aerial surveillance affirmative - michigan7 2015.docx

7/25/2019 Aerial Surveillance Affirmative - Michigan7 2015.docx

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1AC


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Surveillance StateThe war on terror has being brought to America in the form of

aerial surveillance, making Orwells dystopia a reality

ohoshray !"1# (Saby [President, Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies

Director, Research, and Compliance WorldCompliance Company]; DomesticSureillance !ia Drones" #oo$in% &hrou%h the #ens of the 'ourth mendment; )) *+Ill+ + #+ Re+ -./0

Ima%ine for a moment+ scenic drie alon% a pictures1ue hi%h2ay, it is a acation, a trip of alifetime+ Suddenly, the serenity of your surroundin% is interrupted by a 3ell4re missilefrom a Predator drone+ 5ou are obliterated+ %ain, ima%ine you are in the seclusion of your fenced inbac$yard+ #oun%in%, barely clothed, and drenched in suntan lotion, it is your 2ell6earned time o7 from 2or$+Suddenly, your 8one of priate re9ection is shattered by the bu88in% noise of a 3ummin%bird drone aboe+ :eforeyou can coer up, the hi%h6resolution 8oom lens of the drone has already completed its mission66to capture multipleima%es of sunbathers li$e yourself+ &his 2as a self6led mission by a oyeur ro%ue la2 enforcement personnel+ 5our

priacy is obliterated+&his r2ellian dystopia is no ima%ination+ Rather, it may be comin%sooner than any of us can ima%ine+ Welcome to the post6modern merica662here society may be headin%

to a fast trac$ dissent into the abyss of limitless %oernment sureillance+ Thedomestic drones have arrived, and they are almost ready to intrude upon oursacrosanct 8one of priate seclusion+n< &he aboe scenarios are certainly not this author=sima%ination+ &hey are not bad dreams or morbid fantasies either+ Instead, they are based on therecorded incidences of $iller drones 2rea$in% haoc in the ciilian communities in theru%%ed mountains of Pa$istan, f%hanistan, and 5emen+ n) &he[>-?@] ery same drones areno2 2aitin% for either a le%islatie nod or the re%ulatory approal to be%in hoerin%oer the by2ays and alleys of merica+ 5et, it seems the national discourse has notawakened to this new reality$ &hese drones are relatiely cheap to build, remotely controlled, anddeoid of emotions and physiolo%ical limitations+ &oday=s drones can both stri$e 2ith deadly 4nality nA and peerdeep into indiidual homes 2ith see6throu%h ima%in% capability, n- hi%h6po2ered 8oom lenses, nB and ni%ht6ision

capability+ n.&his emer%in% ne2 reality 2ill soon be at the hori8on of merican sociallandscape for arious reasons+ 'irst, the public proclamation of success in containin%al6aeda n? has emboldened the current administration+&his has created a fertile%round for la2 enforcement a%encies in arious states to deploy drones fordomestic sureillance+n/ Second, preiously limited as an aid in border protection, n@ drones haeno2 become a desirable necessity for la2 enforcement across the nation+ n@@ &hird,despite the federal [>-?


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measure to reHect drone sureillance+ Part I! deles into a fundamental analysis of the impendin% domesticsureillance+ :y combinin% social contract theory 2ith the deeper liberty principles espoused by Warren and:randeis, this Part dries home that indiiduals in the contemporary merican society hae a fundamental ri%ht and

lon%6standin% inheritance to be secure 2ithin their priate seclusion+ 'inally, Part ! concludes that the 'ourthmendment Hurisprudence may still be robust enou%h to address compleFitiesarisin% out of drone sureillance[>-?)] and 2hen ta$en in conHunction 2ith social

contract theory, may present a stron% rationale for reHectin% drones introduction atthis time+

As police forces become increasing paramilitari%ed, drones will

be a critical tool to sti&e and kill dissidents

Talai 1' ( niersity of California, :er$eley, School of #a2 (ndre2, &he 'ourthmendment and Police Discretion in the Di%ital %e,J @< Cal+ #+ Re+ .


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these drones can be 9o2n 2ith little or no priacy protections really mean that, people, Hust by irtue of liin% in

that re%ion are someho2 acceptin% that they hae a ri%ht to less priacy, she said+ frican6mericancommunities could 2ell feel the disproportionate impacts of the inte%rated use ofdomestic drones and other sureillance in the comin% years, as technolo%ies suchas Stin%Ray are already bein% used mostly in the on%oin% 2ar on dru%s to trac$those suspected of sellin% and buyin% dru%s +&he dru% 2ar has lon% ne%atielyimpacted communities of color, based on raciali8ed dru% policies and racialdiscrimination by la2 enforcement ;t2o6thirds of all those conicted of dru% crimesare people of color, despite similar rates of dru% use amon% 2hites and people ofcolor+&hese already6eFistin% racial disparities in intrusie policin% tactics anddeployment of sureillance technolo%ies are one of the primary reasons ciilliberties eFperts are sayin% the %oernment often %ets it bac$2ard 2hen thin$in%about priacy issues" deployin% intrusie technolo%ies 4rst, and comin% up 2ith priacy policies %oernin%their use after2ard (2hen they may already be iolatin% many people=s ciil ri%hts0+ What 2e see 2ith Stin%Rays isthe same phenomenon that 2e=re seein% 2ith [S], 2here federal a%encies are usin% them, uliani said+ Stateand local a%encies are usin% them+ &here=s federal dollars that are %oin% to buy them, and 2e=re $ind of hain% thepriacy debate after the fact 2ith ery little information+

+urthermore, it will further easperate structural racismCyril !"1*(Qal$ia mala [under and eFecutie director of the Center for Qedia

Nustice (CQN0 and co6founder of the Qedia ction rassroots *et2or$]; :lac$merica=s State of Sureillance; Qar );222+pro%ressie+or%Gne2sG


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approach in use is :ro$en Windo2s+J &his approach to policin% places an undue focus on 1uality of life crimesOli$esellin% loose ci%arettes, the $ind of o7ense for 2hich Kric arner 2as cho$ed to death+ Without oersi%ht,accountability, transparency, or ri%hts, predictie policin% is Hust hi%h6tech racial pro4lin%Oindiscriminate datacollection that dries discriminatory policin% practices+ s local la2 enforcement a%encies increasin%ly adoptsureillance technolo%ies, they use them in three primary 2ays" to listen in on speci4c conersations on and oUine;to obsere daily moements of indiiduals and %roups; and to obsere data trends+ Police departments li$e:rattonLs aim to use sophisticated technolo%ies to do all three+ &hey 2ill use technolo%ies li$e license plate readers,2hich the Klectronic 'rontier 'oundation found to be disproportionately used in communities of color andcommunities in the process of bein% %entri4ed+ &hey 2ill use facial reco%nition, biometric scannin% soft2are, 2hichthe ':I has no2 rolled out as a national system, to be adopted by local police departments for any criminal Husticepurpose+ &hey intend to use body and dashboard cameras, 2hich hae been touted as an e7ectie step to2ardaccountability based on the results of one study, yet stora%e and archiin% procedures, amon% many other issues,remain unclear+ &hey 2ill use Stin%ray cellphone interceptors+ ccordin% to the C#, Stin%ray technolo%y is aninasie cellphone sureillance deice that mimics cellphone to2ers and sends out si%nals to tric$ cellphones in thearea into transmittin% their locations and identifyin% information+ When used to trac$ a suspectLs cellphone, theyalso %ather information about the phones of countless bystanders 2ho happen to be nearby+ &he same is true of

domestic drones, 2hich are in increasin% use by +S+ la2 enforcement to conductroutine aerial sureillance+ While drones are currently unarmed, drone manufacturersare considerin% armin% these remote6controlled aircraft 2ith 2eapons li$e rubberbullets, tasers, and tear %as+ &hey 2ill use fusion centers+ ri%inally desi%ned to increase intera%encycollaboration for the purposes of counterterrorism, these hae instead become the local arm of the intelli%ence

community+ ccordin% to Klectronic 'rontier 'oundation, there are currently seenty6ei%ht on record+ &hey are theclearin%house for increasin%ly used suspicious actiity reportsJOdescribed as oMcial documentation of obseredbehaior reasonably indicatie of pre6operational plannin% related to terrorism or other criminal actiity+J &hesereports and other collected data are often stored in massie databases li$e e6!erify and Prism+ s anybody 2hoLseer dealt 2ith %an% databases $no2s, itLs almost impossible to %et o7 a federal or state database, een 2hen the

data collected is incorrect or no lon%er true+ Predictie policin% doesnLt Hust lead to racial andreli%ious pro4lin%Oit relies on it+Nust as stop and fris$ le%itimi8ed an initial, un2arranted contactbet2een police and people of color, almost / percent of 2hom turn out to be innocent of any crime, suspiciousactiities reportin% and the dra%net approach of fusion centers tar%et communitiesof color+ ne reie2 of such reports collected in #os n%eles sho2s approFimately .- percent 2ere of people ofcolor+ &his is the future of policin% in merica, and it should terrify you as much as it terri4es me+ nfortunately, it

probably doesnLt, because my life is at far %reater ris$ than the lies of 2hite mericans ,especially those reportin% on the issue in the media or adocatin% in the halls of po2er+ ne of the most terrifyin%

aspects of hi%h6tech sureillance is the inisibility of those it disproportionately impacts+&he *S and ':Ihae en%a%ed local la2 enforcement a%encies and electronic sureillancetechnolo%ies to spy on Quslims liin% in the nited States+ ccordin% to ':I trainin% materialsuncoered by Wired in


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And, plans eist to weaponi%ed police drones

reenwald !"1#(lenn [former columnist on ciil liberties and S nationalsecurity issues for the uardian+ n eF6constitutional la2yer]; &he S *eeds &oWa$e p &o &hreat f Domestic Drones; Qar );http"GG222+the%uardian+comGcommentisfreeG


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a tar%et to be more easily $illed+ Police a%encies and the increasin%ly po2erful drone industry2ill tout their utility in capturin% and $illin% dan%erous criminals and their ability to$eep oMcers safe, and media reports 2ill do the same+ &he handful of %enuinely positie usesfrom drones 2ill be endlessly touted to distract attention a2ay from the dan%ers they pose+ ne has to beincredibly naVe to thin$ that these assassin bu%s and other lethal drone products

2ill not be 2idely used on S soil by an already para6militari8ed domestic policeforce+ s Radley :al$o=s forthcomin% boo$ Rise of the Warrior Cop details, the primary trend in S la2enforcement is 2hat its title describes as &he Qilitari8ation of merica=s Police 'orces+ &he history of domestic la2enforcement particularly after /G@@ has been the importation of military techni1ues and 2eapons into domesticpolicin%+ It 2ould be shoc$in% if these 2eapons 2ere not imminently used by domestic la2 enforcement a%encies+In contrast to 2eaponi8ed drones, een the most naVe amon% us do not doubt the imminent proliferation ofdomestic sureillance drones+ With little debate, they hae already arried+ s the C# put it in their recent report"

S la2 enforcement is %reatly eFpandin% its use of domestic drones forsureillance+ n # &imes article from last month reported that federal authorities hae steppedup e7orts to license sureillance drones for la2 enforcement and other uses in Sairspace and that the 'ederal iation dministration said 'riday it had issued @,A


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usual, that factor is thus far driin% the (basically noneFistent0 political response to these threats+ What is mostoften i%nored by drone proponents, or those 2ho sco7 at anti6drone actiism, are the uni1ue features of drones" the2ay they enable more 2arfare, more a%%ression, and more sureillance+ Drones ma$e 2ar more li$ely preciselybecause they entail so little ris$ to the 2ar6ma$in% country+ Similarly, 2hile the propensity of drones to $ill innocentpeople receies the bul$ of media attention, the 2ay in 2hich drones psycholo%ically terrori8e the population 6simply by constantly hoerin% oer them" unseen but heard 6 is usually i%nored, because it=s not happenin% in theS, so fe2 people care (see this P report from yesterday on ho2 the increasin% use of drone attac$s in f%hanistanis truly terrori8in% local illa%ers0+ It remains to be seen ho2 mericans 2ill react to drones constantly hoerin% oertheir homes and their childrens= schools, thou%h by that point, their presence 2ill be so institutionali8ed that it 2illbe li$ely be too late to stop+ *otably, this may be one area 2here an actual bipartisanGtrans6partisan alliance canmeanin%fully emer%e, as most adocates 2or$in% on these issues 2ith 2hom I=e spo$en say that libertarian6minded P state le%islators hae been as responsie as more left62in% Democratic ones in 2or$in% to imposesome limits+ ne bill no2 pendin% in Con%ress 2ould prohibit the use of sureillance drones on S soil in the

absence of a speci4c search 2arrant, and has bipartisan support+ nly the most authoritarian amon%us 2ill be incapable of understandin% the multiple dan%ers posed by a domesticdrone re%ime(particularly 2hen their party is in control of the %oernment and they are incapable ofperceiin% threats from increased state police po2er0+ :ut the proliferation of domestic dronesa7ords a real opportunity to for%e an endurin% coalition in defense of core priacyand other ri%hts that transcends partisan alle%iance, by 2or$in% to2ard meanin%ful limits ontheir use+ Qa$in% people a2are of eFactly 2hat these uni1ue threats are from a

domestic drone re%ime is the $ey 4rst step in constructin% that coalition+

-rones remove any public anonymity and create an

omnipresent .anopticon, enabling totalitarianism

)urow !"1#(Qatthe2 # [Candidate for ND X *e2 Kn%land School of #a2]; &heSentinel Clouds aboe the *ameless Cro2d" Prosecutin% nonymity from DomesticDrones; )/ *e2 Kn%+ N+ on Crim+ T Ci+ Con4nement AA); $df0

Wal$in% do2n the street+ Driin% a car+ Sittin% on a par$ bench+ :y themseles, these actions do not eFhibit an iotaof priacy+ &he indiidual has no intention to conceal their moements; no con4dentiality in their purpose+ &heindiidual is in the open, enHoyin% a 1uiet day or a peaceful Sunday drie+ 5et as Chief Nustice Rehn1uist

commented, there is uneasiness if an indiidual suspected that these innocuous andbeni%n moements 2ere bein% recorded and scrutini8ed for future reference+@@/ Ifthe uneasy reaction to 2hich the Chief Nustice referred is not based on a sense ofpriacy inasion, it stems from somethin% ery close to it6a sense that one has ari%ht to public anonymity+ @


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le%islature+ :ased on current trends in technolo%y and a $een interest ta$en by la2enforcement in the adancement of S inte%ration into national airspace, it isclear that drones pose a loomin% threat to mericans= anonymity + @


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described as coc$roaches+&his is not to infer %enocidal intent in S drone 2arfare,but rather to emphasise the dehumanisin% e7ect of this terminolo%y in *a8iermany and that the ery same terms are used by the S in respect of their Pa$istani tar%ets+


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.lanThe 0nited States federal government should curtail its aerial

surveillance by ruling that such searches constitute a search

within the +ourth Amendment and is unreasonable without a

warrant, barring eigent circumstances$


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SolvencyOnly court action on aerial surveillance solves privacy

backsliding, keeps up with technology, and provides law

enforcement with legal bright lines

Celso !"1'(Noel [ND Candidate of :altimore #a2]; DR*I* * :& &3K'R&3 QK*DQK*&" DP&I* RKS*:#K 'R&3 QK*DQK*&

NRISPRDK*CK & PRK!K*& *RKS*:#K SKRC3KS :5 *Q**KD IRCR'&S5S&KQS; A) + :alt+ #+ Re+ AB@; $df0

I!+ K*SRI* RKS*:#K '&RK :5 PRK!K*&I* *RKS*:#K S SR!KI##*CK Spea$in% for theSupreme Court in yllo, Nustice Scalia ac$no2led%ed that technolo%ical adances hae reduced the priacy [>A?/]protections %ranted by the 'ourth mendment+ n


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conteFt, or 2hen they are armed 2ith a ne2 technolo%y+ n


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adopted+n


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%oernment=s electronic sureillance, the Supreme Court=s decision in Clapper 2illremain a si%ni4cant obstacle for future liti%ants 2ho do not hae eidence of the$ind lea$ed by Sno2den+ &he lea$=s role in the establishment of the panel and the4lin% of layman and C# + Clapper are important to the protection of priacyri%hts+ 3o2eer, they are not aimed at 4Fin% the underlyin% problem" that

%oernment sureillance pro%rams hae been e7ectiely isolated from meanin%fulHudicial reie2+

&he only 2ay to properly remedy the issue is to reform the system as a 2hole, in amanner that 2ould proide future liti%ants 2ith the proof necessary to establishstandin% and subHect secret %oernment sureillance to Hudicial reie2+ &his doesnot mean a system that discloses classi4ed material 2hich could potentially

Heopardi8e national security+ Rather, it means a system 2here an adersarialprocess creates the proper balance bet2een national security and the protection ofindiidual priacy+

Third, our precedent of the plan sets a constitutional &oor for

states 7 municipalities, and empirically will be modeledinternationally

8ushin !"11(Stephen [PhD student at the niersity of California, :er$eley,Nurisprudence and Social Policy Pro%ram; N+D+, niersity of California, :er$eley]; &3KNDICI# RKSP*SK & QSS P#ICK SR!KI##*CK;


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Hud%es to misunderstand the conteFt of their decisions and their li$ely e7ect 2hen technolo%y is in 9uF+ n). :utin the uni1ue situation outlined in this rticle, Hud%es do not need to be eFperts in these technolo%ical 4elds tounderstand the capabilities of technolo%ies li$e #PR and facial reco%nition soft2are+ &he dan%er I discuss in thisarticle is that police 2ill $eep a di%ital dossier of eery sin%le person=s moements+ &his type of monitorin% 2ouldfacilitate 4shin% eFpeditions, increase the li$elihood of corrupt behaior by la2 enforcement, and facilitate some

types of racial pro4lin%+ &here is little reason to beliee that, 2ith the assistance of$no2led%eable adocates, Hud%es could not suMciently understand the potential

harms posted by di%itally eMcient inesti%atie technolo%ies to deelop a coherentconstitutional 9oor of protection+ nd een thou%h the le%islature has a broaderarray of resources at its disposal, the le%islature is an unsatisfactory aenue toprotect the uni1ue counter6maHoritarian issues at sta$e+ 'inally, some scholars hae contendedthat Hudicial re%ulations of [>))


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state can monitor their eery moement 2ith #PRE Do 2e reasonably eFpect a person to assume the ris$ that thestate 2ill $eep eFtensie, centrali8ed data on their moements inde4nitelyE r perhaps the more important1uestion is should 2e eFpect indiiduals to completely abandon all anonymity in publicE I beliee the clear,normatie ans2er to these 1uestions is a resoundin% no, and the implications of the di%itally eMcient inesti%atiestate only add 2ei%ht to the claims preiously made by Professor Soloe and others+ ltimately, this rticle onlyscratches the surface of the broader social implications of the di%itally eMcient inesti%atie state+ uestionsremain about the relatie criminolo%ical bene4ts of obserational comparison as compared to 2holesale dataretention+ &here is an increasin% need for empirical research on the e7ects these emer%in% technolo%ies hae onindiidual behaior+ nd there is a dearth of concrete data on the eFtent to 2hich la2 enforcement use thesetechnolo%ies+ I o7er only a brief %limpse into this ne2 technolo%ical order, the releant case la2, and some %eneral

normatie recommendations+&his should only be the be%innin% of the conersation aboutthe sociolo%ical, psycholo%ical, criminolo%ical, and le%al impacts of the increasin%lyeMcient police sureillance+ [>)


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enemy,once identi4ed as simply al aeda and aMliated %roups, no2 includes amorphousconcepts li$e Islamic eFtremismJor iolent eFtremists+J Qean2hile, any sharedunderstandin% of 2hen the 2ar mi%ht end has basically anished from publicdiscourse+ Where there 2as once an aspiration in Washin%ton to 2ind do2n the era of perpetual 2ar,J thereis no2 an a%reement that merica faces a multi%enerationalJ threat+ With little

a2areness of the conse1uences of this shift in discourse, +S+ counterterrorism ideolo%y has becomefar more nebulous , less concrete, and %radually more open6ended+The war onterrorism is going poorly"&he number, estimated stren%th, lethality (2ithin countries theyoperate in, not a%ainst mericans0, and social media in9uence of Hihadi terrorist %roups is%ro2in%+ 5et, the same tou%h6soundin% clichYsand 2holly implausible obHecties are repeatedoer and oer, 2ith no indication of any strate%ic learnin% or policy adHustments+ If thisirulent and eFtremistO irulent in that itLs poisonous and harmful and that repeatedly espousin% itensures continued strate%ic failure, and eFtremist in that it proclaims the most eFtreme obHecties that 2ill neer be

achieed O +S+ counterterrorism ideolo%y %oes unchec$ed, it 2ill further delude%oernment oMcials and +S+ citi8ens into the false belief that the current coursesof action are normal and acceptable and re1uire no modi4cation+ &his latest ideolo%icalchan%e is most conspicuous in descriptions of 2ho the nited States is at 2ar 2ith + &he enemy has al2ays

been oerly classi4ed and some2hat hidden, but at least there 2as once areco%ni8ed list of discrete %roups+*o2, the adersary is an unde4ned and contestedcate%ory of %roups or people alle%edly connected 2ith the act of terrorism+ If the+S+ %oernment 2ere as imprecise 2ith its bombs as 2ith its descriptions of itsterrorist enemies, it 2ould be a 2ar crime + &his matters" If you cannot name youropponents, you certainly cannot $no2 them, much less measure pro%ress indefeat in% them+ Consider the nebulous Humble of abstract enemies that oMcials hae pronounced+ In'ebruary, President :arac$ bama said, We are at 2ar 2ith people 2ho hae pererted IslamJ and said that theinternational community must eradicate this scour%e of iolent eFtremism+J Similarly, 2hen attemptin% to describethe enemy, the chairman of the Noint Chiefs of Sta7, en+ Qartin Dempsey, claimed that the nited States is in a4%ht a%ainst the %roup that has pererted Islam+J In 'ebruary, *ational Security disor Susan Rice conteFtuali8edthe +S+ mission as to cut o7 iolent eFtremism at the $nees+J Karlier that month, she attempted to describe the

unde4ned enemy" s al aeda core has been decimated, 2e hae seen the di7usion of the threat to al aedaaMliates, ISI#, local militia[s], and home%ro2n iolent eFtremists+J Kric 3older, then the attorney %eneral, claimed,also in 'ebruary, that the nited States is simply combatin% the threat of iolent eFtremism+J en+ #loyd ustin,commander of +S+ Central Command, said the enemy is ISI# and other iolent eFtremist %roups+J Somepolicyma$ers hae been een a%uer+ When as$ed to de4ne the enemy, Secretary of State Nohn erry said, I callthem the enemy of Islam+J #etLs set aside the fact that erry is no2 presumin% to interpret 2hat is le%itimate faithfor @ billion Quslims+ Nust 2ho is this enemy preciselyE Qean2hile, the Republican presidential candidates areoutdoin% one another in blurrin% the enemy and eFponentially eFpandin% the number of indiiduals 2hom thenited States must defeat+ Sen+ Qarco Rubio (R6'l+0 coined the &a$en doctrine" n our strate%y on %lobal Hihadistsand terrorists, I refer them to the moie &a$en Z #iam *eeson+ 3e had a line, and this is 2hat our strate%y shouldbe" We 2ill loo$ for you, 2e 2ill 4nd you, and 2e 2ill $ill you+LJ #ess theatrically, Sen+ &ed Cru8 (R6&eFas0 merelypled%ed, We 2ill stand up and defeat radical Islamic terrorism+J 'ormer &eFas o+ Ric$ Perry said, We are in theearly years of a stru%%le 2ith iolent Islamic eFtremists that 2ill last many decades+J Qean2hile, Sen+ Rand Paul (R6y+0, 2hile toutin% his alle%ed 2illin%ness to name the enemy, called them radical IslamJ and haters of man$ind+J%ain, itLs 4ne, thou%h meanin%less, to tal$ tou%h, but 2hom are these threats bein% made a%ainstE &he otherthreatenin% recent shift in +S+ counterterrorism ideolo%y relates to the end state in the 2ar on terrorism and 2hen

this mi%ht come about+ lthou%h bama once claimed that this 2ar, li$e all 2ars, must end,J oMcials andpolicyma$ers no lon%er pretend that the 2ar on terrorism 2ill eer end; nor do they o7erany narratie for ho2 this 2ar 2ould end+ Rather, they are attemptin% to normali8e the 2ar onterror ism as somethin% all mericans should accept and %et used to + s DefenseSecretary shton Carter admitted, We need to be thin$in% about terrorism more %enerally asa more endurin% part of our national security mission+J &his shift 2as crystalli8ed in aremar$able recent obseration by CI Director Nohn :rennan+ &hree years a%o, :rennan, then bamaLs closestcounterterrorism adisor, pled%ed, WeLre not %oin% to rest until al aeda the or%ani8ation is destroyed and is


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eliminated from areas in f%hanistan, Pa$istan, 5emen, frica, and other areas+ WeLre determined to do that+J 5et,last month, 2hen as$ed at 3arard niersity 2hen the 2ar on terrorism 2ill end, he responded philosophically"

ItLs a lon% 2ar, unfortunately+ :ut itLs been a 2ar that has been in eFistence formillennia+Z So this is %oin% to be somethin%, I thin$, that 2eLre al2ays %oin% tohae to be i%ilant about+J In other 2ords, defeating terrorism is eschatological andeternal$Similarly, bama and his senior aides hae come to repeatedly reframe the

2ar in decades+&he ne2 *ational Security Strate%y describes it as a %enerational stru%%le in the aftermathof the


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substance of those decisions themseles+) Some national security scholarscelebrate this state of a7airs+A In their ie2, courts are structurally ill e1uipped toassess the eFecutieLs intelli%ence and security calculations, 2hich often must bemade rapidly and 2hich carry important forei%n policy implications+ &hese scholarsalso beliee that the eFecutie is far more accountable to the public than courts,

such that its decisions 2ill be %uided and tempered by the public 2ill+ therscholars, in contrast, bemoan the absence of courts from the playin% 4eld+- &othem, the eFecutie has undue incenties to emphasi8e security alues oer libertyalues, and only a i%orous Hudicial role can counter that+ Qore broadly, thesescholars ie2 robust Hudicial deference to the eFecutie as 2ea$enin% a critical toolby 2hich to inhibit a sin%le branch of %oernment from accruin% undue po2er+ :othcamps tend to assume, ho2eer, that the courts do play only a limited role ineFecutie calculations about appropriate national security policies+

-eference is to blame for the failures of counterterrorism

Cover 1' ( Assistant Professor of Law, Case Western Reserve University School of Law;Director, Institute for Global Security Law an Policy

!Avian, Caro"o Law Review, #Presu$e I$$inence% &uicial Ris' Assess$ent in the (ost)

*+ Worl,- . Caro"o L/ Rev/ 0., Le1is+S2P3

r%uments faorin% Hudicial abdication because of temporary and possibly eFi%entcircumstances are less persuasie in li%ht of the seemin% permanence of theterrorism threat+ n@A-A] of terrorism 2illabate+ While the %oernment may no doubt be ie2ed as a proider of security, it isalso a protector of ciil liberty+ n9hus, the lo4ical sto((in4

(lace of this rationale is unclear/
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&hird, deference adocates ar%ue that national security issues are of a hi%hlycompleF and classi4ed nature, 2hich courts are not competent to handle or assess/Without full infor$ation about (otential har$s an the e1(ertise to $a'e ris' assess$ents,courts are not e@ui((e to eter$ine whether the 4overn$ent7s infrin4e$ent of a (articular

liberty is a((ro(riate/ n:>

8enney articulate the e1(ertise rationale in ?ou$eiene% in contrast to $e$bers of theother branches, $ost 6u4es o not =be4in the ay with briefin4s that $ay escribe new

an serious threats to our Eation an its (eo(le/= n:>:9hou4h the issenters in ?ou$eienecritici"e its e$(loy$ent as a rhetorical (ose, n:>FRoberts reifie the rationale in

5u$anitarian Law Pro6ect at the heart of his o(inion/ n:>0

Relately, deference$ay be rationali"e because the ob6ective in the terroris$ conte1t is(revention, not (rosecution/ n:>.As a result, the 4overn$ent $ay rely on intelli4ence

stanars as o((ose to those utili"e in the cri$inal conte1t/ n:>inally, deference$ay be ur4e ue to the lac' of (recision or@uantification of li'elihoo of an attac'/ n:>>

B0.


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(shley S+, &he bserer K7ect" *ational Security #iti%ation, KFecutie PolicyChan%es, and Nudicial Deference,J ?< 'ordham #a2 Reie2


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2hich the courts did not defer 2ere indiidual ri%hts cases+ In short, the obserere7ect produces a better second6bestJ 2orld 2hen the cases in 2hich the courtssho2 less deference are those that implicate indiidual ri%hts+

only increasing the amount of info available to

public can keep us safe

Scheer !"1*(Robert [Prof X SCLs School of Hournalism and communication];&hey no2 Kerythin% bout 5ou; *ation :oo$s; p+


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boo$ eFplains the continued rise of a military6intelli%ence compleF that, throu%h the assertion of a pressin% dan%erto national security after / I @@, made an unfettered and lar%ely unchallen%ed claim upon the ast amount ofpriate data collected in a 2ired 2orld by %oernment and priate enterprises+ It is a claim based on theun1uestioned assumption that 2hat passes for military intelli%ence is suMciently and uni1uely productie of usefulinsi%ht to 2arrant the costs to our democracy as 2ell as our federal bud%et, and that less inasie means ofresearch such as scholarship, Hournalism, and traditional shoe6leather spy and detectie 2or$ are inherentlyinade1uate to the tas$ of protectin% us in a cyber2orld+ It is a commonly persuasie ar%ument and diMcult tochallen%e %ien that the hi%h6tech sureillance is cloa$ed in such ti%ht secrecy+ In the 2a$e of the Sno2denreelations, 2hen there 2as a much6hei%htened public a2areness of the threat to priacy and a 2illin%ness, een

on the part of Con%ress, to address the issue more i%orously, all it too$ 2as the appearance of arene2ed terrorist threat to deelop ane2 a consensus that priacy needed to besurrendered as an una7ordable ris$ to the nation=s security+ Nust the opposite is the case+What no2 passes for military intelli%ence is a tech 6drien oFymoron that denies the place of historicalcontemplation, cultural and reli%ious study, political compleFity, and ethical restraints in assessin% dan%ers to a

nation+ *eer has our nation=s forei%n policy been so poorly sered as in the era ofthe Internet, 2ith its enormous potential to enli%hten us; but the collusions of 2ar6mon%erin% fanatics and pro4teers are beyond the comprehension of een the mostpo2erful machines+ &hey must not be beyond the purie2 of public a2areness, ho2eer+ fullyinformed public is the best safe%uard a%ainst the ha8ardous forei%n entan%lements

that our founders 2arned 2ere the main threat to the health of the republic+&hat is

2hy they enshrined the constitutional protections a%ainst unbridled %oernment po2er they belieed 2ould subertthe merican eFperiment in representatie %oernance+ We must heed the 2isdom of the K''=s senior attorney #ee&ien, 2ho as much as any constitutional la2yer has battled on behalf of those ri%hts+ s he summed up in aninterie2" We need to 4F the national security classi4cation system that has classi4ed so much information that 2edon=t $no2 2hat=s %oin% on+ It=s hard to $no2 2hat 2e should do, but 2e should all a%ree that $no2in% 2hat=shappenin% is the 4rst step+ It=s dan%erous to propose a solution 2hen you don=t $no2 2hat the eFtent of theproblem is+ If you as$ed me before the Sno2den reelations, my ans2er 2ould be di7erent+ &here are no personalsolutions to this; there is nothin% 2e can do indiidually+ &his is a systemic problem, he continued+ It=s aninstitutional problem, it=s a political problem+ &here can only be collectie action+ &hat=s it+ &hat means 2e need to

call on all of them6indiiduals, Internet companies, politicians, the %oernment6to 4F it, and 2e need to or%ani8e+5ou can=t hae a democracy if you don=t hae suMcient information+ We=re 4%htin%for the soul of this democracy+


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Case Support


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.rivacy Advantage


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Surveillance )ad : /tinction?ass surveillance causes etinction

Saul 1*(uincy Saul is the Co6'ounder of Kcosocialist 3ori8ons and the senioreditor and columnist for Capitalism *ature Socialism, &he 'our 3orsemen of the

pocalypse,J )G


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Surveillance )ad : @mperial ubrisThe surveillance state makes the collapse of the 0S likely

Scheer !"1* (Robert [Prof X SCLs School of Hournalism and communication];&hey no2 Kerythin% bout 5ou; *ation :oo$s; p+ @.B; $df0

WK RK *&I* &3& 3S #* CK#K:R&KD DISSIDK*&S throu%hout the 2orld 2hodare, often at %reat ris$, to eFpose the secret actions and challen%e the le%itimacy ofrepressie %oernments+ In some cases, 2e een proide le%al sanctuary or asylum for such people+3o2eer, 2hen mericans dissent in such radical 2ays, the opposite is often the case6they are ili4ed as disloyaland as a threat to our collectie security or stability+ &he assumption, embraced so 2idely, must be that our systemneer re1uires such a fundamental challen%e to its authority, as represented by the actions of a Daniel Kllsber%,

&homas Dra$e, Chelsea Qannin%, or Kd2ard Sno2den+ We $no2, ho2eer, from so many historical eFamples6the Roman Kmpire, *a8i ermany, the Soiet nion6that unchallen%ed authority notonly 2ill iolate human ri%hts but also 2ill ultimately so2 the seeds of its o2n ruin,increasin%ly blind to its o2n limitations and 9a2s+ Despite our historically innoatieconstitutional chec$s on %oernment po2er, we are nevertheless always &irting with

imperial hubris$We see this clearly in the pattern of lies that de4ned S forei%n policy after /G@@; it is1uite apparent that leain% those lies lar%ely unchallen%ed in the name ofclassi4cation seriously 2ea$ened the position of the nited States in the 2orld+


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Surveillance )ad : 8acism8acism must be re3ected in every instance ( independent

reason to vote aBrmative

)arndt 1 (Noseph R+ :arndt co6director of Qinistry Wor$in% to Dismantle Racism

Dismantlin% Racism p+ @--0

&o study racism is to study 2alls+ We hae loo$ed at barriers and fences, restraints and limitations, %hettos and prisons+&heprison of racism con4nes us all, people of color and 2hite people ali$e+ It shac$les theictimi8er as 2ell as the ictim+&he 2alls forcibly $eep people of color and 2hite people separate from each other; in our separateprisons 2e are all preented from achiein% the human potential od intends for us+&he limitations imposed on people ofcolor by poerty, subserience, and po2erlessnessare cruel, inhuman, and unHust; the e7ects of uncontrolledpo2er, priile%e, and %reed, 2hich are the mar$s of our 2hite prison, 2ill ineitably destroyus as 2ell+:ut 2e hae also seen that the 2alls of racism can be dismantled+ We are notcondemned to an ineForable fate , but are o7ered the ision and the possibility of freedom+:ric$ by bric$ , stone by stone, the prison of indiidual, institutional, and cultural racism canbe destroyed + 5ou and I are ur%ently called to Hoin the e7orts of those 2ho $no2 it is time to teardo2n, once and for all, the 2alls of racism+

&he dan%er point of self6destruction seems to be dra2in% een more near+ &he results ofcenturies of national and 2orld2ide con1uest and colonialism, of military buildups andiolent a%%ression, of oerconsumption and enironmental destruction may be reachin% apoint of no return+ small and predominantly 2hite minority of the %lobal population deries its po2er and priile%e from the su7erin%s ofast maHority of peoples of all color+ 'or the sa$e of the 2orld and ourseles, 2e dare not allo2 it tocontinue +


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ATD -rones ot Eey to +ourth Amendment/stablishing limits on drones is the only method to revitali%e

the fourth amendment

San .edro !"1'(!ictoria [N+D+ Candidate, Stetson niersity Colle%e of #a2];

S&DK*& WR" DR*K #KIS#&I*" KKPI* * K5K * #W K*'RCKQK*&=S#&KS& SR!KI##*CK &KC3*#5; A) Stetson #+ Re+ B./; $df0

!+ C*C#SI* *D RKCQQK*D&I*S With the ubi1uity of drone licenses amon% merican la2 enforcement

a%encies, n


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Despite a stron% ar%ument that S sureillance should not constitute a search aslon% as it sho2s nothin% more or di7erent than 2hat is reealed by na$ed6eyeobseration,n


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ATD -rones GHG Surveillance StateSurveillance tech facilitates a surveillance state

Citron and ray 1#(Danielle eats [Professor of #a2, niersity of Qaryland]and Daid [Professor of #a2, niersity of Qaryland]; ddressin% the 3arm of &otal

Sureillance" Reply to Professor *eil Richards; Nune


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ei%hteenth6century cases inolin% the :ritish %oernmentLs use of %eneral2arrants to sei8e personal diaries and letters in support of seditious6libelprosecutions that 2ere desi%ned to suppress political thou%ht+.A Despite theseroots, 1uantitatie priacy is Hust be%innin% to receie reco%nition because it is onlyno2 under threat of eFtinction by technolo%ies li$e !irtual labama and fusion

centers +

-rones are an unprecedented threat to privacy : capable of

monitoring entire cities

8othfuss !"1'(Ian ' [eor%e Qason School of #a2]; Student Comment" nKconomic Perspectie on the Priacy Implications of Domestic Drone Sureillance;@ N+#+ Kcon+ T Pol=y AA@; $df0

Introduction siFteen6hour stando7 2ith police be%an after a suspect too$ control of siF co2s that 2andered on tohis farm and chased police o7 his land 2ith hi%h po2ered ri9es+ n@ Without the suspect=s $no2led%e, police used

a Predator drone to locate and apprehend him on his ),6acre farm+ n< In addition to la2 enforcement, anyonemay buy a handheld drone+ &he Parrot R+Drone AA


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n@. &he possibilities for corporate espiona%e and the theft of trade secrets are also endless+ Drones ran%e in si8efrom handheld units to units the si8e of lar%e aircraft and hae a 2ide ariety of capabilities+ n@? *early 4ftycompanies are reported to be deelopin% an estimated @- arieties of drone systems+ n@/ sers of drones mayinclude the military, federal and local la2 enforcement a%encies, business entities, and priate indiiduals+ Droneshae many dierse domestic uses includin% sureillance of dan%erous disaster sites, patrollin% borders, helpin% la2enforcement locate suspects, monitorin% traMc, crop dustin%, aerial mappin%, media coera%e, and many others+

nAAA] Drones represent an unprecedented coner%ence of sureillance

technolo%ies that could lead to increased security but could also Heopardi8e thepriacy of +S+ citi8ens+ Drones may be e1uipped 2ith a ariety of technolo%ies includin% hi%h6resolutioncameras, n


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too inasie a tool for it to be unclear 2hen the public 2ill be subHected to them+ &he%oernment needs to respect mericansL priacy 2hile usin% this inasietechnolo%y, and the la2s on the boo$s need to be brou%ht up to date to ensure thatmerica does not turn into a drone sureillance state +ll oer the +S+, states and localities aretryin% to 4%ure out throu%h the democratic political process eFactly 2hat $ind of protections 2e should put in placein li%ht of the %ro2in% use of 2hat &ime Qa%a8ine called the most po2erful sureillance tool eer deised, on6 or

oUine+J &hese debates are essential to a healthy democracy, and are heartenin% to see+ 3o2eer, thisproduction from the Qarshals Serice underscores the need for a federal la2 toensure that the %oernmentLs use of drones remains open and transparent+ number of federal la2ma$ers are already pushin% to brin% the la2 up to date+Representaties&ed Poe(R6&eFas0 and^oe #of%ren(D6Calif+0 recently introduced the 4rstbipartisan le%islation to re%ulate the %oernmentLs use of drones + &he proposed le%islation,2hich is supported by the C#, 2ould enact Hudicial and Con%ressional oersi%htmechanisms, re1uire %oernment a%encies to re%ister all drones and %et a 2arrant2hen usin% them for sureillance(eFcept in emer%ency situations0, and prohibit the domesticuse of armed drones+ We beliee this billOand hopefully a future companion bill in the SenateO2ill proidea stron% foundation for future le%islation protectin% our priacy ri%hts in the face of proliferatin% drone sureillanceand %oernment secrecy+

0nregulated drones perfect the art of surveillance

Ahsanuddin et al !"1'(Sadia 6 principal inesti%ator for the report and QPCresearch fello2; Domestic Drones" Implications for Priacy and Due Process in thenited States; Sep ?; 222+mpac+or%GpublicationsGpolicy6papersGdomestic6drones+php; $df0

Simultaneously, the I3SS surey respondents indicated apprehensieness oer any domestic drone operations" t2o6thirds eFpressed concern oer potential sureillance in homes or public areas; B- percent 2ere concerned about

safety; and .- percent 2ere concerned about the %oernmentLs ability to re%ulate use+?


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ATD o Feaponi%ed


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ATD @f you have nothing to hideThe idea that only those with something to hide should worry

triviali%es the importance of privacy concerns

Scheer !"1* (Robert [Prof X SCLs School of Hournalism and communication];

&hey no2 Kerythin% bout 5ou; *ation :oo$s; p+ ?@6?


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ATD a%ism eampleGhyperboleThe risk is real

Scheer !"1* (Robert [Prof X SCLs School of Hournalism and communication];&hey no2 Kerythin% bout 5ou; *ation :oo$s; p+ @.B; $df0

WK RK *&I* &3& 3S #* CK#K:R&KD DISSIDK*&S throu%hout the 2orld 2hodare, often at %reat ris$, to eFpose the secret actions and challen%e the le%itimacy ofrepressie %oernments+ In some cases, 2e een proide le%al sanctuary or asylum for such people+3o2eer, 2hen mericans dissent in such radical 2ays, the opposite is often the case6they are ili4ed as disloyaland as a threat to our collectie security or stability+ &he assumption, embraced so 2idely, must be that our systemneer re1uires such a fundamental challen%e to its authority, as represented by the actions of a Daniel Kllsber%,

&homas Dra$e, Chelsea Qannin%, or Kd2ard Sno2den+ We $no2, ho2eer, from so many historical eFamples6the Roman Kmpire, *a8i ermany, the Soiet nion6that unchallen%ed authority notonly 2ill iolate human ri%hts but also 2ill ultimately so2 the seeds of its o2n ruin ,increasin%ly blind to its o2n limitations and 9a2s+ Despite our historically innoatieconstitutional chec$s on %oernment po2er, we are nevertheless always &irting with

imperial hubris $We see this clearly in the pattern of lies that de4ned S forei%n policy after /G@@; it is1uite apparent that leain% those lies lar%ely unchallen%ed in the name ofclassi4cation s eriously 2ea$ened the position of the nited S tates in the 2orld+


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-eference


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0I (( -eference ighnchec$ed eFecutie is leadin% to ine7ectie sureillance and drone policies thatare deoid of standards

)rand and uiora 1* (Ne7rey S+, N+D+, Dean Kmeritus and Professor of #a2,Director Center for #a2 and lobal Nustice, niersity of San 'rancisco School of#a2, and mos *+, Ph+D, Professor of #a2, S+N+ uinney Colle%e of #a2, niersity oftah, Co6Director, Center for lobal Nustice,The Stee" Price o! Executive Po#er Post$%&&: 'eclai(ing Our Past to )nsure Our *uture, Nan+


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4broken$J. Kric Posner and drian !ermeuleOhereinafter collectiely P!JOareamon% the most sophisticated adocates of this dictum+ :ut 2ith a t2ist+ Dra2in%on political science, %ame theory models, and the economics of a%encyrelationships, their boo$ &he KFecutie nbound" fter the Qadisonian Republicproposes that neither la2 nor le%ally constituted institutions (that is, Con%ress and

courts0 in practice impose meanin%ful constraints on the federal eFecutie+ &his isso, P! say, not only in the heat of emer%ency but also in the ordinary run ofadministration (pp A_-0+? Succinctly put, their thesis is that maHor constraints onthe eFecutie + + + do not arise from la2 or from the separation6of6po2ersframe2or$J (


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-eference )ad (( oal -isplacement-eference leads to goal displacement: planning is key to

preventing subordinates from undermining e;ectiveness by

acting contrary to eecutive goals

.earlstein, ( !isitin% Scholar and #ecturer in Public and International 7airs,Woodro2 Wilson School of Public T International 7airs, Princeton niersity

(Deborah, 'orm and 'unction in the *ational Security Constitution,J A@ Conn+ #+

Re+ @-A/, #eFis0

&he ne2 functionalists= instinctie attraction to 9eFibility in decision6ma$in%

rules or structures6and its correspondin% possibilities of secrecy [>@B@B)] interests from prison administrators+ n@?/ "mergencies exacerbate

the risk of such effectively arbitrary decisions.Critical information may be unaailable or

inaccessible+ n@/ Short6term interests may see$ to eFploit opportunities that

run counter to desired lon%6term (or een near6term0 outcomes+ n@/@ &he

distance bet2een 2hat a leader 2ants and 2hat an a%ent $no2s and does is

thus li$ely een %reater+


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#he $uban %issile $risis affords striking examples of such a problem.When informed by

the Noint Chiefs of Sta7 of the %ro2in% tensions 2ith the Soiet nion in late

ctober @/B@B-] basic items li$e

food, 2ater, and medicines 2ere in such short supply that local la2 enforcement

(instead of focusin% on security issues0 2ere occupied, in part, 2ith brea$in%

into businesses and ta$in% 2hat residents needed+ n


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intelligence targets, n1*( the systemic torture and abuse of scores of detainees was an outcome no one

purported to seek. #here is substantial agreement among security analysts of both parties that the prisoner

abuse scandals have produced predominantly negative conse2uences for .. national security. n


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role e7ectieness mi%ht su%%est faorin% a structure in 2hich the en%a%ement

of releant eFpertise in crisis mana%ement is re1uired, leaders hae incenties

to anticipate and plan in adance for trade6o7s, and [>@B?] or%ani8ations are

able to train subordinates to ensure that plans are adhered to in emer%encies+

Such structural constraintscould help increase the li$elihood that somethin%

more than arbitrary attention has been paid before transcendent priorities are

oerridden+


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-eference )ad (( Secrecy-eference leads to secrecy( prevents organi%ational learning

in a crisis that is essential to e;ective decision(making

.earlstein, ( !isitin% Scholar and #ecturer in Public and International 7airs,

Woodro2 Wilson School of Public T International 7airs, Princeton niersity(Deborah, 'orm and 'unction in the *ational Security Constitution,J A@ Conn+ #+

Re+ @-A/, #eFis0


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decisionmakers, hidden by one executive agency from another and by one branch of government from

another, and limited in its relevance and accuracy from an absence of oversight and competing analysis.

n


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-eference )ad (( /aggerates Threats-eference is &awed( oBcials will overstate the likelihood of a

threat to national security and put it before liberty

Fells "'6

Cro2der Professor of #a2 and ssociate Dean for cademic 7airs at

the niersity of Qissouri School of #a2

(Christina, uestionin% Deference,http"GGscholarship+la2+missouri+eduGc%iGie2content+c%iEarticle\)-/ATconteFt\mlr0

N:

&he psycholo%ical 4ndin%saboe su%%est that substantial errors occur in ris$assessment durin% times of intense emotions, such as fear+ Indiiduals are %enerallyli$ely to oerestimate the probability of an eent=s occurrenceif that eent is especiallyfamiliar or salient+&he presence of an intense emotion can further eFacerbate thetendency to oerestimate the li$elihood of an eent, either because it ma$es an eent especiallyaailable or because people be%in to focus on the potentially catastrophic nature of a particularly fearful eent,

essentially droppin% probability out of the e1uation alto%ether+ Social in9uences can reinforce thiss$e2ed ris$ assessment throu%h the phenomenon of information and reputational cascades, 2hich cancause a 2idespread, thou%h erroneous, belief re%ardin% the li$elihood of an eent+&hese 4ndin%s haesubstantial implications for la2 and policy durin% times of crisis+ 'irst , since [p]ublicoMcials, no less than ordinary people, are prone to use of the aailability heuristic, they may themseles fallprey to s$e2ed ris$ assessment+ @A? &o the eFtent that %oernment oMcials often reach suchassessments after %roup deliberation, there is the possibility that such decisions will be skewedeenfurther by polari8ation or %roupthin$+ Second, the public may fall prey to s$e2ed ris$ assessment as a result ofpriate aailability entrepreneurs= attempts to fan fear re%ardin% particular threats+ s the public becomeseFcessiely fearful of statistically small ris$s, it may demand that %oernment act to preent that ris$ re%ardlessof the costs of re%ulation or the potential harm caused by re%ulatin% the ris$+@ A/ &o the eFtent that reputationalpressures operate on oMcials, especially elected ones, they 2ill tend to respond positiely to public demands byenactin% le%islatie and re%ulatory measures re%ardin% small6probability ris$s+@- 'inally, the %oernment may

itself act as an aailability entrepreneur, causin% the public to call for %oernment action+ nce the public=s calls areof suMcient stren%th, those oMcials can then pressure others to enact le%islation or ta$e action to further theirpriate a%endas+
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-eference )ad (( .ublic ysteriaH8eputation-eference fails( the eecutive branch is driven by reputational

concerns and public hysteria

Fells "'6




N:

&his discussion has substantial implications for the Hudicial deference debate+ :oth sides of the debate ar%ue from fundamentalassumptions about arious decision ma$ers= capabilities, and the historical pattern aboe sheds li%ht on some of those assumptions+

'irst, that pattern casts doubt on 3udicial deference proponentsJ claim that

eecutive oBcials are particularly adept at making decisions involving

threats to national security$People %enerally are not adept at assessin% ris$ intimes of %reat fear, and history sho2s eFecutie oMcials are no di7erent, at least2hen national security decisions a7ect ciil liberties at home+ Qoreoer,

reputational concerns may pressure oMcials into caterin% to public hysteria + Worse,eFecutie oMcials are sometimes 2illin% to act as aailability entrepreneurs, insti%atin% public hysteria for political ends+
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A; Solves (( Courts )alance SecurityH8ightsCourts shouldnt defer to the eecutive branch( the courts are

necessary to achieve balance between security an liberty

Cole "K6 :++ from 5ale and teaches constitutional la2, national security, and

criminal Hustice at eor%eto2n niersity #a2 Center

(Daid, *o Reason &o :eliee" Radical S$epticism, Kmer%ency Po2er, andConstitutional Constraint, .- + C3I+ #+ RK!+ @))-0 N:

&hird, the authors= ar%ument that the eFecutie is best situated to balance liberty andsecurity in emer%encies fails to consider the full ran%e of 1ualities that one mi%ht2ant in an a%ency tas$ed to stri$e such a balance+ &he authors correctly note that theeFecutie has adanta%esin terms of speed, eFperience, 9eFibility, and access to secret information+ :ut2hile these attributes are certainly important from a security standpoint, they arenot necessarily suMcient to balance liberty a%ainst security+ .recisely because werely so heavily on the eecutive to maintain our security, we should be

skeptical of its ability to give suBcient weight to the liberty side of thebalance$Nust as 'ourth mendment doctrine insists on 2arrants issued by ma%istrates because 2e do not trustthe police, 2hose primary responsibility is la2 enforcement, to balance priacy interests fairly, so 2e cannot trust

the eFecutie to balance liberty and security fairly on its o2n+&his is especially true in an emer%ency2hen the eFecutie is under intense pressure to delier security+ s in the 'ourthmendment settin%, Hudicial reie2 plays an essential role in achiein% anappropriate balance; deference to the eecutive undermines that role $


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A; solves (( Courts )est Check /ecutiveCourts are the best mechanism to check the courts

Fells "'6




N:

ne can ma$e a strong argument that 3udicial review is generally a viable

mechanism for eecutive branch accountability durin% national security crises+@/.&heHudicial forum, 2ith its fact64ndin% capabilities, re1uirements of proof, andre1uirement that the %oernment Hustify incursions on ciil liberties, 4ts 2ell 2ithinthe %eneral de4nition of accountability as re1uirin% a speci4c, public accountin% ofone=s decisions+ Consistent 2ith the psycholo%ical de4nition, positie or ne%atieconse1uences attach to eFecutie oMcials= accountin% of their behaior in the form

of a Hudicial rulin% for or a%ainst the %oernment+

rowing public opposition to drones has primed the Supreme

Court to constructively use the Constitution to limit eecutive

abuse

?ichaels 1# : Sta; writer speciali%ing in immigration,

international a;airs and social 3ustice issues

(Secret Court &o Reie2 merican Drone Deaths, I%norin% Ciilian Casualtieserseas,


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Lirginia, ?ontana, ?aine, Oklahoma, ?issouri, orth

-akota, ebraska, +lorida, Oregon and California have

already legislated against drone use in their airspace, a

sign that even among more conservative constituencies,

public opposition to drone use is growing$ This couldbolster the 0$S$ Supreme Court , already capable of ruling

on the constitutionality of unmanned drone surveillance$

Preiously, the +S+ Supreme Court used its po2er in a constructie 2ayby declarin% 2iretaps durin% the :ush administration to be ille%al+&hey really put the brea$s on the 2orst abuses of the :ush administration+ &he Supreme Court

slapped down )ush administration policies four times,

sayin% you are not allo2ed to strip people of habeas corpus, youare not allo2ed to set up $an%aroo courts and try people for 2ar

crimes and eFecute them,J Cohn said+ lthou%h uantanamo :ayprison is still open,the Supreme Court also ruled that the prisonlocated in Cuba, / miles o7 the coast of the nited States, isille%al if +S+ la2s do not apply+


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Observer /;ect Solves((TransparencyObserver e;ect empirically leads to greater eecutive

transparency and accountability

-eeks 1#(shley S+, attorney6adiser in the Mce of the #e%al diser at the

+S+ Department of State, adised on the la2 of armed con9ict, includin% detention,the +S+ relationship 2ith the International Committee of the Red Cross, intelli%enceissues, conentional 2eapons, and the le%al frame2or$ for the con9ict 2ith al6aeda, &he bserer K7ect" *ational Security #iti%ation, KFecutie Policy Chan%es,and Nudicial DeferenceJ, 'ordham #a2 Reie2, !ol+ ?


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Observer /;ect Solves((/mpirics=udicial constraints on eecutive counterterrorism empirically

lead to more rights(centered policies

.rakash et$ al 1"(Sai$rishna :+ T Qichael D+ Ramsey, professors of la2 and

N+D+ from 5ale and :++ from Stanford, &he oldiloc$s KFecutieJ, &eFas #a2 Reie2,cl0

:ut in any eent, 2e thin$ Posner and !ermeuleLs eFamples actually proe theopposite, illustratin% constraints upon the KFecutie+ Posner and !ermeule ar%ue,for eFample, that the Supreme CourtLs 2ar6on6terror cases hae not meanin%fullychec$ed the KFecutie because the courts hae neer 4nally ordered anyone to bereleased+@ 5et that hardly ma$es their case, for the 1uestion is 2hat theKFecutie 2ould hae done in a 2orld 2ith no Hudicial reie2 of the claims of alle%edenemy combatants+ &he KFecutieLs %oal has been to th2art attac$s in the nitedStates and to blunt attac$s on +S+ forces oerseas+ ien this %oal, the KFecutieLsincentie is to detain anyone (especially forei%ners0 2ho mi%ht plausibly appear tobe inoled in terrorism a%ainst the nited States+ Qembers of al aeda and the

&aliban %enerally cannot ote in the nited States, and the costs isited upon them2ill not enter the KFecutieLs calculus+ Despite this incentie to detain the enemyinde4nitely, the KFecutie released many suspected enemy combatants once heldin uantanamo, some of 2hom hae ta$en up arms a%ainst the nited States+@@Why did the :ush dministration release detainees $no2in% that it 2as li$ely thatsome 2ould ta$e up arms a%ainst the nited StatesE We surmise it 2as done tostae o7 Hudicial release orders+ &here is little doubt that the prospect of Hudicialreie2 and release had an in terrorem e7ect on the KFecutie :ranch+


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Observer /;ect Solves(()alances SecurityH8ightsbserer e7ect proides a balanced approach that promotes both security andri%hts

-eeks 1#(shley S+, attorney6adiser in the Mce of the #e%al diser at the

+S+ Department of State, adised on the la2 of armed con9ict, includin% detention,the +S+ relationship 2ith the International Committee of the Red Cross, intelli%enceissues, conentional 2eapons, and the le%al frame2or$ for the con9ict 2ith al6aeda, &he bserer K7ect" *ational Security #iti%ation, KFecutie Policy Chan%es,and Nudicial DeferenceJ, 'ordham #a2 Reie2, !ol+ ?


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Observer /;ect Solves(( Spillover

Court decision on national security have a wide ripple e;ect

that can have a powerful e;ect on eecutive policies

-eeks 1#(shley S+, attorney6adiser in the Mce of the #e%al diser at the+S+ Department of State, adised on the la2 of armed con9ict, includin% detention,the +S+ relationship 2ith the International Committee of the Red Cross, intelli%enceissues, conentional 2eapons, and the le%al frame2or$ for the con9ict 2ith al6aeda, &he bserer K7ect" *ational Security #iti%ation, KFecutie Policy Chan%es,and Nudicial DeferenceJ, 'ordham #a2 Reie2, !ol+ ?


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SO. Add(on


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!ACFarrants revitali%es the separation of powers

8eynolds !"1'(lenn 3arlan [prof of la2 X of &ennessee]; *S spyin%undermines separation of po2ers" Column;

222+usatoday+comGstoryGopinionG


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'irst,merica=s mature political institutions or%ani8ed around the rule of la2 haemade it a relatiely predictable and cooperatie he%emon+ &he pluralistic and re%ulari8ed2ay in 2hich +S+ forei%n and security policy is made reduces surprises and allo2s other states to build lon%6term,

mutually bene4cial relations+ &he%oernmental separation of po2ers creates a shareddecision6ma$in% system that opens up the process and reduces the ability of anyone leader to ma$e abrupt or a%%ressie moes to2ard other states + n actie press andcompetitie party system also proide a serice to outside states by %eneratin% information about +S+ policy anddeterminin% its seriousness of purpose+ &he messiness of a democracy can, indeed, frustrate merican diplomats

and confuse forei%n obserers+ :ut oer the lon% term, democratic institutions produce moreconsistent and credible policies66policies that do not re9ect the capricious andidiosyncratic 2hims of an autocrat+ &hin$ of the nited States as a %iant corporation that see$s forei%ninestors+ It is more li$ely to attract inestors if it can demonstrate that it operates accordin% to accepted

accountin% and 4duciary principles+&he rule of la2 and the institutions of policyma$in% in ademocracy are the political e1uialent of corporate transparency and accountability +Sharp shifts in policy must ultimately be etted 2ithin the policy process and pass muster by an array of

inesti%atory and decision6ma$in% bodies+:ecause it is a constitutional, rule6based democracy,outside states are more 2illin% to 2or$ 2ith the nited S tates6or, to return to thecorporate metaphor, to inest in on%oin% partnerships+

8estoring legitimacy is vital to continued hegemony

Su8anne ossel M, Senior 'ello2 at the Center for merican Pro%ress and theCentury 'oundation and preiously sered as deputy to the mbassador for *Qana%ement and Reform at the +S+ Qission to the nited *ations, oin% #e%it,Winter, 222+democracyHournal+or%G)GB-.+phpEpa%e\all

ItLs a truismtoday that mericaLs position as the 2orldLs superpo2er is sha$ier than itused to be+ &he nationLs military is oerstretched and unable to ta$e on ne2 commitments+ Interestpayments on the national debt topped A billion in the


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international le%itimacy; on the contrary, esche2in% le%itimacy 2as part of the plan+ 'rom the start, :ush dministration oMcials derided the idea thatmerican po2er should ans2er to international norms+ !ice President Dic$ Cheney resisted calls by Secretary of State Colin Po2ell to brin% Washin%tonLscase a%ainst Ira1 to the *, Hud%in% such diplomatic machinations a 2aste of time+ &he dministration een sometimes seemed to su%%est, perersely,

that if leadin% Kuropean nations or the * 2ere inoled, results 2ould be slo2er and less e7ectie+ ndoin% this dama%e is aprecondition for settin% +S+ forei%n policy bac$ on course + International le%itimacy, ie2edby the :ush dministration as constrainin% merican po2er, must no2 be reco%ni8ed as anindispensable tool for fortifying and etending it+ s 2e loo$to a post6:ushforei%npolicy, progressives need to recogni%e that a concerted e;ort to reconstituteAmericas legitimacy is the best way to safeguard American superpowerdom

in the lon% term+ &he 3istory of #e%itimacy&he increasin% importance of internationalle%itimacy and the rise of the nited States as a %lobal po2er %o hand6in6hand + Durin%the colonial era of %reat po2er politics, military pro2ess and territorial control ruled the day; countries 2ith resources and armies did not 2orry muchabout the court of international opinion+ :ut after World War II, as leadin% nations %rappled 2ith ho2 to administer 2ar6raa%ed Kurope and Napan and ho2to preent future 2orld 2ars, le%itimacy moed to the forefront+ International la2 2as eFpounded throu%h treaty6based or%ani8ations li$e the *, *&,and the :retton Woods institutions+ &he dismantlin% of far69un% colonial empires and the emer%ence of the principle of self6determination helped ful4ll the

2idenin% belief that po2er needed to be made accountable to peoples a7ected by it+&he nited States enHoyed a %reatdeal of le%itimacy in the post2ar period + &he conseratie scholar Robert a%an ar%ued in 'orei%n 7airs that +S+le%itimacy deried mainly from the Cold War itself" mon% Western Kuropean %oernments and publics merican actions 2ere seen as Husti4ed to facedo2n a totalitarian menace+ While iolent proFy 2ars in #atin merica and sia had some corruptin% e7ects on mericaLs ima%e, they did not out2ei%h

the perception of credibility in the Cold WarLs primary battle%round of Kurope+ In contrast, political scientistsRobert&uc$er andDaid 3endric$son contend that mericaLs le%itimacy deried not from its stru%%le a%ainst communism perse, but rather from the respectPresident 3arry&ruman and his successors sho2ed forinternational la2 and norms+ &he end of the Cold War scrambled the situation+ n the one hand, it left the nited States as the2orldLs sole remainin% superpo2er+ With liberal democracy ascendant, merican alues_includin% the mar$et capitalism that much of the 2orld once sa2as synonymous 2ith imperialist eFploitation_no2 enHoyed 2ide acceptance in Kastern Kurope, sia, and else2here+ With the Soiet nion %one, 2hata%an identi4ed as the le%itimi8in% e7ectJ of the Cold War stru%%le eaporated+ t the same time, mericaLs le%itimacy also came under closer scrutiny+&his imbalance led to concern oer the unparalleled de%ree of +S+ in9uence oer the 2orld economy, decision6ma$in% at the *, and oil supplies in theQiddle Kast+ S$eptics impu%ned merican moties and methods by pointin% to eFamples of Washin%tonLs hypocritical support for oil6rich oli%archies in theQiddle Kast, uneen commitment to %lobal free trade, and insuMciently a%%ressie e7orts to halt %reenhouse %as emissions+ &he Clinton dministrationhandled these concerns throu%h balanced policies and a de%ree of self6re%ulation+ It sho2ed enou%h respect for the ie2s of allies and for the * to %eta2ay 2ith circumentin% international rules from time to time_as 2hen it failed for many years (due to con%ressional resistance0 to pay its dues to the *or failed to ratify the International Criminal Court (ICC0 + Durin% the Clinton era, conseraties sharpened their lon%standin% criti1ue of the idea thatmerican forei%n policy needed to enHoy international le%itimacy+ Qany of these thin$ers and politicians had, durin% the Cold War, seen internationalinstitutions li$e the * as Soiet6in9uenced impediments to merican interests+ *o2 they ar%ued that merica must not be constricted by eFternal normsof le%itimacy, particularly if le%itimacy mi%ht be arbitrated by international institutions li$e the * that, despite the Soiet nionLs collapse, still counteddictatorships and tyrannies amon% their ran$s+ Such an ar%ument 2as implicit in a%an and William ristolLs @//B call for a forei%n policy based onbeneolent he%emonyJ_a concept that continued to animate neoconseraties throu%h the


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home and abroad, een those 2ho initially belieed the inasion 2as 2ell6intended_not Hust conseraties, but also many Democrats in Con%ress_came to

feel duped+ &he Case for #e%itimacy While the nited States remains preeminent in its military andeconomic stren%th, the most potent %lobal challen%es it faces_nuclear proliferation,terrorism, failed states, and the scramble for energy_are not amenable toresolution throu%h money or 4repo2er$ They depend on Americas ability toforge agreements , build consensus, and persuade others, all of 2hich in turn

are contin%ent on 2hether Washin%ton enHoysinternational le%itimacy+ drie to restoremericaLs le%itimacy, then, must rest on a clear understandin% of 2hat le%itimacy is,ho2 it is attained, and 2hy it is useful+ :ush has caricatured le%itimacy as a straitHac$et, a permission slipJ from the 2orld+:ut le%itimacy has t2o rather more respectable sources" rules and rectitude+ &he 4rst inolesauthori8ation by a formal body or 2ritten set of la2s, such as an international a%reement or treaty+ cts that meet the criterion include measures ta$en inself6defense a%ainst an imminent threat under the * Charter, policies on detention that match the enea Conentions, and eFtradition a%reements

consistent 2ith the Rome Statute of the ICC+ &he second source of international le%itimacy, rectitude , cannot be %rantedor ta$ena2ay throu%h any formal process; it must be earned + It reoles around the perceptionthat a policy or action is Husti4ed and is not as easy to come by as follo2in% a set ofprescribed rules+ Indeed, codi4ed international la2 is too ill6de4ned, incomplete, and uneenly applied to be the only test of internationalle%itimacy+ 'or eFample, 2hen the nited States has employed the techni1ue of tar%eted assassinations a%ainst al aeda leaders, international outcry hasbeen muted despite the fact that such eFtrale%al $illin%s iolate international la2+ Nud%ments of the rectitude of particular actions ta$e account ofindiidual circumstances" 2hether an action is proo$ed, 2hat alternaties 2ere aailable, and 2hether appropriate methods 2ere used+ In the case oftar%eted terrorist assassinations_2here the proocation is clear, the prospects for capturin% an elusie and 2ell6protected terrorist alie are lo2, and the

harm to innocents is nil_the 2ei%ht of le%itimacy may be on the side of the assassin+ International le%itimacy_2hether deried fromrules, rectitude, or both_can be aMrmed and Hud%ed in three di7erent forums+ 'irst, standin%multilateral institutions_principally the * Security Council, but also international courts or re%ional entities li$e *& and the fricannion_can formally ratify actions such as military interentions+ Second, states can indiidually eFpress theirsupport or ac1uiescence 2ith the actions of other states + 'or eFample, 2hen the nited States, Kurope, andothers indicated in the sprin% of


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1A8 @mpacts

eg prevents great power wars

Thayer 1#6 PhD Chica%o, former research fello2 at 3arard ennedy SchoolLs:elfer Center, Political Science Professor at :aylor (3umans, *ot n%els" Reasonsto Doubt the Decline of War &hesisJ, September, International Studies Reie2

!olume @-, Issue ), pp+ )/B_A@/0

ccordin%ly, 2hile Pin$eris sensitie to the importance of po2er in a domestic conteFtOthe #eiathan is %ood for safety and the decline of iolenceOhe ne%lects the role of po2er in the international conteFt, speci4callyhe ne%lects Spo2er as a force for stability+ So, if a liberal #eiathan is %ood for domestic politics, a liberal #eiathan should be as 2ell forinternational politics+ &he primacy of the nited States proides the 2orld 2ith that liberal #eiathan and has four maHor positie conse1uences for

international politics (&hayer


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Qarch . http"GG222+2orldpoliticsreie2+comGarticlesG?//Gthe6ne26rules6leadership6fati%ue6puts6u6s6and6%lobali8ation6at6crossroads0

It is 2orth 4rst eFaminin% the lar%er picture" Fe live in a time of arguably the greatest structural

change in the global order yet endured, with this historical momen tJs

most ama%ing feature being itsrelatie and absolute lack of mass violence + &hat is somethin% to

consider 2hen mericans contemplate military interention in #ibya, because if 2e do ta$e the step to preent lar%er6scale$illin% by en%a%in% in some $illin% of our o2n, 2e 2ill not be addin% to somefantastically ima%ined %lobal death count stemmin% from the on%oin%me%alomania and eil of merican empire+ We=ll be en%a%in% inthe same sort ofsystem6administerin% actiity that has mar$ed our stunningly successfulstewardship of global order since World War II+#et me be more blunt" As the guardian of

globali%ation, the 0$S$ military has been the greatest force for peace the

world has ever known+ 3ad merica been remoed from the %lobal dynamics

that %oerned the


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AT ard .ower Eey?aterial power is irrelevant(((lack of legitimacy makes heg

ine;ective

?endelsohn 1"6 ssistant Professor of Political Science at 3aerford Colle%e

and a Senior 'ello2 of 'PRI (:ara$, &he uestion of International Cooperation inthe War on &errorismJ,http"GG222+fpri+or%GenotesG


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ctors, een unipoles, cannot create le%itimacy unilaterally+ #e%itimacy can only be %ien byothers+ It is conferred either by peers, as 2hen %reat po2ers accept or reHect the actions of another po2er, or bythose upon 2hom po2er is eFercised+ Reasons to confer le%itimacy hae aried throu%hout history+ &radition,blood, and claims of diine ri%ht hae all proided reasons to confer le%itimacy, althou%h in contemporarypolitics conformity 2ith [Knd Pa%e B@] international norms and la2 is more in9uential in determinin% 2hichactors and actions 2ill be accepted as le%itimate+ /Reco%ni8in% the le%itimacy of po2er does not mean theseothers necessarily li$e the po2erful or their policies, but it implies at least tacit acceptance of the social

structure in 2hich po2er is eFercised+ ne may not li$e the ine1ualities of %lobal capitalism but still beliee thatmar$ets are the only realistic or li$ely 2ay to or%ani8e successful economic %ro2th+ ne may not li$e the P-etoes of the Security Council but still understand that the nited *ations cannot eFist 2ithout this concession

to po2er asymmetries+ We can see the importance of le%itimacy by thin$in% about itsabsence+ Active re3ection of social structures and the withdrawal ofrecognition of their legitimacy create a crisis+ In domestic politics, re%imes su7erin%

le%itimacy crises face resistance, 2hether passie or actie and armed+ Internationally, systemssu;ering legitimacy crises tend to be violent and noncooperative+ Post6

Reformation Kurope mi%ht be an eFample of such a system+ Without at least tacit acceptance ofpo2erLs le%itimacy, the wheels of international social life get derailed+Qaterial force alone remains to impose order, and order creation or maintenanceby that means is diMcult, even under unipolarity+ Successful and stable orders re1uire the

%rease of some le%itimation structure to persist and prosper+@&he social and relational characterof le%itimacythus strongly colors the nature of any unipolar orderand the$inds of orders a unipole can construct +es, unipoles can impose their will,but only to an etent+&he 2illin%ness of others to reco%ni8e the le%itimacy of aunipoleLs actions and defer to its 2ishes or Hud%ment shapes the character of theorder that 2ill emer%e+ 0nipolar power without any underlying legitimacy2ill hae a ery particular character+ &he unipoleLs policies will meet with resistance , either

active or passive, at every turn+ Cooperation 2ill be induced only throu%h material 1uid pro 1uopayo7s+ &rust 2ill be thin to noneFistent+ &his is obiously an eFpensie system to run and fe2 unipoles haetried to do so+


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ATD CircumventionH@nherency


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ATD Circumvention : CCTL-rones have a signi5cant meaning to surveillance that other

things dont have

Slobogin !"1'(Christopher [Qilton nder2ood Prof of #a2, !anderbilt #a2

School]; Panasie Sureillance, Political Process &heory, and the *ondele%ationDoctrine; @< eo+ #+N+ @.


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ATD Circumvention : Observer /;ectThe 3udicial observer e;ect provides a counterweight that

shifts eecutive decision(making towards more careful

procedures as well as rights(sensitive policies

-eeks 1# : ssistant Professor of #a2, niersity of !ir%inia #a2 School,ttorney6diser in the Mce of the #e%al diser at the +S+ Department of State(shley S+, &he bserer K7ect" *ational Security #iti%ation, KFecutie PolicyChan%es, and Nudicial Deference,J ?< 'ordham #a2 Reie2


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policies in the 2a$e of a tri%%erin% eent+ &he obserer e7ect tends to 2or$ 2ithoutre%ard to the subHect matter of the speci4c case or cases on 2hich a court isfocused+ :ut that fact mi%ht leae cate%ories of indiidual plainti7s out in the cold incase after case+ ssume the courts are a2are of and see$ to foster the obserere7ect in the eFecutie+ If the courts decide not to defer only in cases that do not

implicate indiidual ri%hts, and decide to defer in national security cases that doimplicate indiidual ri%hts, the courts mi%ht presere the obserer e7ect 2hilefailin% to sere their function as indiidual ri%hts protectors+ We mi%ht conclude thatthe obserer e7ect 2ill hae some in9uence in shiftin% national security policiesthat do implicate indiidual ri%hts, but those chan%es mi%ht be more modest andless satisfyin% from a ri%htsprotectie approach than they 2ould be if the cases on2hich the courts did not defer 2ere indiidual ri%hts cases+ In short, the obserere7ect produces a better second6bestJ 2orld 2hen the cases in 2hich the courtssho2 less deference are those that implicate indiidual ri%hts+


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ATD Circumvention : Courts o link

/ecutives empirically follow court decisions on counterrorism

policy

)radley and ?orrison 1#(Curtis, Professor of #a2, Du$e #a2 School, and &reor,Professor of #a2, Columbia #a2 School , Presidential Po2er, 3istorical Practice, and#e%al ConstraintJ Du$e #a2 Scholarship Repository,http"GGscholarship+la2+du$e+eduGc%iGie2content+c%iEarticle\-A-@TconteFt\facultyscholarship0

Insistin% on a sharp distinction bet2een the la2 %oernin% presidential authoritythat is subHect to Hudicial reie2 and the la2 that is not also ta$es for %ranted aphenomenon that merits attentionOthat .residents follow 3udicialdecisions$@@? &hat assumption is generally accurate in the 0nited Statestoday+ &o ta$e one relatiely recent eFample, despite disagreeing with theSupreme Courts determination in amdan v$ 8umsfeldthat Common rticle

) of the enea Conentions applies to the 2ar on terror, the )ushAdministration 2uickly accepted it+@@/ )ut the reason why .residentsabide by court decisions has a connection to the broader issue of the

constraining e;ect of law$ An eecutive obligation to comply with 3udicial

decisions is itself part of the practice(based constitutional law of the

0nited States, so presidential compliance with this obligation may

demonstrate that such law can in fact constrain the .residen t$ This is true,

as 2e eFplain further in Part III, even if the e;ect on presidential behavior ismotivated by concerns about eternal political KFecutie is particularlyresponsie to the obserer e7ect in national security because of limited courtinolement


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ATD Circumvention : orm Setting

A norm need not be perfectly enforced to constrain the eecutive

and may be bolstered by informal enforcement

)radley and ?orrison 1#(Curtis, Professor of #a2, Du$e #a2 School, and &reor,Professor of #a2, Columbia #a2 School , Presidential Po2er, 3istorical Practice, and#e%al ConstraintJ Du$e #a2 Scholarship Repository,http"GGscholarship+la2+du$e+eduGc%iGie2content+c%iEarticle\-A-@TconteFt\facultyscholarship0

One of the grounds of skepticism about whether the presidency is

constrained by law concernsthe fre1uent lack of formal enforcementmechanisms+ &here is an eFtensie Hurisprudential literature on 2hether and to2hat eFtent enforcement is necessary in order for norms to 1ualify as la2+@-

Qodern perspecties on la2, in the tradition of 3+#++ 3art, tend to de6emphasi8ethe importance of eFternal enforcement and focus instead on internal perceptions, apoint 2e return to in Part III+ 'or present purposes, 2e simply note t2o thin%s+ +irst,a norm need not be perfectly enforced in order to constrain$f course, asthe le%al realists emphasi8ed, one cannot %et an accurate picture of the la2 byloo$in% only at the la2 on the boo$s rather than the la2 in action+@B ur pointhere, ho2eer, is simply that the lac$ of perfect enforcement of a le%al rule doesnot mean the rule does not eFist, or that it does not constrain+ The fact thathomicides continue to be committed in the nited StatesOand that noteveryone who commits such a crime is apprehendedand prosecutedOdoesnot remove or render meaningless the legal prohibition against homicide$

Second, enforcement need not be formal$ -omestic criminal laws , of course,are typically implemented through

aerial surveillance affirmative - michigan7 2015.docx

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