are of enormousvalue for maintaining a balance between developmentand biological diversity.

Afghanistan’s territory is drained by three large riverbasins: the Amu Darya River Basin in the northeast, whichflows into Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to the Aral Sea; theIndus River Basin in the east, which flows through Paki-stan to the Arabian Sea; and the desert river basins thatflow into lakes and marshes along the border with Iran inthe south and southwest (streams only flow into the Paki-stan province of Baluchistan during the spring and earlysummer). Of the eight principal sub-basins in Afghani-stan, only three can be exclusively used by the country:the Southwestern Basin, which includes the Farah, Harut,and Kajrud Rivers among others; a group of small riversin the north and northwest, including the Murghab andBalkhab Rivers; and tributaries to the Amu Darya beforethe river forms the border with Tajikistan.

The remaining sub-basins, including all the substan-tial perennial rivers in the rest of the country, are sharedwith neighboring countries. This raises issues of interna-tional transboundary water management affecting espe-cially the Kunduz, Pania, and Kokcha Rivers in the north(flowing to the Amu Darya River and Aral Sea through

Wells such as this one in the mountain village of Qadam Joy innorthern Afghanistan are nearly empty as a result ofprolonged drought

11

Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), the Hari RudRiver in the west (flowing to Iran), and the Kabul Riverin the east (flowing to the Indus River through Pakistan).A water sharing agreement exists with Iran for theHelmand River, but nothing has been done in this regardfor many years. There were also several agreements be-tween Afghanistan and the now defunct Union of SovietSocialist Republics (USSR) covering the Amu Darya River:the Frontier Agreement between Afghanistan and the USSRof 1946; and the Protocol between the Soviet Union andAfghanistan on joint execution of works for the integratedutilization of water resources in the frontier section of theAmu Darya of 1958. These agreements entitled Afghani-stan to use 9 cubic kilometers (km3) of Amu Darya wa-ters or about 13% of what is now estimated as thelong-term average annual river discharge of 70 km3. Af-ghanistan currently uses about 2 km3 or 3% of the aver-age annual river discharge.

In time, international dialogue and institutionalstructures will be needed to deal with interstate agree-ments governing the use of these shared waters. Espe-cially in the case of the Amu Darya Basin in the north, itmay be prudent to open early communications with theTashkent-based Interstate Commission for Water Coor-dination and the Amu Darya River Basin Authority(known as the BVO Amu Darya), which manage waterallocation for the area of the Aral Sea Basin falling withinthe five former Soviet Central Asian republics. This wouldhelp address disagreements over water allocation as theirrigation systems of Afghanistan’s northern plains areredeveloped.

Development of the balance of surface water (as in-dicated in Table 3) will likely require some major stor-age investments that will affect transboundary stream flowpatterns. Accelerated groundwater development will alsoreduce baseflows of these rivers in the summer and fallseasons, which downstream users have recently come toexpect. As pressure builds to expand water resource de-velopment in Afghanistan, these riparian issues concern-ing water sharing will have to be addressed to avoid costlydelays and disagreements.

An estimated 99% of developed water resources areused for irrigation. Demands on surface water and ground-water resources are likely to grow substantially in thenear term due in part to the large number of returningrefugees and IDPs. Villages, towns, and cities will de-mand improved drinking water supplies as a high prior-ity. Hydropower resources will need to be developed tomeet energy needs in both rural and urban areas, andindustrial development to expand employment will re-quire reliable supplies of water. Domestic and industrialdemands also may negatively affect water quality in theabsence of effective monitoring and enforcement of envi-ronmental standards. Traditionally, village irrigationschemes were used to deliver water not only to crops butalso to the village for domestic, livestock, and other uses.Many villages may be able to shift to better quality ground-water supplies, but this will require increased investmentand far more vigilant management of groundwater re-charge and groundwater quality. It is clear, therefore, thateven if the development of remaining surface water re-sources for irrigation is deferred for the longer term, im-proved water resource management will be required in theshort to medium term to overcome barriers and constraintsto full recovery and sustained growth in the country.

Water conservation and harvesting is another areadeserving immediate attention. This can be accomplishedthrough soil, pasture, and vegetative and forest covermanagement; and construction of check dams, contourbunds, and other facilities to conserve water and enhancegroundwater recharge in all watersheds. The wet seasonis short in Afghanistan (from December to April), and itcomes at a time when vegetative cover is low and manyareas are still covered by snow. Moreover, years of defor-estation and conversion of pasture to rainfed cultivation(especially for growing wheat) have left much of the land-scape denuded and degraded. Global experience has dem-onstrated in a wide range of arid environments similar toAfghanistan that water harvesting measures combinedwith pasture restoration and reforestation can improvewater management; increase water available for drink-ing, livestock, and irrigated farming; and strengthen

Table 3: Preliminary Water Balance for Afghanistan (million m3)

Water Resources Potential Present Use Balance Future Usea Balance

Surface Water 57,000 17,000 40,000 30,000 27,000Groundwater 18,000 3,000 15,000 5,000 13,000Total 75,000 20,000 55,000 35,000 40,000

a With all irrigation schemes rehabilitated and managed efficiently.Source: FAO. 1997. Afghanistan Agriculture Strategy.



livelihoods and reduce their vulnerability in a variety ofways. The resulting additional area of irrigated land, al-though small, is important in areas where water suppliesare so scant, especially when farmers irrigate high value-added crops such as nuts, fruit, fodder, and vegetables.Water harvesting measures are also very labor intensiveand offer the ITGA an important opportunity to gener-ate short-term employment during the current emergency.

Persistent droughts and the availability of donor fi-nancing have provided a stimulus to groundwater deple-tion by means of deep tubewells and in the process,resulted in a lowering of water tables. For example, thesprings around Kabul that lie within their zone of influ-ence have dried up. This is a serious and possibly cata-strophic development for Afghanistan if it is not correctlymanaged. Not only does the country possibly lose im-portant drought reserves, but water rights are illegallytransferred from those who owned and used the spring orkarez to those who are able to invest in the tubewell. Untilthe ITGA is able to develop an effective monitoring andregulatory system for groundwater, it would seem sen-sible and prudent to develop and implement a monitor-ing program on an urgent basis in sensitive areas and torestrict and/or ban the expanded use of deep tubewells.

Forests

Traditionally, Afghanistan’s tribes preserved forests andrange resources through division of land use. However,the most significant and visible adverse environmentalconsequence of the conflict period in Afghanistan hasbeen the loss of forest cover. Historical accounts showextensive forests in the region north of Kabul with relicpatches of woodland existing in Istalif and Charikar, northof Kabul. In his 16th century memoirs, Emperor Baburgave an account of forests around Kabul. This suggeststhat vast areas of forest in various parts of the countryhave been destroyed by overgrazing and cutting in therecent past.6

FAO and UNDP estimates in the early 1980s placethe area of forests at approximately 2.2 million ha. From thattime to 1991, the forest area declined from an already lowbase of 3.4% to only 2.6% of total land area, or about 1.9million ha. As indicated in Figure 4 (in Chapter I), the latestestimates indicate that forest area stands at approximately2% of the country’s land area. As energy supplies were dis-rupted during the period of conflict, the cutting of forests forfuelwood accelerated. Many forests also were purposely

cleared during the war years for security reasons, especiallythose adjacent to roads and other infrastructure. The defor-estation process has now reached a stage where near totalloss of forests may be imminent unless urgent and decisiveconservation measures are taken.

The remaining forests of Afghanistan still provide avariety of environmentally and economically important ser-vices. From an environmental standpoint, they are crucial towatershed protection, and natural forests represent impor-tant indigenous ecosystems and habitats. These environmen-tal services generate significant though largely non-marketvalues associated with short-term flood protection, erosioncontrol, aesthetics, and biodiversity conservation. Thecountry’s forests are also an important source of saleabletimber and non-timber products, including fuelwood, char-coal, roots, and nuts.

Further loss of forest cover, primarily from steepmountainsides, will compound the problems associatedwith poor watershed management, including slope de-stabilization, soil erosion, and reservoir siltation. Themanagement of timber forests is of particular concern.Reports have cited pistachio forests being cut for fire-wood and stands of old growth cedar in the eastern prov-inces being felled for the lucrative export trade in timber.Furthermore, demand for both building materials andfuelwood is expected to mushroom with the return of

6 See also: ADB. 2002. Afghanistan Natural Resources and Agriculture Sector Comprehen-sive Needs Assessment—Draft Report. Manila, especially Appendix 2: Natural ResourcesManagement, which covers forestry, agroforestry, and watershed management.

Shrinking forests make firewood difficult to obtain

13

Livestock near a river in northern Afghanistan where fodder is scarce.

refugees, thereby threateningthe remaining accessible forest-land in the absence of externalsupplies.

As in the case of renewedwater management efforts inrural communities, special at-tention will need to be given tounderstanding past, and oftensustainable, patterns of forestresource use and allocation.While many traditional com-munity-based systems of forestmanagement were disruptedduring the period of conflict,they deserve close investigationto reintroduce appropriate lo-cal incentives for sustainable


by domestic stock, and the specific implications for landresource management. Once again, traditional institu-tional arrangements within pastoral communities lim-ited access to rangelands so that grazing levels were keptwithin the regenerative capacities of the land. These sys-tems should be understood and respected wherever fea-sible. Improving the productivity of pastures and returnsto animal husbandry holds the promise of generating im-proved incomes for some of Afghanistan’s poorest com-munities. As water, forest, and rangeland managementare all closely interlinked, integrated approaches—per-haps within the framework of river basin management,when applicable—should be used to the greatest extentpossible.

Biodiversity/Protected Areas8

Afghanistan’s position within the region where thePalaearctic and Oriental faunal realms intermingle high-lights its zoogeographic and international importance,not only in terms of biodiversity and endemism but alsofor the occurrence of flagship endangered species such asthe markhor (Capra falconeri), Marco Polo sheep (Ovisammon poli), musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), snow leop-ard (Uncia uncia), and Siberian crane (Grus leucogeranus).There are some 441 bird species in the country that

7 See also: ADB. 2002. Afghanistan Natural Resources and Agriculture Sector Comprehen-sive Needs Assessment—Draft Report. Manila, especially Appendix 6: Livestock Produc-tion and Animal Health.

8 Among other sources, this section draws from: (1) Habibi, K. 2002. EnvironmentalConservation in Afghanistan: a Proposal. Unpublished. (2) Habibi, K. 2002. Personalcommunication. (3) Hogan, R. (compiler). 2002. Natural Heritage Documentation forAfghanistan, Vol 1. IUCN Programme on Protected Areas. Gland, Switzerland: Unpub-lished. (4) Petocz, R. and J. Larsson. 1977. Ecological Reconnaissance of Western Nuristanwith Recommendations for Management. FAO:DP/AFG/74/016 Field Document #9.Kabul: UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Ministry of Agriculture. (5)UNDP/FAO. 1981. Afghanistan National Parks and Wildlife Management: A Contributionto a Conservation Strategy. Rome.

forest management. There also is a legitimate and im-portant role for the private sector to play in the country’sforest resource development—particularly in establish-ing commercial forest plantations under appropriate en-vironmental safeguards.

Rangelands

Pastures are estimated to cover approximately 40 millionha of Afghanistan’s territory, or nearly 60% of the totalland area, and animal husbandry produces an essentialcomponent of rural income. Prior to the extended periodof conflict, approximately 15 million ha of lowlands andsteppes were used for winter grazing, while 25 million haof mountainous lands served as spring and summer pas-tures. The total carrying capacity of the country’s currentgrazing lands for different ruminants (sheep, goats, andcattle) has not yet been determined. In 1978/79, 40 mil-lion ha of pastures supported an estimated 25 millionanimals. Nomadic herding communities traveled longdistances with their animals to exploit the spring and sum-mer grazing lands in mountain ranges, returning eachwinter to the eastern and southeastern lowlands ofAfghanistan and the border region with Pakistan.7

To better understand both the land resource man-agement challenges and economic potential of these ac-tivities, it is important that investigations and assessmentsbe initiated soon on pastoral nomads, with particularemphasis on their migratory patterns, range utilization


include numerous species of migratory waterfowl andwaders that seasonally use Afghanistan’s wetlands ofHamun-i-Puzak and Hamun-i-Helmand on the Iranianborder, and Ab-i-Estada and Dashte Nawar for feeding,breeding, and rearing their young. Dashte Nawar at3,210 m elevation is the highest breeding area in theworld for the greater flamingo (Phoenicopteris ruber roseus).Among Afghanistan’s 250 mammal species, there are alsomany exotic forms that include the caracal cat, leopard,lynx, goitered gazelle, Siberian ibex, urial, and wild goatto mention but a few. A number of the ungulates, in par-ticular the Marco Polo sheep, markhor, and urial, aretransboundary species that have seasonal movements toand from Afghanistan and neighboring countries. Theirrational utilization and conservation in Afghanistan isvital in terms of maintaining global biodiversity and ahealthy state of the regional environment.

Northern Afghanistan forms part of the center ofplant diversity for the mountains of middle Asia. In addi-tion, there are many other interesting plant communitiesin the country, but many have been depleted during thewar years. For example, wild pistachio (Pistachia) andalmond (Amygdalis) woodlands have been severely de-graded. The maintenance of their gene pool is essential ifthese species are to be utilized to improve domesticatedvarieties. The holly oak, cedar, pine forests, and remnantjuniper forests of Nuristan and Laghman have under-gone unmonitored exploitation in areas close to roads.However, roads penetrate only the periphery of these for-ested areas, and reliable sources in Afghanistan reportthat montane forests in these provinces are still in good topristine condition in the hinterlands. Forests of PaktiaProvince have perhaps been the most seriously affectedduring the war and subsequent anti-terrorist activities thatare still ongoing. Until the security situation improves, itis unlikely conservation activities can be expanded intothis border province in the short term. Among the manyimportant economic plants in the country, cumin (Carumbulbocastranum) is one of the principal spices that is ex-ported internationally. The valleys of Badakhshan pro-duce the highest quality cumin in the world and the seedsof this herb have been exported along the ancient SilkRoad trade route for thousands of years.

Sustainable use of wildlife resources was being ac-tively practiced by the Afghan Tourist Organization(ATO), one of the primary government agencies activein conservation of natural resources through a touristhunting and trekking program until the start of the war.For a number of years, ATO had been conducting a hunt-ing program for Marco Polo sheep and ibex in the BigPamir Mountains in the western part of the Wakhan Cor-ridor. Besides substantial economic returns (12 adult male

Ovis Poli (“Marco Polo”), Hindu-Kush

Four varieties of Ibex

Markhor

Source: Sahab Geographic and Drafting Institute. 1939. General Atlas ofAfghanistan. Tehran.

15

wild sheep were huntedannually at a cost of$16,000 per sheep), localpeople were substantiallyinvolved in the huntingprogram by providingguides, hunters, porters,pack animals, and food-stuffs for which they re-ceived considerableeconomic benefits, besidessecondary benefits ofmedical assistance, cloth-ing, and school supplies forchildren. The result wasthat a large reserve of some68,000 ha, a former royalhunting reserve, was main-tained and honored by thelocal communities wheregrazing of domestic ani-mals was limited, thus maintaining the natural environmentfor near exclusive use of wildlife.

Alexander the Great and Ghengis Khan, two of Asia’smost noted conquerors, failed in their efforts to introducelimited hunting “legislation” among the tribes of ancientAryana. Modern Afghans are no more agreeable to huntingrestrictions than were their forebears. However, survival ofthe Afghan fur industry depends on the maintenance of ad-equate stocks of wild predators. To achieve a sustained yield,there must be decreases in the annual kill. Since no huntinglegislation exists, these problems could be approached fromthe marketing end. This can be most effectively achieved byplacing an outright ban on all fur exports, clamping downon smuggling, and making it illegal to sell furs of endan-gered species, including snow leopard, lynx, Blandford’s fox,the yellow throated marten, Asiatic cheetah, and caracal.

International involvement in Afghanistan’s conser-vation efforts was initiated in 1971 with independent wild-life conservation studies and efforts centered in the highPamir Mountains of the Wakhan Corridor. The research-ers were subsequently employed by ATO as wildlife con-sultants and for two years conducted reconnaissancewildlife surveys over much of Afghanistan. The objectivewas the possible expansion of conservation efforts in thecountry through community participation in an expandedtourism program focused on sustainable wildlife utiliza-tion and other ecotourism programs. Subsequently, theWorld Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)9 funded additional

surveys, particularly for the greater flamingo, Siberiancrane and other waterfowl and water birds in Ab-i-Estadaand Dashte Nawar in Ghazni Province.

These efforts and further interest of the Governmentin expanding its conservation program led to the initia-tion in 1974 of the UNDP-funded and FAO-imple-mented Conservation and Utilization of WildlifeResources Project. Its goals were to ensure conservationand effective management of the country’s spectacularand valuable wildlife resources and habitats and to stimu-late tourism by establishing a system of national parksand wildlife reserves representative of the various eco-logical zones of Afghanistan. Subsequently, the Govern-ment designated the protected parks listed in Table 4.

The project continued for the following 6 years untilpolitical instability and security issues caused its demise.During that time, the Forest and Range ManagementDepartment of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irriga-tion was appointed the responsible authority for wildlifeand protected areas management and took a leading rolein furthering conservation efforts. It became the majorgovernment agency co-directing the UNDP/ FAOproject. The Department directed expanded efforts in wet-land conservation, and through the project took the lead inconducting additional conservation work in the forested areasof Nuristan and Laghman, the Hazarajat and Pamir Moun-tains, Hamun-i-Helmand, and the Puzak wetlands onthe Iranian border, among others. Twelve sites and anadditional three cultural heritage sites were identified aspotential components of Afghanistan’sprotected areas system, covering a range of ecosystems

9 The World Wide Fund for Nature was formerly known as the World Wildlife Fund;its international headquarters are located in Gland, Switzerland.

Tulibai Valley in the Big Pamir Wildlife Reserve



from the high mountains and forested areas in the easternpart of the country to the wetlands of the southeast andcentral parts of the country (see Table 5). Additionally, in1973 ATO succeeded in securing government approvalfor Afghanistan’s first national park in Bande Amir

(41,000 ha), and in the same year, the country alsoacceded to the Ramsar Wetland Convention.

After 1979, all conservation work came to an abrupthalt and pending proposals for an expansion of the naturereserve system in Afghanistan could not be realized.Afghanistan’s natural resource base and environment hasundergone extensive deterioration over the past two de-cades as a direct result of wars, political instability, inten-sive natural resource exploitation, and recent widespreaddrought that has affected many parts of the country. Envi-ronmental conservation has remained at a relative stand-still since then and the exploitation of natural resources,in particular the country’s meager forests, have contin-ued unabated. The few government institutions that ex-isted to conserve the natural heritage of the country wererendered ineffective by the military conflict. Traditionalconservation knowledge has been on the decline and amassive exodus of professionals from the country has leftAfghanistan with few intellectuals and experienced tech-nocrats to implement conservation activities.

In 1995, the Society of Afghanistan Volunteers forthe Environment (SAVE), an Afghan nongovernmentorganization (NGO) formerly based in Peshawar, initi-ated additional surveys in the Ab-i-Estada and DashteNawar wetlands, and later did snow leopard surveys inthe Wakhan district with the assistance of WWF-Paki-stan. Save the Environment-Afghanistan (SEA) replacedSAVE in 1998 and has since conducted a number of con-servation programs that include community awarenessand mobilization for environmental protection, refores-tation, and forest monitoring.

Presently, the lack of environmental protection com-bined with a burgeoning human population dependentupon a declining natural resource base has driven manyspecies of plants and animals to the brink of extinction.As an illustration, aid workers and soldiers from the

Table 4: Designated Protected Areas

Name Area Year Elevation Designation IUCN(ha) (m) Category

Dashte Nawar 7,500 1977 3,200-3,210 WaterfowlSanctuary IV

Pamir-i-Buzurg 67,938 1978 3,250-6,103 Wildlife Reserve IVAb-i-Estada 27,000 1977 1,950-2,100 Waterfowl Sanctuary IVProposed National ParkAjar Valley 40,000 1978 2,000-3,800 Wildlife Reserve IVProposed National ParkBande Amir 41,000 1973 2,900-3,832 National Park IIKole Hashmat Khan 191 1973 1,792-1,794 Waterfowl Sanctuary IV

Source: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre.

Table 5: Proposed Protected Areas

Name Area Elevation Proposed(m) Designation

Nuristan TBD 4,876-6,293 National Park

Darquad (Takhar) Wildlife Management Reserve TBD 2,000-4,000 TBDImam Sahib (Kunduz) Wildlife Management Reserve TBD 1,900-2,095 TBDHamun-i-Puzak 35,000 1,620-1,731 National

ParkRegistan Desert Wildlife Management Reserve TBD 800-1,200 TBDNorthwest Afghanistan Managed Reserve (Badghis) TBD 1,200-2,000 TBDBamiyan Buddha Complex (cultural heritage site) TBD unknown National

ParkZadran(cultural heritage site) TBD unknown National

ReserveKhulm Landmark (cultural heritage site) TBD unknown Protected

Area

Notes: IUCN categories have not yet been assigned. TBD-to be determined. .Source: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre.

17

International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) are con-tributing to the extinction of snow leopards by buyingtheir pelts for $1,500. Despite an international ban on thetrade, pelts are sold openly in stores in Kabul. There areestimated to be fewer than 100 snow leopards left in Af-ghanistan and about 3,500 in Central Asia. Afghans facedwith drought that has gripped the country for the last fouryears have resorted to killing the snow leopard’s prey.Hunters are also selling the bones of the snow leopardfor their alleged aphrodisiac and healing properties inChinese traditional medicine.10 Policy should be urgentlyenacted banning the sale of the pelts. Communities insnow leopard habitats should be provided incentives andempowered in their traditional role of guardians of theirlands.

Seventy-five species of animals and plants found inAfghanistan have been placed on the IUCN Red Listwith 35 species of animals listed as either vulnerable orendangered. The total number of threatened species iscertainly much higher, as essentially no wildlife researchhas occurred in Afghanistan in many years.

The ITGA ratified the Convention on BiologicalDiversity on August 15, 2002. Apart from the assessmentsmentioned above and some collaboration with the Inter-national Board for Plant Genetic Resources concerningdocumentation of local grain varieties, it has been manyyears since the country has actively engaged itself in glo-bal or regional cooperation relating to biodiversity conser-vation and protected parks management.

Pollution andEnvironmental Health

Urban and IndustrialPollution

Urbanization in Kabul and Herat—and to a lesser ex-tent in Mazar-i-Sharif, Kandahar, and other cities—iscurrently taking place in an almost totally haphazard fash-ion. This disorganized process is making it virtually im-possible for the municipalities to plan for and provideeven the most rudimentary environmental services, suchas solid waste management, drainage, protection ofgroundwater supply and quality, household and commer-cial wastewater management, piped water supply, air pol-lution control, and urban zoning or land-use planning.

Solid waste management has come almost to a stand-still. Disruptions from the war, including damage to col-lection trucks, and a lack of funds for workers’ salariesand fuel has brought the system to near collapse in mostmunicipal settings. In Kabul, for example, garbage isbeing disposed of in informal dumps around the city, andthere is only the most rudimentary collection service.Some government agencies and NGOs have been assist-ing by providing fuel or food in exchange for work bymunicipality laborers, but this system is not sustainablein the absence of a direct cost recovery mechanism orsome other source of municipal revenues.


A busy scene in Kabul where large numbers of returnees are straining availableresources

10 Harrison, David. 2003. Afghan Leopard Faces Extinction as AidWorkers Buy Pelts. The Telegraph. January 5. Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news.

Desertification

By many accounts, the process of desertifi-cation is already advanced in several areas ofAfghanistan’s arid north, west, and south. Thesevere drought of the past four years has beenexacerbated by the adverse effects of the con-flict on resource management patterns. Thenear total lack of data indicating trends inland conditions makes it extremely difficultto assess the locations and degrees of threatrepresented by this phenomenon. Neverthe-less, the topic deserves special attention asenvironmental management efforts in thecountry begin in earnest. Afghanistan signedthe Convention on Combating Drought andDesertification on January 11, 1995.


Issues relating to water resources management, in-cluding some of those associated with urban and indus-trial use, already have been discussed. Where theinfrastructure of municipal water supply, drainage, andwastewater collection and treatment existed prior to theconflict period, it generally is in need of rehabilitation.In other areas such infrastructure must be planned andbuilt for the first time. Such measures should greatly re-duce the prevalence of health problems from water-bornediseases. This should be of high concern, since Afghani-stan has one of the highest child mortality rates in theworld—primarily because of diarrheal diseases. Though itwill be challenging under the economic conditions preva-lent in Afghanistan, it will be advisable to follow full costrecovery and user pays principles wherever feasible (whilestill ensuring that water is available to meet the basic needsof the poor) so that neither the national nor localgovernments become saddled with high recurrent costs foroperation and maintenance of water-related services.

Outdoor air pollution is increasing in Kabul and sev-eral other urban areas, largely from vehicular emissions.Kabul’s air quality problems are exacerbated in the win-ter months when the city is prone to atmospheric inver-sion. Programs for the management of traffic flow andcontrol of vehicular emissions need to be established inadvance of the increased traffic that will come with rede-velopment. Indoor air pollution also is a potential sourceof health problems, especially associated with stoves usedin the winter months when there is poor ventilation in-doors. It is as much a rural as urban phenomenon, thoughthe latter can be expected to decrease as kerosene andother fuels become more widely affordable in urban ar-eas. As stated earlier, Afghanistan ratified the UN Frame-work Convention on Climate Change (UN FCCC),bringing the country into international dialogue and en-hancing the possibility of grant resources being madeavailable for simultaneously addressing local air pollu-tion problems and greenhouse gas emissions.

As noted, urban zoning or land use planning is virtu-ally non-existent. The refugee influx is creating enor-mous pressures on cities to provide adequate services,and this is made even more difficult by the lack of spatialplanning or enforcement of even rudimentary zoning re-quirements. For example, encroachment on fertile agri-culture lands immediately adjacent to cities is threateningto drive up the cost of providing urban areas with foodsupplies, reducing green space and displacing an impor-tant source of sustainable income and nutrition, espe-cially from production of high value crops such asvegetables. Careful attention also should be given to thelocation of industries, with the preferable approach

being to co-locate those with similar waste products—particularly small and medium-scale enterprises—so thatthey can cooperate in waste reduction or treatment mea-sures. Also, companies can be co-located to promotewaste exchange—in which the by-product of one com-pany is used as an input to another company.

The mining and energy sectors also present specialenvironmental management challenges. As these sectorsare redeveloped, care must be taken to ensure that a widerange of exploration, exploitation, and distribution op-tions are considered to minimize adverse environmentalimpacts. Oil, gas, coal, marble, and other mining activi-ties as well as pipelines and hydropower dams can bringsignificant economic benefits to the country, but thisshould not be done at the expense of social, cultural, orenvironmental concerns. Afghanistan acceding to the UNFCCC also opens up new possibilities for developmentof greenhouse gas reduction activities under the CleanDevelopment Mechanism in the energy sector. This mayoffer additional incentives for the essential developmentof renewable energy resources such as the establishmentof sustainable fuelwood lots and use of other biomassenergy sources as well as solar power, wind power,microhydro, and biogas options.

Agrochemicals

The use of agrochemicals (fertilizers, insecticides, her-bicides, and fungicides) has been promoted by govern-ment and donor-funded agricultural projects in responseto the need to increase staple food crop and horticulturalproduction. The handling, application, storage, and trans-port of agricultural chemicals, particularly insecticidesand herbicides, pose significant environmental and healthchallenges, which will increase as agricultural activityintensifies. Appropriate incentives and safeguards, espe-cially to protect children from adverse exposure to insec-ticides, should be established and maintained.

Insecticides have been used in Afghanistan for manyyears, especially for locust control in the northern prov-inces. Of particular concern is the use and storage ofBHC, a highly persistent chemical insecticide previouslysupplied by the former Soviet Union for the eradicationof locusts. It is now banned in all countries. As of 1992,there were approximately 7 million kilograms of BHCin paper bags improperly stored in various locationsaround the country that require containment and disposal.There is concern that BHC use may be tempting for con-trol of the latest locust infestation if alternatives are notmade available. Afghanistan has not yet availed itself ofany external assistance with regard to the management of

19

persistent organic pollutants (POPs), the internationalmanagement of which is now covered by the GlobalEnvironment Facility.


Landmines and chemical residues from years of war endangerfarmers

Residuals of Warfare

Certain regions of Afghanistan were subjected to inten-sive attack by chemical weapons during the conflict withthe former Soviet Union. Between 1979 and 1981,chemical attacks reportedly killed more than 3,000 people.Unfortunately, there is no information available as to thepersistence of toxins in soil, vegetation, and animal tissues.Investigations are warranted into the safety of these areas forpeople and livestock, for example through exotoxicologyassays.

In the aftermath of widespread bombing of targetsacross the country, it is necessary to assess the contaminantsreleased, associated toxicological and radiological risks, andmitigation measures.

There also are unconfirmed reports of radioactive wastesin the deserts of the south left over from the period of Sovietoccupation, and these need to be investigated and dealtwith appropriately.

The country also is littered with landmines—representing one of the greatest humanitarian and de-velopment challenges to be overcome in the recon-struction process. These landmines have not onlycaused suffering for the human population and resultedin the loss of wildlife, but they also have destroyedhundreds of irrigation systems. Landmines acceler-ate environmental damage through their explosions,but the fear of mines also drives herders, villagers,and others from productive areas thought to be minedinto more marginal and fragile environments—speeding the depletion of resources and destructionof biological diversity.

21

CHAPTER III

DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORKFOR THE ENVIRONMENTSECTOR

enhanced government-donor interaction and coordina-tion of efforts.12

Environment will be mainstreamed where feasibleinto each program area and reflected in the national bud-get exercise. An Advisory Group will be established to as-sist in mainstreaming environment into each CG as wellas report to the CG Standing Committee andultimately the Afghanistan Development Forum. ADBand UNEP have been designated as the focal points forenvironment.

Unfortunately, Afghanistan is starting from an ex-tremely low base with regard to its policies for manage-ment of natural resources and protection of theenvironment. While this presents enormous challenges,it also allows the country to design a policy frameworkfully responsive to national aspirations and needs.Policymakers also can take advantage of the many les-sons available from international experience in this fieldapplicable to helping the country establish a firm basisfor its sustainable development.

One such lesson is that economics and environmen-tal management go hand-in-hand. Sound managementof natural resources and environmental protectiondirectly underpin the basis for sustainable economicgrowth and long-term social welfare. The subject ofenvironmental management is not a luxury to beconsidered only after the country’s infrastructure andeconomy are rebuilt, but rather it is central to the strategyfor achieving sustainable prosperity for the people ofAfghanistan.

Policy Framework

Interim development objectives have beenadopted by the ITGA and are reflected in its as-piration to see international humanitarian and de-

velopment assistance become an instrument for reducingpoverty, reestablishing national sovereignty and unity, andlaying the foundation for the country’s sustainable pros-perity. To achieve these objectives, the AIA proposed inits mid-2002 Draft National Development Frameworkthree pillars of development strategy.11 These are to(i) use humanitarian assistance and social policy tocreate the conditions for people to live secure lives and tolay the foundations for the sustainable formation ofhuman capital; (ii) use external development assistanceto build the physical infrastructure needed to lay the basisfor a private sector-led strategy of growth supportingthe formation of human and social capital; and (iii) tocreate a competitive private sector that becomes theengine of economic growth and an instrument of socialinclusion through creation of opportunity.

The Government has taken the decision to estab-l ish Consultative Groups (CGs) within whichthe national budget will be planned, financed, andimplemented. Each Consultative Group is expectedto focus on the attainment of specific benchmarksin the areas of policy development and institutionalreform and the programming, implementation, andmonitoring of specific national programs. Consulta-tive Groups will create the enabling environment for

11 Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority. 2002. National Development Framework(Draft for Consultation). Kabul.

Development Framework for the Environment Sector

12 Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority. 2002. The Establishment of ConsultativeGroups for Furtherance of the National Development Programme (draft). Kabul.


Given the country’s extremely scarce financial andhuman resources for environmental management, it isvital that policies and programs in this sector be efficientas well as effective. For environmental policies to be ef-fective, they require capable public institutions—pres-ently a scarce commodity in the country. Enactingcomprehensive legislation is of limited value in the nearterm if institutions are incapable of overseeing their imple-mentation and taking actions to address high priority en-vironment problems. Because environmental issues cutacross sectoral boundaries and may involve a number ofdifferent agencies, it is vital that institutional arrange-ments be clearly delineated from the outset. Where pos-sible, priorities for natural resource management actionsshould be established based on their estimated net ben-efits to society. Likewise, interventions to avoid environ-mental damage from wastes should take cost effectivenessand efficiency into account. Principles of market pricingfor natural resources, such as “user pays,” “polluter pays,”and “full cost recovery” should be followed whenever fea-sible. Opportunities to directly contribute to poverty al-leviation and support the basis for community livelihoodsalso should figure prominently in the prioritization ofpolicies and programs. Certain actions—such asdiversity conservation or reduction of greenhouse gasemissions—may additionally be justified by the globalbenefits they generate.

In the short run, the ITGA must rely in part on theadherence of external assistance agencies to their ownenvironmental policies that guard against adverse envi-ronmental impacts from relief and reconstruction efforts.At a minimum, a fundamental legislative basis for environ-mental policies and institutional structures needs to be cre-ated as soon as possible. Emphasis should be placed primarilyon the use of economic incentives to positively shape envi-ronmental behavior rather than attempting to create a cum-bersome command-and-control regulatory structure,though no set of environmental policies will be enforce-able in the absence of at least rudimentary rule of law.

EnvironmentalGovernanceThe ITGA has set as its central goal the reestablishmentof central government legitimacy to facilitate economic,political, and social affairs and establish the rule of law.Protection of the populace from pollution and the resto-ration of productive but sustainable natural resource man-agement patterns are fully consistent with this endeavor.It is critical that the public be engaged in formulation of

environmental policy and be empowered to express itsconcerns in the environmental assessment of programsand projects. Public scrutiny should be made an integralpart of the decision-making process. The ITGA’s policydocument13 envisions a process for developing a nationalcommunity empowerment program, called “NationalSolidarity,” that will deliver a series of block grants tocommunities to enable them to make decisions in a par-ticipatory manner on their key priorities.

With a new constitution being drafted after two de-cades of war, fundamental questions have arisen aboutthe structure of the future Afghan state. The degree ofcentralization versus decentralization lies at the core ofthis debate. Advocates of decentralization argue that theethnification of the conflict over the past decade has ledto strong regional identities, so that the only viable solu-tion is to establish a federal structure that grants full au-tonomy at the provincial level with real power remainingin the hands of the regions.14

Against this backdrop, the development of govern-ment institutional capacity for environmental manage-ment must, of necessity, begin with national authoritiesand later spread to municipalities, and provincial and lo-cal governments. Initially, this can be built up around acore capacity for the oversight and monitoring of the en-vironmental impacts of humanitarian and developmentprojects. The creation of a department within the Minis-try of Irrigation, Water and Environment with these re-sponsibilities is probably the best short-run approach.This unit will serve as the focal point for environmentalaffairs and thereby for coordination of donor activitiesrelating to the environment. It will be responsible forestablishing and overseeing an interim policy and pro-gramming framework for the environment sector, whichcan serve as the embryo for developing broader environ-mental management capacity within the ITGA as institu-tional strengthening efforts move forward.

13 Afghan Interim Administration. 2002. Draft National Development Framework. Kabul.

14 Azimi, A. 2001. Autonomous Regions for Afghans. International Herald Tribune.November 6. Available: http://www.iht.com.

23

CHAPTER IV

WORK PLAN FOR SECTORPLANNING AND CAPACITYBUILDING

Short Term

Refinement of Interim Policy andProgramming Framework

The results of the short-term technical assistanceactivities summarized below, coupled withbroader ongoing capacity development within

the central Government, should provide the basis for agradual refinement of the interim policy and program-ming framework.

Over time, careful choices will need to be made con-cerning policy mechanisms employed to achieve envi-ronmental and natural resource management objectives.As noted, there are ample lessons to draw upon from in-ternational experience, though these obviously must beadapted to the special circumstances of Afghanistan.Given that the country is not starting with a command-and-control system of regulatory authorities governingthe behavior of resource users or polluters, it may be sen-sible to emphasize the use of policy tools relying on eco-nomic incentives to achieve environmental managementgoals, especially if they also can generate much neededrevenues.

As noted, no specific environment-related projectinvestments are anticipated in the short run other thanthose to be incorporated into the programs of related sec-tors such as agriculture, natural resources, energy, water,and sanitation. However, several high priority short-termtechnical assistance activities are identified below. Theseare envisaged to be grant-financed and to directly comple-ment sectoral investments.

Coordination of Relief andDevelopment Assistance

The strong links between patterns of refugee and IDPresettlement and environmental management also havebeen noted. Even if the environmental impact assessmentprocedures of all external assistance agencies are fullyfollowed for individual projects, there will still be therisk of inconsistencies and unanticipated adverse cumu-lative environmental impacts. This underscores the needfor coordination between humanitarian relief and eco-nomic reconstruction activities for sectoral and regionalassessments of environmental impacts that go beyondproject-level analysis. It is anticipated that both theAACA and Ministry of Irrigation, Water and Environ-ment will carry out these functions, and the environmentdepartment should give attention to these coordinationmatters. Appropriate interactions with NGOs and othergroups representing stakeholder interests will be an es-sential element of this approach.

Long Term

Policy and Institutional FrameworkDevelopmentShort-term emphasis is placed on establishing a basic setof governmental policies and associated institutions atthe national level, while including the voice of affectedcommunities to the maximum extent feasible. In thelong term, these efforts will need to be expanded“horizontally” to include a much wider range of

Work Plan for Sector Planning and Capacity Building


stakeholders at the national level and “vertically” to morefully engage provincial and local governments as well asriver basin organizations and a host of other governmen-tal and quasi-governmental institutions directly involvedin environmental and natural resource management.Much wider engagement on these subjects also will beneeded from the legislative and judicial branches of gov-ernment. Active efforts will be required to consult withand involve NGOs, community and religious groups,the media, resource user associations, and the private sec-tor.

Further technical assistance will be programmedbased on the outcomes and outputs of short-term activi-ties as well as the findings and results of work in the natu-ral resource and other environmentally-related sectors.It is premature at this stage to suggest resource require-ments to support this process, but the main objectivesshould be clear. Over a 10-year timeframe, further ca-pacity-building efforts are expected to lead to the estab-lishment of policies and institutions to carry out at leastthe following functions:· establishing and updating broad-based national en-

vironmental and natural resource management strat-egies and policies;

· incorporating environmental considerations into na-tional and regional economic planning;

· organizing national participation in and compliancewith multilateral environmental agreements;

· setting minimum national environmental standardsfor certain types of behavior and/or ambient envi-ronmental quality;

· monitoring the status of key natural resource sys-tems and environmental quality indicators; and

· taking responsibility for management of specificnatural systems, such as lands, forests, aquatic sys-tems, natural protected areas, and mineral resourceexploitation.

While these functions center primarily on the re-sponsibilities of government institutions, the further de-velopment of active and positive roles for NGOs,community and religious groups, the private sector, themedia, and other elements of civil society will be essen-tial.

Mainstreaming EnvironmentalConsiderations into All SectorsExperience in the developing world with the creation ofcentral environmental ministries has been somewhat dis-appointing in terms of establishing firm oversight au-thority and effective environmental policy leadership.These same risks exist for Afghanistan if the initial insti-tutional effort centers on creating and strengthening anenvironment department within the Ministry of Irriga-tion, Water and Environment. Measures can and shouldbe taken to encourage the “mainstreaming” of environ-mental considerations into the thinking and action of allsectors, even in the short run, and this is a very importantlonger term goal for policy and institutional develop-ment. Whenever possible, emphasis should be placed onstrengthening the capacity of all line departments/minis-tries to understand and act upon the most important en-vironmental dimensions of their sector. This will requirevery different skills from those traditionally representedwithin these agencies, including the ability to work effec-tively with local communities and an understanding ofboth applied ecology and environmental economics toaid the planning process. In a break with the past, themindset that defines environmental controls as uselessburdens on sectoral development activities should be re-placed with a perspective that views waste reduction, com-munity engagement in program planning andimplementation, and other such measures as making posi-tive contributions to efficiency and developmenteffectiveness.

25

CHAPTER V

SHORT-TERM TECHNICALASSISTANCE PLAN

Eight short-term technical assistance actions areidentified to serve as complements to project investments. In many cases these activities are de-

signed to make use of grant financing associated withmultilateral environmental agreements.

Establishing Capacity forImplementingEnvironmentalSafeguardsPPPPPurpose and Approachurpose and Approachurpose and Approachurpose and Approachurpose and Approach. Policies and institutional ca-pacity within the ITGA will be established to provideadequate oversight and monitoring of the environmentalimpacts of humanitarian and development projects. It isassumed that this will be accomplished through the cre-ation of a department within the Ministry of Irrigation,Water and Environment supported by short-term train-ing for related capacity building. This department willserve as the focal point for environmental affairs withinthe ITGA and thereby for coordination of donor activi-ties relating to the environment; in time it also can play abroader role in efforts to develop environmental man-agement capacity within the Government.

Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. As the ambitiousrelief, recovery, reconstruction, and development programtakes shape, the ITGA will need to ensure that both ex-ternal assistance agencies and the private sector followestablished norms with respect to the full incorporationof environmental considerations into the design and

Short-Term Technical Assistance Plan

implementation of projects.15 For the most part, it can beassumed that aid agencies have and will adhere to ad-equate internal environmental safeguard policies, butthere is at a minimum a need for monitoring capacitywithin the Government. Environmental assessmentnorms include procedures for public consultation inproject design, and the ITGA may also need to play arole in encouraging and facilitating such participationconsistent with the principles laid out by the AACA inthe Draft National Development Framework. TheGovernment’s vision for the country’s redevelopment alsois private sector-driven, anticipating the attraction of in-vestment according to Afghanistan’s international com-petitive advantage. There is a need to establish appropriateenvironmental safeguard policies governing this invest-ment. As the number of projects increases, cross-cuttinganalyses of the environmental impacts of these invest-ments will be needed at the regional and sectoral levels toavoid adverse cumulative effects on the environment tosupport environmental planning and interagency coor-dination.

EnvironmentalInformationDevelopmentPPPPPurpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach. There is an immediate needfor the assessment and compilation of available data on

15 The same can be said for social and other safeguards, though environmental assess-ment procedures are probably the most common and accepted. Consideration shouldbe given to linking the government’s oversight capacity for environmental and socialsafeguards, as this would also conform to development aid agency norms.


Afghanistan’s environment, working with appropriatenational, provincial, and local entities as well asinternational data sources. Development of baseline in-formation should include, but not be limited to, remotesensing data utilizing a Geographic Information System(GIS) for data organization covering land use, forestcover, rangelands, wetlands, and other data sets. An evalu-ation of resource management and environmental qual-ity trends will be conducted to the extent possible, anda baseline database will be established to support suchanalysis in the future. This environmental informa-tion development activity will produce a transparent,consistent, and commonly accessible (preferably Web-based) source of information to support project-levelenvironmental assessments and broader policy andprogram planning.

Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. In the past,there was a well-balanced system of human-environ-ment interactions comprising a sustainable—if ba-sic—way of life based on natural resource endowmentsand encompassing a set of evolved social relationships.As a result of the conflict over the past 24 years, thisbalance has not only been upset, but virtually de-stroyed. There presently is no baseline informationavailable on natural resources to assess environmen-tal and natural resource management conditions andtrends, to set policy and program priorities, and tootherwise serve as an important tool to aid the incor-poration of environmental considerations into devel-opment activities. Data on Afghanistan’s naturalresources and environmental conditions are neitheraccurate nor available, as there have been only the mostrudimentary of information collection and monitor-ing efforts over the past 20 years. This information isessential to the development and implementation of along-term plan to rehabil i tate and conser veAfghanistan’s natural resources as the basis for sustain-able community livelihoods and conserving the country’snatural heritage.

EnvironmentalManagement CapacityBuilding NeedsAssessmentPPPPPurpose and Approach. urpose and Approach. urpose and Approach. urpose and Approach. urpose and Approach. A broad-based needs assess-ment will be conducted to evaluate the current capacitiesof all government agencies, private sector, NGOs, andacademic institutions with respect to environmental and

natural resource management skills and experience. Thesubject areas to be assessed include the gamut of topicscovered in this report, including resource sectors (water,forests, rangelands, biodiversity), pollution management,cross-cutting topics (e.g., climate change, desertification,community participation, and environmental monitor-ing), and analytical fields (such as environmental eco-nomics, conservation sciences, environmental impactassessment, spatial analysis/GIS, and gender analysis).The assessment will specifically identify opportunitiesfor development of undergraduate and graduate programsin ecology, conservation, resource management, and otherareas related to scientific needs in sustainable develop-ment at Kabul University as well as providing limitedquantities of appropriate research materials and upgrad-ing the research library with books and journal acquisi-tions.

Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Given the verylow base of available environmental management skillsin the country, a broad-based assessment of current ca-pacities is warranted to serve as the foundation for aninstitutional strengthening effort to be conducted in thisfield. Most of the other activities anticipated in the envi-ronment sector hinge on the completion of this analysisand the initiation of at least early capacity building ef-forts based on its recommendations.

Sustainable WaterResourcesManagementPPPPPurpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach. A broad-based national wa-ter management policy and institutional structure for itsimplementation will be developed to serve as a mecha-nism for coordination and facilitation of investments inthis sector. The policy will cover surface as well as ground-water management and both water quantity and qualityissues in as integrated a fashion as is feasible. To the ex-tent practical and applicable, the policy should adopt anintegrated river basin management approach and shouldhelp to set priorities for all water-related investments. Asa result of this process, a stand-alone water quality man-agement strategy will be developed with the possibility ofan associated national water quality laboratory to facili-tate monitoring and auditing. Special attention should begiven to finding proper balance between the roles of gov-ernment entities, the private sector, and water user asso-ciations in the management of water systems. The specialsocial, cultural, and religious sensitivities in Afghanistanregarding water rights and allocation mechanisms also

27

should be taken fully into account. This analysis will fillthat gap.

Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Afghanistan’swater resources management infrastructure and institu-tions have been devastated during the period of conflict.In response, wide-ranging investments in therehabilitation and development of Afghanistan’s waterresources management systems are expected over the nextfew years. However, none will have the breadth of cover-age to adequately consider the water sector in an inte-grated fashion and from a national perspective.

Sustainable ForestManagementPPPPPurpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach. A preliminary analysis of thestate of the nation’s forests and the principal factors contrib-uting to their degradation will be conducted. Recommen-dations for their sustainable management will be derivedwithin an appropriate policy and institutional framework.These recommendations will pay particular attention to theidentification of collaborative forest management oppor-tunities capable of enhancing the sustainable livelihoodsof communities living within or adjacent to national for-ests. This effort should be coordinated with the emerginginvestment agenda with respect to forest sector rehabili-tation and watershed management as well as policies gov-erning water, rangelands, and protected ecosystems.Carbon sequestration options that may offer Afghanistanthe chance to generate greenhouse gas emission reduc-tion credits also will be explored. Special attention shouldbe given to finding proper balance between the roles ofgovernment entities, the private sector, and forest-basedcommunities with due consideration to traditional pat-terns of sustainable forest management in Afghanistanthat may be revived. Pilot demonstrations of promisingsocial forestry and agroforestry forest regeneration andmanagement approaches should be designed and may besupported as part of this activity.

Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Afghanistan’sforest resources and institutions were devastated duringthe period of conflict. In response, investments in therehabilitation of watersheds and forest areas are expectedover the next few years. This analysis will prepare a pre-liminary policy and institutional framework to considerthese investment options in an integrated fashion and froma national perspective. Quick action to encourage forestregeneration and replanting can help to restore ecologi-cal balance in critical watersheds while generating short-term employment opportunities.

Sustainable RangelandsManagementPPPPPurpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach. A preliminary analysis of thestate of the nation’s pastoral lands and the principalfactors contributing to their degradation will be con-ducted. The carrying capacity of various rangeland sys-tems will be assessed in a preliminary manner, and thespecter of desertification also will be examined to esti-mate its real dimensions as they relate to rangelands man-agement. The results will be used to estimate sustainablelivestock populations and contribute to rangeland man-agement plans within an appropriate policy and institu-tional framework. This effort should be coordinated withthe emerging investment agenda with respect to animalhusbandry and rangelands development as well as poli-cies governing water, watersheds, forests, and protectedecosystems. Carbon sequestration options that may offerAfghanistan the chance to generate greenhouse gas emis-sion reduction credits also will be explored. Special at-tention should be given to finding proper balance betweenthe roles of government entities, the private sector, andpastoral communities with due consideration to tradi-tional patterns of sustainable rangelands management inAfghanistan that may be revived.

Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Afghanistan’spastoral lands and associated institutions were severelydegraded during the period of conflict. In response, in-vestments in the restocking and regeneration of range-lands are expected over the next few years. This analysiswill prepare a preliminary policy and institutional frame-work to consider these investment options in an integratedfashion and from a national perspective. Quick action toencourage pastoral land regeneration can help to restoreecological balance in critical watersheds while generat-ing short-term employment opportunities.

Renewable EnergyDevelopmentPPPPPurpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach. Enabling activities leadingto the development of Afghanistan’s abundant renewableenergy resources as well as programs to promote energyefficiency will be undertaken. This will include the pos-sible pilot-scale testing of promising concepts. The analy-sis will cover the potential for deriving power from solar,wind, biogas, and micro-hydro sources as well as the useof solar powered water purification systems and waterpumping. Workshops on these technologies as well as

Short-Term Technical Assistance Plan


energy efficiency measures will be conducted. Specificopportunities for the generation of greenhouse gas emis-sion reduction credits under the Clean DevelopmentMechanism will be explored. This effort should be coor-dinated with the emerging investment agenda with re-spect to the energy, water, forestry, and agriculture sectors.Special attention should be given to finding proper bal-ance between the roles of government entities, the pri-vate sector, and local communities in the development ofrenewable energy options for the country.

Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Afghanistan isrich in renewable energy resources. The mountains ofthe country, particularly in the north, offer tremendousuntapped hydropower potential, though environmentaland social safeguards would need careful application if itis to be developed. In the southeast and southwest, windresources are abundant. Given the extent of desert landsand remote communities, the country as a whole also hasone of the world’s highest potentials for tapping solarpower. Biomass is traditionally used throughout the coun-try as an energy source largely in the form of fuelwood,charcoal, and animal wastes. It is anticipated that pres-sures on the nation’s limited power generation capacityas well as deforestation can be reduced through the de-velopment of alternative energy sources.

Protected AreasManagementPPPPPurpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach.urpose and Approach. Primarily based on an as-sessment of existing gazetted and proposed parks andprotected areas (national parks and wildlife reserves andsanctuaries), a preliminary analysis of the state of theseprotected areas and the major challenges and opportuni-ties facing their management will be conducted. Recom-

mendations will be derived regarding the possible estab-lishment of a formal system of parks and protected areaswithin an appropriate policy and institutional framework.These recommendations will pay particular attention tothe identification of collaborative management opportu-nities capable of enhancing the sustainable livelihoods ofcommunities living within or adjacent to these protectedareas as well as raising broader revenues. This effortshould be coordinated with the emerging policy frame-work and investment agenda for forest sector rehabilita-tion and watershed management as well as policiesgoverning water and rangeland management. Carbon se-questration options that may offer Afghanistan the chanceto generate greenhouse gas emission reduction creditswill also be explored. Special attention should be given tofinding proper balance between the roles of governmententities, the private sector, and communities traditionallydependent upon these areas for their livelihoods.

Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. Background and Justification. ThoughAfghanistan’s parks and protected areas are currently in astate of almost total neglect, there are some candidatesites for incorporation into a national system (see Table 5in the Biodiversity/Protected Areas section above). In-vestments in the rehabilitation of watersheds and forestareas are expected over the next few years, and these shouldbe carefully coordinated with renewed attention to parks,reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries. Assuming that the ITGAsigns and ratifies the Convention on Biological Diversity,this will open up the country to full regional and globalcooperation in this sphere. Once peace returns to the coun-try, there is potential for developing trekking parks ofinternational significance such as those in Nepal, India,and Kenya. The revenues generated from visitors can con-tribute to the conservation and effective management ofthe country’s spectacular wildlife and scenic resources aswell as supporting local communities around these areas.

29

CHAPTER VI

DONOR COORDINATION

As indicated in the previous section, high priorityshould be given to programming technical assis-tance to help establish policies and institutional

capacity within the ITGA for adequate oversight andmonitoring of the environmental impacts of humanitar-ian and development projects. If this is accomplishedthrough the creation of a department within the Ministryof Irrigation, Water and Environment, this unit can serveas the logical focal point for environmental affairs withinthe ITGA and an interim donor coordination mecha-nism for environmental matters. It also may be prudentto consider the formation of a national inter-sectoral “en-vironment council”—or even a cabinet sub-committeeon this subject—to meet on a regular basis and assistwith this coordination process.

ADB continues to offer itself as the lead donor insti-tution in this sector, and it supports the concept of

creating an environment department within the Ministryof Irrigation, Water and Environment to represent theITGA’s interests in this regard. A technical assistancegrant from ADB to support this objective already hasbeen internally approved, including introducing renew-able energy, and it awaits final agreement with the ITGAon the activity’s scope and implementation arrangements.

Each of the short-term technical assistance conceptsgiven above includes explicit attention to andsuggestions for measures to ensure strong coordinationamong both the ITGA sectoral authorities and the donoragencies providing assistance to relief, reconstruction,recovery, and development programs. In time, a nationalenvironmental and natural resource managementstrategy exercise, led by the ITGA, is expected to fullyengage the donor community to ensure adequatecoordination.

Donor Coordination

31

APPENDIX

Further References onEnvironmental Managementin Afghanistan

ADB, World Bank, and UNDP. 2002. Afghanistan Recovery andReconstruction: Preliminary Needs Assessment. First Draft.

Adil, Abdul Wajid. 1996. Ab-e-Estada Survey Mission Report.Kabul: Society for Afghanistan Volunteer Environmental-ists (SAVE).

Adil, Abdul Wajid. National Biodiversity Strategies and ActionPlans: For Afghanistan. Kabul: SAVE.

Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority. 2002. The Establish-ment of Consultative Groups for Furtherance of the NationalDevelopment Programme (draft). Kabul.

Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority. 2002. NationalDevelopment Framework (Draft for Consultation). Kabul.

Afghan Interim Administration. 2002. Draft National Develop-ment Framework. Kabul.

Azimi, A. et al. 2000. Environments in Transition: Cambodia, LaoPDR, Thailand, Viet Nam. Manila: ADB.

Azimi, A. 2001. Autonomous Regions for Afghans.International Herald Tribune. November 6. Available:http://www.iht.com.

Caughley, G. 1970. Report to the Government of Afghanistan onWildlife Resources. Rome: FAO/UNDP.

FAO. 1977. Conservation and Utilization of Wildlife Resources,Afghanistan, Interim Report. Rome.

———. 1978. National Parks and Utilization of WildlifeResources, AFG: Project Findings and Recommendations.Rome: UNDP/FAO.

Finnconsult. 1976. Socio-economic Survey of Badakhshan. 3 vols.Field Document. Kabul.

The Foundation for Environmental Conservation. 1995. Im-pacts of the Afghan-Soviet War on Afghanistan’s Environ-ment. Environmental Conservation 22 (1): 66–69.

Harrison, David. 2003. Afghan Leopard Faces Extinction asAid Workers Buy Pelts. The Telegraph. January 5. Available:http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news.

MacPherson, Nancy and B. K. Fernando. 1991. Opportunitiesfor Improved Environmental Management in Afghanistan.United Nations Office of the Coordinator for Humanitar-ian Affairs.

Neithammer, J. 1967. Zwei Jahre Vogelbeobachtungen anstehenden Gewässern bei Kabul in Afghanistan. J. Ornith.

Petocz, Ronald G. 1971. The Exploitation and Conservation ofWild Ungulates and Their Habitat in the Afghan Pamir.Report to the Government of Afghanistan.

———. 1972. Report of the Laghman Markhor Survey. Reportto the Government of Afghanistan.

———. 1973a. Marco Polo Sheep (Ovis ammon poli) of theAfghan Pamir: A Report of Biological Investigations in 1972-1973. Report to the Government of Afghanistan.

———. 1973b. Reorganization and Improvement of the MarcoPolo Sheep Hunting Programme. Report to the Governmentof Afghanistan.

———. 1978. Report on the Afghan Pamir. Part 1: EcologicalReconnaissance. Field Document 5. Kabul.

———. 1978. Report on the Afghan Pamir: Part 3: AManagement Plan for the Big Pamir Wildlife Reserve. FieldDocument 7. Kabul: UNDP/FAO/Department ofForests and Range, Ministry of Agriculture.

Petocz, Ronald G. and John Y. Larsson. 1977. EcologicalReconnaissance of Western Nuristan with Recommendations forManagement. Kabul: UNDP/FAO/Dept. of Forests andRange, Ministry of Agriculture.

———. 1978. An Ecological Reconnaissance of Western Nuristanwith Recommendations for Management. Field Document 9.Kabul.

Petocz, Ronald G., K. Habibi, A. Jamil, and A. Wassey. 1978.Report on the Afghan Pamir. Part 2: Biology of Marco PoloSheep (Ovis ammon poli). Field Document 6. Kabul.

Petocz, Ronald G. and T. Skogland. 1974. Report on the Status ofBande Amir National Park. Report to the Government ofAfghanistan.

Rahim, Abdul and John Y. Larsson. 1978a. A Preliminary Studyof Lake Hasmat Khan with Recommendations for Management.Kabul: UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range,Ministry of Agriculture.

Appendix


Rahim, Abdul and John Y. Larsson. 1978b. A PreliminaryStudy of Lake Kole Hashmat Khan with Recommendations forManagement. Field Document 10. Kabul: UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Ministry ofAgriculture.

Reynolds, Samantha. 1999. Rebuilding Communities in the UrbanAreas of Afghanistan. Kabul: UNDP.

Rodenburg, W. F. 1977. The Trade in Wild Animal Furs inAfghanistan. Field Document 2. Kabul.

Saba, Daud. 2002. Herat, Valley of Grapes. Afghan Magazine.Available: http://www.afghanmagazine.com.

Sahab Geographic and Drafting Institute. 1939. General Atlas ofAfghanistan. Tehran.

SAVE. 1997. Annual Report.Save the Environment-Afghanistan. 2000. Seminar on

Biodiversity in Afghanistan. Kabul.Sayer, J.A. and A.P.M. van der Zon. 1981. National Parks

and Wildlife Management: Afghanistan: A Contribution to aConservation Strategy, Vol. I: Text and Vol. II: Appendixes.Rome: UNDP/FAO.

Shank, Christopher C. and John Y. Larsson. 1977. AFG:A Strategy for the Establishment and Development ofBande Amir National Park. Kabul: UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Ministry ofAgriculture.

———. 1978. A Strategy for the Establishment and Developmentof Bande Amir National Park. Field Document 8.Kabul.

Shank, Christopher C., Ronald G. Petocz, and K. Habibi.1977. A Preliminary Management Plan for the Ajar ValleyWildlife Reserve. Field Document 4. Kabul.

Shank, Christopher C. and W. F. Rodenburg. 1977. ManagementPlan for AB-I-Estada and Dashte Nawar Flamingo andWaterfowl Sanctuaries. Rome: UNDP/FAO/Departmentof Forests and Range, Ministry of Agriculture.

Skogland, T. and Ronald G. Petocz. 1975. Ecology and Behaviorof Marco Polo Sheep (Ovis ammon poli) in Pamir DuringWinter. Report to the Government of Afghanistan.

UNDP. 1993. Afghanistan Rehabilitation Strategy: Action Plan forImmediate Rehabilitation: Volume II, National and RegionalContext. Kabul.

United States Agency for International Development. 1992.Afghanistan Environmental Profile: Phase 1. Washington, D.C.

World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan. 2001. Integrating Environment withHumanitarian Relief at Refugee Camps. Discussion Paper.

afghanistan’s environment in transition€¦ · the asian development bank encourages use of the...

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