The The Morphology of Morphology of

English 2English 2

What did we learn last What did we learn last week?week?

AffixesAffixes

An affix is a bound morpheme An affix is a bound morpheme occurring occurring beforebefore or or withinwithin or or afterafter a a base.base.

prefixesprefixes infixesinfixes suffixessuffixes

Prefixes Prefixes

Small class of morphemes, 75 Small class of morphemes, 75 morphemesmorphemes

Meanings of English prepositions and Meanings of English prepositions and adverbialsadverbials

Exercise 8-8 (p. 93)Exercise 8-8 (p. 93)

antiantifreezefreeze

circumcircumventvent

cocopilotpilot

colcollapselapse

comcompactpact

conconvenevene

corcorroderode

contracontradictdict

dedevitalize vitalize

disdisagreeable agreeable

ininsecuresecure

imimperfectperfect

ilillegiblelegible

irirreverentreverent

ininspirespire

imimbibebibe

interintervenevene

intraintramuralmural

obobstructstruct

opoppose pose

preprewarwar

postpostwarwar

proproceedceed

retroretroactiveactive

semisemiprofessionprofessionalal

subsubwayway

supersuperabundantabundant

ununlikelylikely

unundress dress

antiantifreeze -freeze -

circumcircumvent -vent -

cocopilotpilot colcollapselapse comcompact -pact - conconvenevene corcorroderode

contracontradict -dict -

dedevitalize -vitalize -

disdisagreeable -agreeable -

ininsecuresecure imimperfectperfect ilillegible -legible - irirreverentreverent ininspirespire imimbibebibe

interintervene -vene -

intraintramural -mural -

obobstruct -struct - opoppose pose

preprewar -war -

postpostwar -war -

proproceed -ceed -

retroretroactive -active -

semisemiprofessional -professional -

subsubway -way -

supersuperabundant -abundant -

ununlikely - likely - unundress dress

InfixesInfixes

No infixes in English, but few No infixes in English, but few exceptionsexceptions

e.g.e.g. un get at able un get at able ungetatableungetatable

rely on able rely on able reliable reliable

account for able account for able accountableaccountable

SuffixesSuffixes

Can be more than one (max. four)Can be more than one (max. four)

e.g. e.g. nasalnasalizeize

seizseizureure

rainrainyy

nailnailss

studistudieded

normnormalizersalizers

Exercise 8-9, p. 94Exercise 8-9, p. 94How many suffixes does each word How many suffixes does each word

contain?contain?

1.1. organorganists =ists =2.2. personpersonalities =alities =3.3. flirtflirtatiously =atiously =4.4. atomatomizers =izers =5.5. friendfriendliest =liest =6.6. contradictcontradictorily =orily =7.7. trusttrusteeship =eeship =8.8. greasgreasier =ier =9.9. countricountrified =fied =10.10. responsresponsibilities =ibilities =

Exercise 8-10, p. 95Exercise 8-10, p. 95

Make each group of morphemes into a Make each group of morphemes into a word.word.

1.1. -ed, live, -en =-ed, live, -en =2.2. -ing, -ate, termin =-ing, -ate, termin =3.3. -er, -s, mor, -al, -ize =-er, -s, mor, -al, -ize =4.4. provinc, -s, -ism, -ial =provinc, -s, -ism, -ial =5.5. -ly, -some, grue =-ly, -some, grue =6.6. -ity, work, -able =-ity, work, -able =7.7. in, -most, -er =in, -most, -er =8.8. marry, -age, -ity, -abil =marry, -age, -ity, -abil =9.9. -dom, -ster, gang =-dom, -ster, gang =10.10. -ly, -ion, -ate, affect =-ly, -ion, -ate, affect =

SUFFIXESSUFFIXES

1.1. Inflectional SuffixesInflectional Suffixes

2.2. Derivational SuffixesDerivational Suffixes

3.3. Suffixal HomophonesSuffixal Homophones

4.4. Noun Feminine FormsNoun Feminine Forms

5. Noun Diminutive Forms5. Noun Diminutive Forms

Derivational SuffixesDerivational Suffixes

Characteristics of derivational suffixes:Characteristics of derivational suffixes:1.1. Arbitrary combinationArbitrary combination

e.g. move e.g. move move movementment, mov, movityity

2. Change of part of speech2. Change of part of speech

e.g. move+ment = movemente.g. move+ment = movement V + ment = NV + ment = N

move+able = moveablemove+able = moveable V +able = adjectiveV +able = adjective

3. Not closed (more suffixes) 3. Not closed (more suffixes) derivational + derivational + inflectionalinflectional

e.g. able+ity+s = abilitiese.g. able+ity+s = abilities

Exercises Exercises

Exercise 8 -12, p. 97Exercise 8 -12, p. 97 Exercise 8 -13, p. 98Exercise 8 -13, p. 98 Exercise 8 -14, p. 99Exercise 8 -14, p. 99 Exercise 8 -15, p. 99Exercise 8 -15, p. 99

Inflectional SuffixesInflectional Suffixes

Inflectional suffixes are attached to Inflectional suffixes are attached to stem. The stem includes the stem. The stem includes the base/bases and all the derivational base/bases and all the derivational affixes.affixes.

e.g. seagulle.g. seagullss seagull + seagull + ss

magnifimagnifieded magn magnifyify + + eded

personalizepersonalizes s personpersonalizealize + + ss

The inflectional suffixes schemaThe inflectional suffixes schema

InflectionInflectional al

suffixessuffixes

NameName ExamplesExamples

{-s pl}{-s pl} noun pluralnoun plural catcatss, flower, flowerss

{ -s sg ps}{ -s sg ps} noun singular noun singular possessivepossessive

girl’girl’ss, father’, father’ss

{-s pl ps }{-s pl ps } noun plural possessivenoun plural possessive girlsgirls’’, women, women’s’s

{-s 3d }{-s 3d } present 3present 3rdrd person person singularsingular

eateatss, rain, rainss

{-ING vb }{-ING vb } present participlepresent participle eateatinging, rain, raininging

{-D pt }{-D pt } past tensepast tense steamsteameded, studi, studieded, , ateate

{-D pp }{-D pp } past participlepast participle steamsteameded, studi, studieded, , eateatenen

{ -ER cp}{ -ER cp} comparativecomparative weakweakerer, clever, clevererer

{ -EST sp}{ -EST sp} superlativesuperlative weakweakestest, clever, cleverestest

Notice: Alternate formsNotice: Alternate forms noun pluralnoun plural

e.g.e.g. ox – oxenox – oxen

mouse – micemouse – mice

goose – geesegoose – geese

foot – feetfoot – feet

man – menman – men

woman – womenwoman – women

sheep – sheepsheep – sheep

deer – deerdeer – deer

fish - fishfish - fish

past tensepast tensepast participlepast participle

infinitiveinfinitive past tense past tense past past participleparticiple

e.g.e.g. eateat ateate eateneaten

gogo wentwent gonegone

drivedrive drovedrove drivendriven

singsing sangsang sungsung

Derivational vs. Inflectional Derivational vs. Inflectional Suffixes?Suffixes?

The inflectional suffixes differ from The inflectional suffixes differ from the derivational suffixes in that:the derivational suffixes in that:

1.1. They do not change the part of speech.They do not change the part of speech.

e.g. apple, apples (e.g. apple, apples ( nouns) nouns)

wait, waits, waited (wait, waits, waited ( verbs) verbs)

happy, happier, happiest (happy, happier, happiest ( adjectives)adjectives)

2. They come last in a word when they are 2. They come last in a word when they are present.present.

e.g. worke.g. workeded, industri, industrieses, driv, drivinging

3. 3. They go with all stems of a given part of They go with all stems of a given part of speech.speech.

e.g. She comee.g. She comess, go, goeses, work, workss, studi, studieses, , drivedrivess..

4. They do not pile up; only one ends a 4. They do not pile up; only one ends a word.word.

e.g. cakee.g. cakess, study, studyinging, fast, fasterer, driv, drivenen

Exercises Exercises

Exercise 8 – 11, p. 96Exercise 8 – 11, p. 96

Suffixal HomophonesSuffixal Homophones

Some suffixes, inflectional and Some suffixes, inflectional and derivational, have homophonous forms.derivational, have homophonous forms.

Inflectional morpheme Inflectional morpheme

{-ER cp}{-ER cp}

e.g. bigger, tallere.g. bigger, taller

Derivational suffix {-ER n} – agent, that Derivational suffix {-ER n} – agent, that whichwhich

is related tois related to

Verb – ER Verb – ER N (hunter, fisher, etc) N (hunter, fisher, etc)

Nonverbal stem – ER Nonverbal stem – ER N (new Yorker, N (new Yorker, etc)etc)

Meaning: Meaning: agent, that which is related agent, that which is related toto

Derivational suffix {-ER rp} Derivational suffix {-ER rp} repetition repetition

e.g. mutter, flicker, glitter, etc.e.g. mutter, flicker, glitter, etc.

Verbal inflectional Verbal inflectional

suffix {-ING vb}suffix {-ING vb}

e.g. He is e.g. He is studyingstudying now.now.

Nominal derivational {-ING Nominal derivational {-ING nm}nm}

e.g. Meetings, weddings, readings, e.g. Meetings, weddings, readings, etc.etc.

- He attended a - He attended a meetingmeeting yesterday. yesterday.

Adjectival derivational {-ING Adjectival derivational {-ING aj}aj}

e.g. interesting, tiring, etc.e.g. interesting, tiring, etc.

- It’s a - It’s a tiringtiring day. day.

How to distinguish the verbal {-ING vb} How to distinguish the verbal {-ING vb} from the adjectival {-ING aj}?from the adjectival {-ING aj}?

The verbal {-ING vb} The verbal {-ING vb} can usually occur after and before the can usually occur after and before the noun it modifies.noun it modifies.

e.g. He saw a burning house.e.g. He saw a burning house. He saw a house burning.He saw a house burning.

cannot occur after cannot occur after seemsseemse.g. e.g. He seems driving. He seems driving. meaning? meaning?

The adjectival {-ING aj}The adjectival {-ING aj}

can be preceded by a qualifier (can be preceded by a qualifier (very, very, rather, quiterather, quite, comparative and superlative , comparative and superlative words words moremore and and mostmost))

e.g. e.g. It’s a very tiring day.It’s a very tiring day.

this is a more exciting experience.this is a more exciting experience.

can occur after seemscan occur after seems

e.g. That film seems interesting.e.g. That film seems interesting.

The verbal The verbal

inflectional {-D pp}inflectional {-D pp}

e.g. He is interested in e.g. He is interested in her.her.

Cannot be modified by Cannot be modified by qualifiers (very, rather, qualifiers (very, rather, quite, most, more)quite, most, more)

e.g. The very studied e.g. The very studied hard student passed the hard student passed the examexam

Can occur after Can occur after seem/sseem/s

e.g. He seems studied.e.g. He seems studied.

The adjectival The adjectival

derivational {-D aj}derivational {-D aj}

e.g. She is a devoted e.g. She is a devoted Moslem.Moslem.

Can be modified by Can be modified by qualifiers (very, rather, qualifiers (very, rather, quite, most, more)quite, most, more)

e.g. She is a rather devoted e.g. She is a rather devoted Buddhist.Buddhist.

Can occur after Can occur after seem/sseem/s

e.g. He seems tired.e.g. He seems tired.

the adverbial derivational suffix {-LY av} the adverbial derivational suffix {-LY av}

the adjectival derivational suffix {-LY aj}the adjectival derivational suffix {-LY aj}

The adverbial derivational suffix {-LY av} is added The adverbial derivational suffix {-LY av} is added to most adjectives to form adverbs of manner.to most adjectives to form adverbs of manner.

e.g. e.g. kindkind - kindly- kindlynormal – normallynormal – normallystrong – stronglystrong – strongly

Some adjectives do not take the form, e.g. Some adjectives do not take the form, e.g. big, big, small, little, tall, fast, longsmall, little, tall, fast, long, etc., etc.

An adjectival morpheme is added to:An adjectival morpheme is added to:

1.1. Monosyllabic nouns to form adjectives Monosyllabic nouns to form adjectives that are inflected with –er, -est.that are inflected with –er, -est.e.g. e.g. love – lovelylove – lovely

friend – friendlyfriend – friendlyman – manlyman – manly

2. Nouns to form adjectives that are not 2. Nouns to form adjectives that are not inflected with –er, -est.inflected with –er, -est.e.g.e.g. king – kinglyking – kingly

beast – beastlybeast – beastlyscholar – scholarlyscholar – scholarlymother - motherlymother - motherlyleisure - leisurelyleisure - leisurely

3. A few adjectives, giving alternate adjectival 3. A few adjectives, giving alternate adjectival forms that are inflected with –er, -estforms that are inflected with –er, -este.g.e.g. dead – deadlydead – deadly

live – livelylive – livelykind – kindlykind – kindlysick – sicklysick – sickly

The adjective {-LY aj} The adjective {-LY aj} kindlykindly and and livellively are y are homophonous with the adverbs {-LY av} homophonous with the adverbs {-LY av} kindlykindly and and livelylively..

e.g. e.g. Mr. Diding spoke Mr. Diding spoke kindlykindly to the to the students.students.

Mr. diding is a Mr. diding is a kindlykindly teacher. teacher.

4. a short list of “time” nouns to form 4. a short list of “time” nouns to form adjectivesadjectives

e.g.e.g. day – dailyday – dailyweek - weeklyweek - weeklyhour – hourlyhour – hourlymonth – monthlymonth – monthlyyear – yearlyyear – yearly

These are not inflected with –er, -est, and These are not inflected with –er, -est, and some of them undergo functional shift to some of them undergo functional shift to become nounsbecome nouns

e.g.e.g. I subscribe to three I subscribe to three weekliesweeklies and two and two dailiesdailies..

Noun Feminine FormsNoun Feminine Forms

all but one (-all but one (-sterster) are of foreign ) are of foreign origin.origin.

are added to a masculine form/base are added to a masculine form/base morpheme.morpheme.

SuffixSuffix MasculineMasculine FeminineFeminine

-e-e fiancefiance fianceefiancee-enne-enne comediancomedian comediennecomedienne-ess-ess patronpatron patronesspatroness-etta-etta HenryHenry HenriettaHenrietta-ette-ette usherusher usheretteusherette-euse-euse masseurmasseur masseusemasseuse-ina-ina GeorgeGeorge GeorginaGeorgina-ine-ine herohero heroineheroine-ster-ster spinnerspinner spinsterspinster-stress-stress seamsterseamster seamstressseamstress-ix-ix aviatoraviator aviatrixaviatrix

Notes:Notes:

--essess the most productive the most productive --stressstress dead, no longer used in word dead, no longer used in word

formartionformartion --enneenne and - and -euseeuse borrowed from borrowed from

FrenchFrench --ee borrowed from French, written only borrowed from French, written only --sterster no longer a feminizing suffix, no longer a feminizing suffix,

indication of any person – male or indication of any person – male or female: female: gangster, youngster, prankstergangster, youngster, prankster, , etcetc

use carefully!use carefully!offensiveoffensiveunnecessaryunnecessarydemeaningdemeaning

English has 50 pairs of words with English has 50 pairs of words with separate forms for the masculine and separate forms for the masculine and feminine.feminine.

e.g.e.g. bull – cowbull – cowuncle – auntuncle – auntgander – goosegander – goosefather – mother, etc.father – mother, etc.

Noun Diminutive FormsNoun Diminutive Forms

Diminutive suffixes are morphemes that convey Diminutive suffixes are morphemes that convey a meaning of smallness or endearment or both.a meaning of smallness or endearment or both.

suffixsuffix examplesexamples

-ie, -i, -y-ie, -i, -y auntie, Betty, sweetie, Willyauntie, Betty, sweetie, Willy-ette-ette dinette, towellete, kitchenettedinette, towellete, kitchenette-kin, -ikin, -kins-kin, -ikin, -kins babykinsbabykins-ling-ling duckling, darlingduckling, darling-et-et circletcirclet-let-let booklet, starletbooklet, starlet

The vowels of the diminutive suffixes The vowels of the diminutive suffixes are the front vowels: /i/, / /, and / /.are the front vowels: /i/, / /, and / /.

-ie, -i, -y-ie, -i, -y highly productive.highly productive.attached to one-syllable first attached to one-syllable first name to suggest endearment name to suggest endearment and intimacy, or smallness.and intimacy, or smallness.

e.g. Johnny, Jacky, Mikeye.g. Johnny, Jacky, Mikeyattaced to common nouns, attaced to common nouns, sometimes indicating a sometimes indicating a diminutive notion about a diminutive notion about a participant in a discourse more participant in a discourse more than about the person or thing than about the person or thing being referred to.being referred to.

e.g. doggie, mommy, nanny, e.g. doggie, mommy, nanny, birdie, sweetiebirdie, sweetie

-ette-ette productiveproductiveindicates smallnessindicates smallness

e.g. dinnete e.g. dinnete small dining area small dining area

roomette roomette small room small room

kitchenette kitchenette small kitchen small kitchen

-kin, -ikin, -kins-kin, -ikin, -kins

-ling-ling

-et-et

-let-let

unproductiveunproductiverarely added to new rarely added to new nounsnounsin some words, the in some words, the meaning of the diminutive meaning of the diminutive suffix has faded away to suffix has faded away to little/no significance.little/no significance.

e.g. cabinet, toilete.g. cabinet, toilet

In addition to the six diminutives, many others In addition to the six diminutives, many others have come into English as a part of borrowed have come into English as a part of borrowed words. They are diminutives in their own parent words. They are diminutives in their own parent language but nonmorphemic in English.language but nonmorphemic in English.

e.g.e.g. mosquitomosquito panelpanel VenezuelaVenezuelabambinobambino morselmorsel quartetquartetarmadilloarmadillo damseldamsel bulletin bulletin peccadillopeccadillo scalpelscalpel falsettofalsettoflotillaflotilla satchelsatchel stilettostilettoPriscillaPriscilla musclemuscle MaureenMaureencookiecookie particleparticle lochanlochancolonelcolonel pupilpupil formulaformulacitadelcitadel violinviolin capsulecapsule

violoncellovioloncellonovelnovel puppetpuppet calculuscalculus

Most of the borrowed diminutives Most of the borrowed diminutives contain the vowels /i/, /contain the vowels /i/, /II/, and //, and /εε/ / although the vowels have often been although the vowels have often been reduced to /reduced to /əə/ in English because of / in English because of lack of stress.lack of stress.

All suffixes have lost the diminutive All suffixes have lost the diminutive meaning.meaning.

Variations in Phonemic Variations in Phonemic FormsForms

AllomorphsAllomorphs Conditioning (Morphological and Conditioning (Morphological and

Phonological)Phonological) Replacive AllomorphsReplacive Allomorphs HomophonesHomophones PhonesthemesPhonesthemes

AllomorphsAllomorphs A morpheme may have more than one A morpheme may have more than one

phonemic form.phonemic form.

e.g. morpheme {-D pt}e.g. morpheme {-D pt}- /t/ - /t/ passed, asked (voiceless consonant) passed, asked (voiceless consonant)

other than /t/other than /t/- /- /əəd/ d/ needed, departed (alveolar stop) needed, departed (alveolar stop)- /d/ - /d/ seemed, begged (voiced sound) seemed, begged (voiced sound)

The occurrence depends on its phonological The occurrence depends on its phonological environment (i.e. preceding sound)environment (i.e. preceding sound)

The pattern of occurrence of related forms in The pattern of occurrence of related forms in which each form occupies its own territory and which each form occupies its own territory and does not trespass on another domain is called does not trespass on another domain is called complementary distribution.complementary distribution.

When the related forms of a set have the same When the related forms of a set have the same meaning and are in complementary distribution, meaning and are in complementary distribution, they are called allomorphs/positional variants and they are called allomorphs/positional variants and belong to the same morpheme.belong to the same morpheme.

Thus, the morpheme {-D pt} has 3 allomorphs, Thus, the morpheme {-D pt} has 3 allomorphs, i.e. /-i.e. /-əəd/, /-t/, and /-d/d/, /-t/, and /-d/

formula: {-D pt} = /-formula: {-D pt} = /-əəd/ d/ ~ /-t/ ~ /-d/~ /-t/ ~ /-d/

Notes:Notes: { } { } morpheme morpheme/ / / / allomorphs allomorphs(~) (~) tilde, i.e in alternation with tilde, i.e in alternation with

Thus, it is really not the morpheme but the Thus, it is really not the morpheme but the allomorph that is free or bound.allomorph that is free or bound.

e.g. the morpheme {louse} e.g. the morpheme {louse} 2 allomorphs 2 allomorphs

/laws/ /laws/ free allomorph, singular free allomorph, singular nounnoun

/lawz-/ /lawz-/ bound allomorph in the bound allomorph in the adjectiveadjective

lousylousy

Conditioning Conditioning (Morphological and (Morphological and

Phonological)Phonological)

• morpheme {-D pt} morpheme {-D pt} (- (-əəd d ~ -t ~ -d)~ -t ~ -d)• morpheme {-s pl} morpheme {-s pl} (-(-əəz z ~ -z ~ -s)~ -z ~ -s)

When the phonological environment When the phonological environment determines which allomorph is used, it determines which allomorph is used, it can be said that the selection of can be said that the selection of allomorphs is phonologically allomorphs is phonologically conditioned.conditioned.

Morpheme {-s pl} Morpheme {-s pl} (- (-əən n ~ ~ θθ)) e.g. ox – oxene.g. ox – oxen

sheep – sheepsheep – sheep

Complementary distribution because they Complementary distribution because they stay in own territory, associate only with stay in own territory, associate only with specific words, and do not overlap with (-specific words, and do not overlap with (-əəz z ~ ~ -z ~ -s)-z ~ -s) positions. positions.

The position has nothing to do with their The position has nothing to do with their phonological environment.phonological environment.

When the plural noun is determined by the When the plural noun is determined by the specific morpheme (e.g. –specific morpheme (e.g. –əən, n, θθ) and the ) and the environment that requires a certain allomorph environment that requires a certain allomorph is only by identifying specific morpheme, the is only by identifying specific morpheme, the selection of allomorph is called selection of allomorph is called morphologically conditioned.morphologically conditioned.

Formula of Formula of {-s pl}:{-s pl}:

{-s pl} = /-ez/ {-s pl} = /-ez/ ~ /-z/ ~/-s/ ∞ /-ən/ ∞ / ~ /-z/ ~/-s/ ∞ /-ən/ ∞ / θθ / /

∞ ∞ morphologically conditioned morphologically conditioned alternationalternation

Replacive AllomorphsReplacive Allomorphs• morpheme {-D pt} morpheme {-D pt} (- (-əəd d ~ -t ~ -d)~ -t ~ -d)

addition of morphemeaddition of morphemebutbut

sing - sang – sung?sing - sang – sung?

There is a There is a replacementreplacement of the /i/ of sing by of the /i/ of sing by the /e/ or /the /e/ or /æ/ of sang to signal past tense.æ/ of sang to signal past tense.

symbol:symbol: /sæŋ/ = /siŋ/ + //sæŋ/ = /siŋ/ + /I > I > æ/æ/

Thus,Thus, //I > I > æ/æ/ is another allomorph of is another allomorph of {-{-D pt} D pt}

Sometimes, Sometimes, replacive allomorphsreplacive allomorphs are are called “called “infixesinfixes” because they are ” because they are positioned within a word as opposed positioned within a word as opposed to to prefixesprefixes and and suffixes suffixes..

However, the correct term for them However, the correct term for them is “replacive allomorphs”.is “replacive allomorphs”.

Homophones Homophones

Words that sound alike but differ in Words that sound alike but differ in meaning. (in morphology such words meaning. (in morphology such words are of different morphemes)are of different morphemes)

e.g.e.g. Do you like the meet? (track Do you like the meet? (track meet)meet)

do you like the meat? (roast do you like the meat? (roast beef)beef)

The same is true of bound forms:The same is true of bound forms:

Verbal inflectional Verbal inflectional

suffixsuffixIt feelIt feelss good. good. /-z/ /-z/

Noun plural Noun plural

inflectional suffixinflectional suffixThose are frogThose are frogss. . /- /-z/z/

Noun possessive Noun possessive inflectional suffixinflectional suffix

John’John’ss book is on the book is on the table. table. /-z/ /-z/

PhonesthemesPhonesthemes Speech sounds that in themselves Speech sounds that in themselves

express, elicit, or suggest meaning.express, elicit, or suggest meaning.

e.g. e.g. - high front vowels /i/ and /- high front vowels /i/ and /II/ / suggesting smallness.suggesting smallness.

wee, peep, squeak, seep, bit, clink,, giggle, wee, peep, squeak, seep, bit, clink,, giggle, dwindledwindle

- vowel /- vowel /ə/ suggesting undesirabilityə/ suggesting undesirability

dung, drudgery, flunk, dump, slum, grunt, dung, drudgery, flunk, dump, slum, grunt, glum, grumpy, grumble, etc.glum, grumpy, grumble, etc.

At the beginning of words, a number of At the beginning of words, a number of consonant clusters appear to have consonant clusters appear to have phonesthematic value, i.e.phonesthematic value, i.e.

/gl-/ = light/gl-/ = light

e.g. glitter, glow, glare, glint, gleam, glisten, e.g. glitter, glow, glare, glint, gleam, glisten, glazeglaze

fl-/ = moving lightfl-/ = moving light

e.g. flame, flash, flare, flickere.g. flame, flash, flare, flicker

/sp-/ = point/sp-/ = point

e.g. spire, spark, spout, spot, spadee.g. spire, spark, spout, spot, spade

/sl-/ = movement/sl-/ = movement

e.g slide, slink, slosh, slither, slouch, slumpe.g slide, slink, slosh, slither, slouch, slump

At the end of one-syllable words, the At the end of one-syllable words, the voiceless stops /p/, /t/ and /k/ are voiceless stops /p/, /t/ and /k/ are expressions of an abrupt stoppage of expressions of an abrupt stoppage of movement.movement.

e.g. slap, pat, flick, tap, hit, cracke.g. slap, pat, flick, tap, hit, crack

a final voiceless fricative /ʃ/ suggests an a final voiceless fricative /ʃ/ suggests an unabrupt stoppage of movementunabrupt stoppage of movement

e.g. mash, squashe.g. mash, squash

clap – clashclap – clashbat – bashbat – bashsmack – smashsmack – smashcrack - crashcrack - crash

At the ends of two-syllabe words, the At the ends of two-syllabe words, the phonesthemes /-phonesthemes /-əəl/ and /-l/ and /-əər/ have the r/ have the meaning of repetition. (auditory/visual)meaning of repetition. (auditory/visual)

Examples:Examples:

/-/-əər/ r/ chatter, clatter, gibber, patter, chatter, clatter, gibber, patter, sputter, mutter, jabber, twitter, litter, sputter, mutter, jabber, twitter, litter, shatter, flutter, shimmer, stammershatter, flutter, shimmer, stammer

/-/-əəl/ l/ babble, giggle, twinkle, waggle, babble, giggle, twinkle, waggle, freckle, dribble, juggle, crackle, chuckle, freckle, dribble, juggle, crackle, chuckle, rattle, sparkle, stipple, prattle, wriggle, rattle, sparkle, stipple, prattle, wriggle, drizzledrizzle

A speech sound is a phonesteme A speech sound is a phonesteme only when its imputed sense is only when its imputed sense is related to the sense of the word of related to the sense of the word of which it is a part.which it is a part.

Immediate ConstituentsImmediate Constituents

morphemes constructing a wordmorphemes constructing a word

word analysis:word analysis:

friendsfriends

friendfriend -s-s

friendlinessfriendliness

friendlyfriendly -ness-ness

friendfriend -ly-ly

empowermentempowerment

empowerempower -ment-ment

em-em- powerpower

item ize ditem ize d

pre pro fess ion alpre pro fess ion al

news paper domnews paper dom

counter de clar ationcounter de clar ation

mal con struc tionmal con struc tion

contra dict orycontra dict ory

dis en thronedis en throne

mid after noonmid after noon

ice land icice land ic

super natur alsuper natur al

un com fort ableun com fort able

fest iv alfest iv al

en gag ingen gag ing

ex press ion ismex press ion ism

mis judg mentmis judg ment

1.1. accusationaccusation2.2. globalizationglobalization3.3. intermediationintermediation4.4. complementarycomplementary5.5. inabilitiesinabilities6.6. stabilizersstabilizers7.7. endangermentendangerment8.8. applicabilityapplicability9.9. elasticityelasticity10.10. profitabilityprofitability