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ADAPTABLEHOUSING:
ACCOMMODATINGCHANGE
HILARYFRENCH
PHD 2016
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
2
Abstract
Mywork,publishedessaysandbookslistedbelow,providesnewinsightsinto
architects’approachestohousingdesignsincethebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.
Drawingonmethodsfrombothhistoryandpracticetheworkusesprimarilydrawn
buildingstudiesfamiliarinprofessionaljournalsforcomparativeanalysis.Two
interrelatedissues,housingdesignedtobeadaptable(orflexible)andhousing
designedforfamiliesotherthanthenormofthestatic,nuclearfamily,characterisethe
approachtotheworkimplicitthroughtheselectionofcasestudies.Areflectiveessay
considerstheworkinthecontextofattemptstointroduceflexiblehousingtypologies
andthepotentialimpactontheroleofthearchitectandtheconsumer.Further
contextisprovidedinanappendixsettingoutanannotatedchronologyofrelevant
legislation,reportsandrecommendations,toraisequestionsaboutitscomplexities
andthecontemporaryrenewedfocusonminimumspacestandardsastheprimary
tooltoimprovehousingquality.
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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Workpresentedinthesubmission
Principlepublicationsandtexts
KeyUrbanHousingoftheTwentiethCentury:PlansSectionsandElevations.Laurence
King(UK)andNorton(USA)2008.240ppTranslationsforItaly,Spain,Franceand
Brazil2010andChina2013(Author)
NewUrbanHousingLaurenceKing(UK)andYale(USA),2006EditorialiGiliSA(Spain)
andLogos(Italy)192pp.Secondeditioninpaperback2009(Author)
AccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousingDesign,TheArchitectureFoundation
andCircle33HousingGroup,2002(Editor)
LivingTogetherinImpossibleWorlds:TheArchitectureofPerfectionBirkhauser
SwitzerlandandAugustMedia,London,2001pp29-45and100-102(Essay)
PatternsofLiving:HongKong’sHigh-RiseCommunities,201ppVTCPress,HongKong
2013(jointauthor)
Supplementarypublicationsandtexts
Housingprojectsfor20th-CenturyWorldArchitecture:ThePhaidonAtlas,2012
(Contributor)
TheSimpleLifein7000WordsonHousing.CataloguefortheexhibitionComing
HomesRIBAOctober2002–January2003.RIBAPublications(Shortessay)
Architecturebeginsandendsinpictures.SpacesofHistory/HistoriesofSpace,
Berkeley,California2010(conferencepaper)
ARoomofOne’sOwnfortheArchitectureFoundation,2001(Shortessay)
MakingPlansinAccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousingDesign,The
ArchitectureFoundationandCircle33HousingGroup,2002pp158-165(Essay)
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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ListofContents Page
Abstract............................................................................................................................2
Workpresentedinthesubmission..................................................................................3
ListofIllustrations...........................................................................................................5
Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................6
Author’sdeclaration........................................................................................................7
Reflectionsonthesubmittedworks................................................................................8
SECTIONONEIntroduction..........................................................................................9
BackgroundandContext........................................................................................16
MethodandApproach...........................................................................................22
SECTIONTWOAdaptableHousing.............................................................................30
UnconventionalFamilies........................................................................................30
FlexibleHousingorTightFitFunctionalism...........................................................33
HousingandConsumers........................................................................................37
IndeterminateandMonofunctionalspaces...........................................................40
Bibliography...................................................................................................................45
Appendix1 Chronologyofregulatoryframework...................................................50
Appendix2 Illustrations..........................................................................................57
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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ListofIllustrations
Figure1 TypicalpagefromModernFlats,1958,Unitéd’Habitation,Marseilles1952,
LeCorbusier
Figure2 TypicalpagefromModernHousingPrototypes1978Unitéd’Habitation,
Marseilles1945-52,LeCorbusier
Figure3 TypicalpagefromtheFloorPlanManualHousing1994,Unitéd’Habitation,
Marseilles1946-47,LeCorbusier
Figure4 NagakinCapsuleTower,Tokyo,Japan1972,KishoKurakawa(1934-2007)*
Figure 5 HighCrossRoad,London2001,WalterMentethArchitects**
Figure6 Narkomfin,Moscow,Russia1930,MosieGinzburg(1892-1946)*
Figure7 Mainblock,WeissenhofEstate1927,LudwigMiesvanderRohe1886-196*
Figure8 TerracedHousing,ViennaWerkbund1932,AndreLurçat1894-1970*
Figure9 SamplepagefromSpaceintheHome1968
Figure10HongKongHousingAuthorityTypicalSlabBlockPlanFromPatternsofLiving
Figure11DwellingsforYoungPeople,Leipzig,Germany2000,HPPHentrich-
Petschnigg&Partners.**
Figure12 YerbaBuenaLofts,SanFrancisco,USA2002,StanleySaitowitzNatoma
Architects,Inc.*
Figure13 Estradenhaus,Berlin,Germany1998and2001,popp.planungen**
Figure14 SchlesischestrasseHousing,Berlin,Germany1994,LeonWohlhageWernik
Architekten*
Figure15 ConsortRoadHousing,London2007,WalterMentethArchitects*
Figure16 BakkedragetHousing,Fredensborg,Denmark1963,JørnUtzon(1918-2008)*
Figure17DonnybrookQuarter,London2006,PeterBarberArchitects
Figure18QuintadaMalaguieraHousing,Evora,Portugal,1977,AlvaroSiza(1933-)*
Figure19 CondensedHousingDevelopment,SouthBiesdorf,Berlin,Germany1999,
LeonWohlhageWernikArchitekten**
Figure20 Silodam,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands2002,MVRDV*
Figure21 RuedesSuisses,Paris,France2000,Herzog&deMeuron** casestudiesfromKeyUrbanHousingoftheTwentiethCentury** casestudiesfromNewUrbanHousing
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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Acknowledgements
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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Author’sdeclaration
Ideclarethattheresearchcontainedinthisthesis,unlessotherwiseformallyindicated
withinthetext,istheoriginalworkoftheauthor.Thethesishasnotbeenpreviously
submittedtothisoranyotheruniversityforadegree,anddoesnotincorporateany
materialalreadysubmittedforadegree.
Signed:________________________
Dated:_________________________
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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Reflectionsonthesubmittedworks
SectionOne Introductions,backgroundandcontext,methodsandapproachSectionTwo AdaptableHousing
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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“Itisthusnottobewonderedatthattheadaptablehouse-thehousewhichcould
easilybealteredascircumstanceschange-isarecurringthemeintheevidencewe
receivedandinourownthoughts”1
Atthetimeofwritingthisessay,morethanhalfacenturyaftertheParkerMorris
Report,theRIBAhasjustpublished(December2015)areportonthesizeofhousesin
Britain.2EntitledHomewise:SpaceStandardsforHomesitcomparestheaverage,
overallsizeinsquaremetresofthetypicalthree-bedroomfive-personhouseineachof
100randomlyselectedschemesbuiltsince2012.Comparedwiththecurrent
recommendedminimumsizeof93m2,despitesomeregionalvariations,theoverall
averagefallsshort.TheNationallyDescribedSpaceStandardcameintoforcein
October2015but,asitremainsvoluntaryforLocalAuthorities,thereport
acknowledgesthatduetoexcessiveandcostlybureaucracyitisunlikelytobe
implemented.TheRIBAisthereforecallingonGovernmenttoembedtheStandardin
BuildingRegulations.
Implicitinmyresearchworkisaquestioningofwhetherrelianceonspacestandards
alonecouldeverresultinbetterqualityhomesorincreasedprovision.Minimumspace
standardsareseenascrucialinmaintainingqualitybytheirsupporters;bytheir
detractorstheyareseenvariouslyaseitherhamperingtheimaginationofdesignersor
unnecessarilyincreasingconstructioncostsforcommercialdevelopers,whocan
happilybuildsmaller.Thenewspacestandardsarelittlechangedfromearlierversions.
Thereisnomentionofflexibility–theadaptablehouse–mentionedintheParker
Morrisreport,andtherearenorecommendationsonvariation.Arequirementfor
flexibility,sufficienttoprovideforchangingfamilyrequirementswouldalmost
certainlyleadtobiggerspacesbydefaultandifafamilycanstaylongerinthesame
home,thiscouldbeseenasanadvantage.
1HomesforTodayandTomorrow,Para28p.92SeeAppendix1forchronologyofrelatedlegislation,reportsandrecommendations
SECTIONONEIntroduction
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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Theterms‘adaptability’or‘flexibility’arecommonlyusedinterchangeablyandthereis
someoverlapintheirdefinitions.Whilst‘flexibility’isusedheretoencompass
adaptability,ifadistinctionisappropriateStephenGroák’sisperhapsthemostuseful.
Flexibility,meansahomeis“capableofdifferentphysicalarrangements”orcanbe
alteredandadaptabilityreferstothewayahomeisinhabited,thatis,“itiscapableof
differentsocialuses”3toaccommodateagrowingorchangingfamily.
Flexibilityisfurtherdefinedinseveraldifferentways.Atthelargestscale,basedon
structuralconfiguration,itmightmeanapropertyownercangutabuildingand
reconfigureitwithoutalteringthestructureandservices.Atitssimplestitcanmean
beingabletorearrangefurniture.Bothtermsaremoreeasilyunderstoodbytheir
opposite-a‘tightfitfunctionalism’–thatseesallroomsascribedasinglepurposewith
littleoptionforotheruse,aphraseattributedtoAndrewRabeneck.4Rabeneck
categorisedtheapproachofhousingarchitectsintotwoopposingcamps.Ononehand
arethosehetermedthe‘popularmechanics’thosewhoacceptedthestatusquoand
usedtheirskilltofindingeniouswaystoachieveasmuchaspossiblewithinthe(small)
spacestandardslaiddown.(InthiscategoryheincludedtheRogersandthe
Smithsons).Theothershedescribedas‘newsociety’,thosewhowerenotpreparedto
accepttheimposedspacestandardsandconventionallayoutsbutlookedfor
alternatives.Atthetimeofwriting,improvingthespeedofproductionofhousingwas
themainagendaandhiscritiqueisfocusedonhowtheirideasmightberealisedusing
pre-fabrication,orothermechanisedmethods.
Sincethe1970s,forvolumehousebuilders,tightfitfunctionalismhasremainedthe
normandtherehasbeenverylittlepublicationsurroundinganydiscussionofflexibility
untilrecently,withthepublicationofSchneiderandTill’sbookFlexibleHousingin
2007.5Formanyarchitectshowever,withinterestbeyondthedevelopers’commercial
3Groak,Sp.154Rabeneck,A.ADVol43No111973Novpp.716-7275Schneider,T.,andTill,J.“Asthefirstcomprehensiveoverviewofthisimportantsubject,thebookexaminesthepast,presentandfutureofflexiblehousing,collectingtogetherover160internationalexamplesofthegenreasamajorpointofreference.Combininghistory,theoryanddesign,thebookmakesthecaseforflexiblehousingandalsoshowsthevariouswaysbywhichithasbeenandcanbeachieved.”Cover
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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considerations,ithasoftenbeenakeydriverintheirapproachtohousingdesign.The
difficultyinlookingforwaystoincludeflexibilityoradaptability,andmoreoverto
acceptthattheremaybesomedesiredcontributiontothedesignsbytheresidents,is
summedupbyPeterSmithsoninalecturepublishedin1971
“TheIdealhouseisthatwhichonecanmakeone’sownwithoutalteringanything.
Makeone’sownintheusualway,thatiswithinthelimitsofthefashionofthetime
…….Thesearchforastylethatcanmatchthisidealhadbeenthefloatingcentreofour
effort….”6
Flexibilityraisesquestionsabouthowdecisionsaremadeabouthowpeoplelivebut
alsoraisesquestionsabouttheroleofthearchitectinmakingthosedecisions.Whilst
forresidentsflexibilityisseenasapositiveaspectofhousing,allowingthemsome
meansofcontrol,ofself-expressionorwhatmightcolloquiallybecalled‘ownership’of
theirlivingspace,itcanbeseeninanegativelightforarchitects.Designinghousing
thatcanbeinterferedwithorthatinvitesalterationinthefuture,suggeststhatthe
designisinadequateandlessthantheperfectsolutiontotheproblem.Itmeansthat
architectscouldbeseenasrelinquishingtheirusualpositionofoverallcontrol.
Myprojectsandpublications
Theworkspresentedinthissubmissiondrawonboththeoryandpractice,usingmy
knowledgeandexperienceofarchitecturalpracticeandhistory,ofinteresttoboth
practitionersandhistorians.Theseworksarethesignificantelementsofabodyof
workthatincludesotherworksonthesametopicpreparedforconference
presentations,reviews,andcontributionstootherpublications.Thefocusformywork
ishousingprovisioninEnglandfromthelate19thcenturyonwardsbutitalsodraws
onexamplesofWesternarchitecturefromEuropeandfurtherafieldwherethese
contributetothediscussion.Beyondthecomplexitiesofthesocio-economicand
politicalcontext,itfocusesonmattersofdesign,aligninghistoricalexampleswith
contemporaryprojectswhichallsharetheunchangingbrief,tocreateaplacetolive.
6Smithson,AlisonandPeter,p.126
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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ThestartingpointwasanessayassignmentaspartofmyHistoryofModern
ArchitectureMaster’scourseattheBartlett(1994),entitledGenderandCities,an
explorationoftheurbanenvironmentandhousingdesign,basedontheworkofthe
materialfeministsdiscussedinDoloresHayden’swork.Iexploredthistopicfurther
throughteachinghistoryandtheorycoursesforundergraduatestudentsof
architecture,andthroughanextendedessayentitledLivingTogetherpublishedin
ImpossibleWorlds:theArchitectureofPerfection,(2001).7Thisessayraisedquestions
aboutwhycollectivehousingprojectshaveenjoyedonlylimitedsuccessandwhether
“thelowdensity,out-dated‘family’housethathasalreadydevouredsomanyacresof
greenfieldsitesissustainable?8Icontinuedtoexplorenon-standardorinnovative
formsofhousingdesignthroughdesignstudioteachinginitiallyandthenthrough
researchworkseekingoutbuiltexamplesofalternativehousingdesignstothe
pervasivenormsofEngland’svolumehousebuilders,whichformedthebasisfor
severalprojectsandbooks.
ThefirstwasasignificantprojectorganisedbytheArchitectureFoundation(AF)in
collaborationwithCircle33HousingAssociation.9Circle33wasplanningtobuildanew
housingschemeonasiteithadinBow,Londonand,ratherthanrelyontheirknown
designs,hadagreedwiththeAFtoexplorealternativemodelsthroughadesign
competition.EntitledAccommodatingChange;InnovationinHousing,thecompetition
setouttoexplorehowwemightdealwithnotonlyincreaseddensity,amajor
preoccupationatthetime,butalsochangingdemographicsandalternativestoa
functionalapproachthroughflexibilityandsharedspaces.Theprojectincludeda
parallelstudentideascompetitionandaseriesofseminarstodiscussongoinghousing
designissuesand,attheconclusion,anexhibitionattheAFGalleryinStJames’sand
anaccompanyingpublication.Iwasappointedinitiallyasaconsultanttotheproject
7ImpossibleWorlds:TheArchitectureofPerfection.“Thisbookexploresthewaysinwhichrealbuildingshaveresultedfromvisionaryideas,andassessestheextenttowhichthesehavechangedthewaypeoplelive.Inthreesectionstheeditorshavearrangedkeytextstogetherwithaselectionofprojectswhichillustratetheideas,andthebuiltrealitieswhichfollowedonfromthem.Inthefirstpart,HilaryFrenchexploresthedevelopmentofcommunitarianideas,andthewaysinwhichutopianthinkinghasgeneratednewideasforhousing.”Cover8French,HLivingTogetherp.419CircleHousing.Circle33beganlifeasatraditionalhousingassociationin1968.In2005itmergedwiththeAngliaHousingGroup,andisnowthelargestpartnersubsidiaryofCircleHousing(formerlyCircleAnglia),owning17,100homesacrossLondonandin48LocalAuthorityareashttp://www.circlegroup.org.uk/our-group/social-housing/Circle_Housing_Circle_33
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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contributingtodevisingthebrief,whichwasseenasatoolforstartingthedebatein
additiontosettingouttheprogrammeandsitedescription.Asaresultofthe
competition’shugesuccess,attractingaround140entries,Iwastheninvitedtocurate
anexhibitionattheAFGalleryandproduceandeditanaccompanyingpublication.10
Thewiningproject,byPeterBarberArchitects,wascompletedlargelytothe
competitiondesignin2006.11
FollowingthesuccessofAccommodatingChangeIwasinvitedtocontributeashort
essaytothecatalogueforanRIBAexhibition,ComingHomes(2003)12andthento
carryoutafurtherprojectfundedbytheAF,Home:DesignandDesirability(2004)13
theresultsofwhichwereexhibited,invideoformat,at100%Design.Whilstnotmajor
projects,bothexploredthenotionofflexiblespaceandbothrevealedthedifficulties
associatedwithsurveyworkinrelationtopublicperceptionofhousingdesignand
obtainingdataabouthowwelive.Mylaterpublications,NewUrbanHousing(2006)
andKeyUrbanHousingoftheTwentiethCentury(2009),focusoninnovative10French,H.EdAccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousing2002Housingdesigniscentraltothedebateonthefuturedevelopmentofcitieswithpressuretoprovidemore,bothcheaplyandquickly.Thistimeitistoaccommodateanincreasingpopulationandchangingdemographics.TheAccommodatingChangeinitiativegrewoutofCircle33HousingGroup'sdesiretopromoteinterestinandthereby,improvethequalityofaffordablehousing.IncollaborationwiththeArchitectureFoundation,theyheldtwocompetitions,forarchitectsandforstudents,aseriesofworkshopsandseminarsfocusingondifferenthousingrelatedissues.ThispublicationaccompaniedtheArchitectureFoundation'sexhibitionforCircle33HousingGroupfrom22ndFebruaryto27thMarch2002,andincludesillustrationsofselectedcompetitionentriesandessaycontributionsfromarchitectsandacademics.http://shop.architecturefoundation.org.uk/products/accommodating-change-innovation-in-housing11ThepressreactiontoDonnybrookhasbeenoverwhelminglyfavourable,ascanbeseenbythisfollowingsampleofquotes:‘Barberhasjustcompletedthemostinnovativepieceoflarge-scalehousingbuiltinBritainforyears.’[Dyckhoff,Tom.Times,24January2006]‘Donnybrookisacomplex,sociallychallengingarchitecturalarrangement.TherationalismusedinBowisaboutinclusion,physicalagreementandthestartlingrealitiesofprogressiveurbanchange.’[Merrick,JayIndependent,25January2006]‘Topdogsfor2006,bestbuildingsinclass.Housing:Donnybrook...PeterBarberArchitectsis...bestplacedtomakeareallysignificantimpactonasectorthatformanyyearshasfoughtshyofinnovativedesign.’[Woodman,Ellis.BuildingDesign,6January2006]‘Thisinspiringscheme...strivestorepairsomeoftheripsthathavebeenmadeinLondon’sfabricsincetheSecondWorldWar.Ifyoucanachieveallthatwiththislevelofelegance,youcouldwellbeontosomething.’[Rose,Steve.Guardian,6February2006].Inadditiontoitspressreviews,theDonnybrookQuarterschemewasalsoincludedasanexemplarynewprojectforthecapital’sbuiltfabricaspartoftheNewLondonArchitectureExhibitioninmid-2005.http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/4823/1/Barber_3.pdf12French,H.TheSimpleLifeBasedonresponsestoaMORIpollonpopularhousingtypesin7000WordsonHousing.“AseriesofessaysonhousingandideasofhomeintheUKtoday.Leadingarchitecturalhistorians,writers,researchersandarchitects,exploreissuessuchasplanning,taste,houseprices,themeasurementofvalueindesignandthetypologiesandmodelsofsuburbia.”13Thisprojectexploredthepotentialforuserresearchwithreferencetothedefinitionofbriefsusedbyarchitectsandsociallandlordstocomparedesignintentionswithusers’experience.Thisprojectmovedawayfromthemorepragmaticissues,toinvestigatethelesstangibleaspectsofdesire-somethingthatismoreusuallyassociatedwiththewealthierworldofprivatehousingdevelopments.AseriesofcasestudiesofrecentlycompletedhousingprojectsintheLondonareawereidentifiedcoveringarangeofdifferenthousingtypes,elderly,keyworker,shelteredhousing,etc.Questionnairesweredevisedtoelicitthekeyaspectsoflivinginthatparticularbuildingprojectandtoextrapolateinformationthatmightbeusefulforotherbriefsandotherprojects.
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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approachestodesign,ornewthinkingimplicitinthebuildingstudiesselectedfor
inclusion.Themostrecentproject,whichisdocumentedinthebookPatternsofLiving:
HongKong’sHighRiseCommunities(2013)wastheresultofaninvitationtocontribute
tothenewlyestablishedResearchCentreattheHongKongDesignInstitute.Through
theirparticipatoryagendaitofferedmeanopportunitytoexploretheinteriorsofthe
socialhousingunitsbuiltbytheHongKongHousingAuthority,whichmostlycomprise
indeterminatespaces,bringingtogetherbothmymainresearchstrands,flexibilityand
patternsofoccupation.14
Tocontinuethiswork,revisitingexemplarhousingprojectstoexploretherelationship
betweenthedesignideasofthearchitectsandthewaysinwhichtheresidentshave
occupiedtheirhomesovertimecouldusefullyinformfuturepractice.Howeverthe
logisticsofsuchastudyandgainingaccesstoprivatehomesmakeitanunlikely
proposition.AccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousing,documentedwhathad
beenaninspirationalprojectformanyandprovidedlastingrecordofwhatisstill
consideredanimportantproject.Findingmorewaystoencouragehousebuildersto
offerthechancetoyoungpractitionerstoexplorenewideasandbuildmore
experimentalhousingprojects,ratherthanrelyingontheirtriedandtestedtypologies,
mightoffermoresustainableadaptablemodels
ThepublicationofSchneiderandTill’sbook,FlexibleHousing,supportedbyfundsfrom
theAHRC,mightsuggestthatideasofadaptabilityarepartofthemainstream.
However,recentlegislationsuggeststhatthemoreeasilyquantifiable,space
standards,arestillthefocusforcurrentdebateonhowtoimprovehousingquality
14PatternsofLiving.IwascommissionedtocontributetoaprojectcoordinatedbyDr.LeeatHongKongDesignInstitute,auniqueopportunitytogainaccesstothestandard‘socialhousing’unitsdesignedbyarchitectsandoccupiedbyordinaryfamilies.InspiredbyEuropeanmodernism,theHongKongHousingAuthority(HKHA)haspioneeredlandreclamationandhigh-riseconstructionsincethemid-1950s,producingsomeoftheworld’sdensest,mostverticalresidentialareas.Datawascollectedandanalysedfrom120typicalhomestodiscoverhowfamiliesoccupythecompactflatsthathavecontinuedtobedeveloped,maintainedandrentedbytheHKHA.Theresearchshowsforthefirsttimetheinteriors–thelivedrealityofmodernism'shousingproject–andhashighlightedaparticularflattypethathousingstudiesnowcategoriseas‘indeterminate’:itisofferedtotenantsasashelltopartitionandarrangethemselves.Itssuccessoffersamodelwithinternationalsignificance,controversialespeciallyinrentalhousing,butwiththepotentialtoreducehousingcostsandpotentiallyawayforwardinallowingfutureflexibility.
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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Mywork,hasprovidedinsightintothechangingapproachtohousingdesign,inthe
broadestsense,fromtheearlytwentiethcenturywhentheapartmentblockwas
establishedasanewbuildingtypethroughtothelatestbuiltprojects–withanimplicit
focusonadaptability.Inordertofocusondesignlayouts,well-knownhistorical
examplesarepresentedalongsidecontemporaryprojects,usingthesamestylefor
comparativepurpose.Ratherthanthe‘how-to’manualsfavouredbysomeauthorsmy
workusesprimarilyvisualanalysis,usingstandarddrawingtechnique,thecommon
languageofarchitecture,toprovideanalagousreference.
Mybackground
Beforetakinguparoleasafull-timeacademicin1998,andembarkingonresearch
workalongsideteachingandschoolmanagementduties,Ihadavariedcareerin
architecturalpractice.Iworkedforarchitectsinprivatepracticeonawiderangeof
buildingtypes,mostlypublicsectorprojects,andforInteriorDesignersforashorttime
generallyonretaildesignprojects.Myownpracticefocusedmainlyonworkstolisted
buildingsforprivateandgovernmentclients.DuringmytimeinpracticeIlearnt
somethingofthelegislativeframeworksandworkingmethodsaspartofanumberof
designteams,onnewhousingprojectsinMiltonKeynes,WarringtonNewTownand
rueFontarabieinParisamongstothers,aswellasmajorterracedhousing
refurbishmentandrehabilitationprojectsinLondon.
MyrecentacademicroleattheRCA,asHeadoftheSchoolofArchitecture&Design
withresponsibilityfortheDesignProductsDepartment,meantworkingcloselywith
industrialdesigners,notablyRonAradandTordBoontje.Inbroadterms,thiswider
contextforconsideringarchitecturalproductioninfluencedmythinkingandraised
questionsformeaboutthenatureofhousingdesign–notablyaboutwhereitmightsit
betweenarchitectureandindustrialdesignandperceptionsoftherelativestatusof
thearchitectandthedesigner.Withitsrepetitivenature,suitabilityforpre-fabrication
andvolumeproduction,thedesignofhousinghasbeenthoughttohavemorein
commonwiththeproductionofotherconsumerproductsverydifferentto
architecture’sbespoke‘iconic’masterpieces.
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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BackgroundandContext
Prototypesandmodels
WorkingalongsideIndustrialDesigners,Iwasintroducedtotheirdifferentworking
methodsandparticularlytheirextensiveuseoffull-sizemodels.Unlikethescale
modelsregularlyusedbyarchitects,thefull-sizemodelsandprototypescanbeused
bydesignerstoassessthelookandfeelorfunctioningofanobject,andbythe
manufacturertoassesstoolingandmaterials.Ihadwitnessedsomelimiteduseoffull-
sizemock-upsinarchitecturalpractice,inParisintheearly1980s;oneofthePyramid
intheLouvrecourtyard(I.MPei1989),theotherpartofnewstructuresintheParcde
laVillette(ReichenetRobert1984).Bothwere,however,littlemorethanloosely
constructedthree-dimensionaloutlines,toassistthearchitectsandclientsintheir
evaluationofthevisualimpactofthenewformsonsurroundingheritagebuildings.
Someexperimentaloravantgardedesignprojectsareconsideredprototypesby
default,e.g.BedZed15orPassivhaus,16whichhaveprovidedmodelsforenergy
efficiency.TheInnovationParkattheBuildingResearchEstablishment(BRE)alsohasa
seriesoffullsizehouses,builttodemonstrateconstructionandenergyefficiency.17
TheBREhasinthepastextendedtheuseoftheir‘test’housesfordomesticscience
purposesbutitisextremelyraretofindprototypesforhousingwhichfocusonmore
generaldesignissues–space,accessarrangementsandplanorganisation.Wesee
‘showhomes’regularlyatdevelopmentsitesandthosethatappearannuallyatthe
IdealHomeShowbuttheseareaimedatencouragingpurchasersratherthan
architectsinterestedinexploringdemonstrationofnewkindsofarchitecturalthinking.
Variousmomentsinthehistoryofhousing,whencircumstancesoffundingand
politicalwillhavecometogether,haveledtosuchhousing‘prototypes’builtas
exhibitionswhich,partlyduetotheirrarity(ortheirpermanencesorpersistence),are15“BedZEDistheUK’sfirstlarge-scale,mixedusesustainablecommunitywith100homes,officespace,acollegeandcommunityfacilities.Completedin2002,thispioneeringeco-villageinsouthLondonsuburbiaremainsaninspirationforsustainableneighbourhoods.”http://www.bioregional.com/bedzed/16“ThePassivhausstandardwasdevelopedinGermanyintheearly1990sbyProfessorsBoAdamsonofSwedenandWolfgangFeistofGermanyandthefirstdwellingstobecompletedtothePassivhausStandardwereconstructedinDarmstadtin1991.”http://www.passivhaus.org.uk17“TheroleoftheInnovationParksistoinformtheindustryandpolicymakersontheviabilityofconstructioninnovationsthatcandeliverimprovedperformanceandtruesustainabilitywithinthebuiltenvironment.”http://ipark.bre.co.uk
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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creditedwithconsiderablesignificanceandregularlyincludedinhistoriesofhousing.
Historiesregularlycitetheearlyexamplesofthenewmodelforurbanflatdwellings
constructedforthe1851ExhibitioninLondon’sHydePark,subsequentlyrelocatedto
KenningtonPark,18andthemuchlater,1905and1907LetchworthCheapCottages
exhibitionsdemonstratingthealternative,‘rural’option.19Otherkeyexhibitions
includetheWeissenhofSeidlungopenedin1927,thefirsttodemonstratetheideasof
themodernmovementarchitects,followedbytheViennaWerkbundexhibitionof
1932.MorerecentexamplesaretheBerlinIBAexhibitions,thefirstin1957which
continuedthemodernistapproachandthenthelesswellknown,in1984,whichsawa
‘postmodern’returntothetraditionalcityblock,whichthedirectorJosefPaul
Kleihuessawasanalogouswith‘thepaceoflifeandrhythmofurbanspace.’20The
mostrecentEuropeanmodelistheHousingFestivalintheHaguebuiltbetween1987
and2003.Intendedtoexhibitthebroadestrangeofhousingtypes,itdemonstrates
low,mediumandhigh-risetypologiesalongonelinearsite.21
ArchitectureBooks
Withfewsuchexhibitionsofferinganopportunitytoexplorethephysicalmateriality
andexperientialqualityaswellasthearchitecturalthinkingofactualbuiltexamples,18“ThefinalroomoftheExhibitionModelDwellingsmetthatdesireonareducedscale.Thisroomcontainedtwotypesofpublications:pamphletsandbooksdocumentingthecurrentstateofhousingofthepoor,andpamphletsandbooksdocumentingmodeldwellingsdesignedtoaddressandimprovethedireconditionsdocumentedinthefirstcategory.Therewerealsodisplaysofarchitecturalplansforthemodeldwellingsthroughwhichthevisitorhadjustwalkedaswellasothermodeldwellingsthesocietyhadbuiltelsewhere.Inotherwords,bookslikeRobert’sTheModelHousesforFamilies:BuiltinConnexionwiththeGreatExhibitionof1851byCommandofhisRoyalHighness,thePrinceAlbert,K.G.,displayedinthefinalroom,translatedintoprintfromthehousethroughwhichthevisitorhadjusttoured.”http://www.branchcollective.org/?ps_articles=barbara-leckie-prince-alberts-exhibition-model-dwellings19TheLetchworthCheapCottagesexhibitionsin1903and1907sponsoredbytheDailyMailledtotheIdealHomeExhibition(nowtheIdealHomeShow)whichcontinuedtoshowmodelhomes.ReferredtointheintroductiontoFrench,H.NewUrbanHousing“Itisnotsomuchamodelvillageasavillageofmodelcottages;andnotonlycottageswhicharemodelsinthesenseofbeingairy,sanitary,andfittedwithmodernappliances,butmodelsalsointhesenseofbeingexamples,tobeseenandhandled,ofwhatcanbebuiltinthisorthatmaterialtocostthisorthatsumofmoney.Here,aboveall,theby-laws,althoughtheyrightlyinsistonpropersanitation,donothingtostrangleinvention,ortochokeenterpriseindiscoveringnewmethodsandnewmaterials;sothatitispossible,insteadofmerelyreadingaboutwhatcanbedoneinframingcheapwallsandfoundationsandpartitions,actuallytowalkinandoutofcottagesmadeofironandwood,cement,expandedmetal,concrete,artificialstone,steelandplaster,andallthehundred-and-onecombinationsandvariationsofmaterialhithertoforbiddeninthegreatmajorityofruraldistricts."Ahundred-and-onevariations,"—itishardlyanexaggeration,forstandingintheExhibitiongroundsatLetchworthareactuallyahundredcottages,fiftyofthemfinishedalready,fiftymorebeingrapidlypushedtowardscompletion.”http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/22nd-july-1905/8/the-cheap-cottages-exhibition20Kleihues,IBACatalogue1984quotedinFrench,H.KeyUrbanHousingp15921French,HKeyUrbanHousingp193and196-97
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
18
architectsrelyheavilyonthenextbestthing,buildingreviews,whichincludeextensive
drawnanalysestogetherwithtextualdescriptionorcritique.Suchbuildingstudies
foundinprofessionaljournalsformthebasisofwhatarenowcommonlyreferredtoas
‘picturebooks’atermcoinedbyF.R.S.YorkeintheintroductiontoModernFlats
(1958),todescribebooksaimedatanarchitecturalaudience,theinformed
practitioner.
‘Picturebooks’,distinctfromtheoryortechnicalreferencebooks,sharerootswith
architects’foliosoriginallymadeforclients.AccordingtoPeterEisenman,bookswhich
combinedrawingswithtexthave“becomepartofanarchitecturaltradition.”22
Startingfromthegreatarchitecturaltreatises,citingprecedentsofVitruviusand
AlbertithroughSerlioandPalladiotoScammozziandLodoli,such‘books’included
reflectionsontheirbuiltworksaswellasdesignsandspeculationsonfutureworks
throughbothtextanddrawings.23Thisphenomenon,theinterrelationshipbetween
textanddrawingsisalsodiscussedbyAlanPowersinhisessayentitledThe
ArchitecturalBook.24Such‘picturebooks’wereofcourseusedbyarchitectsfor
promotionalpurposes,andcontinuetobeso,toshowpotentialclientstheirwork.
Beyondtheiruseasamarketingtoolandunlikea‘text’booktheyofferahybridwayto
conveyinformation,notnecessarilyinconsecutiveorder,alinearformatbutonethat
canaccommodateotherroutesthroughtheinformationcontained.
Itisimportanttomakeadistinctionbetweenwhatarereferredtohereas‘picture
books’andthe18thand19thcentury‘patternbooks’thatwereusedbybuildersata
timewhenarchitectsbecamelessandlessinvolvedinthehousingfield.Theirterraced
houseswhichtypifymostEnglishtownsandcities,arerarelycreditedtoany
architecturaldesigners.Inhisbook,TheEnglishTerracedHouse,StefanMuthesius
admitstoalackofanydetailedresearchintothedesignersofterracedhousingbut
claimsthatinanycasesuchresearchwouldbefutile.25Otherthanperhapssome
elevationsorsiteplansdrawnupbyarchitects,builderstookoverallresponsibility.
22Eisenman,P.,preface23SeeEisenman,P.,TheHousesofMemory:TheTextsofAnalogyfordiscussionofanalogouswritings,anddrawings.24SeeRattenbury,KEd.thisisnotarchitecture25Muthesius,Sp.251
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
19
Thisseparationbetweenarchitectsandbuilderswastoincreaseasarchitectsmoved
towardsprofessionalisation(achievedintheUKin1934)andbuildersconsolidatedan
entrepreneurialrole.Patternbookstherefore,regularlycopiedbybuilders,playedan
increasinglyusefulrole,alongwiththe‘howto’booksofvariousdifferentbuilding
constructiontradesuntilthebeginningofthe20thcenturywhentheyweregradually
replacedbycataloguesproducedbymanufacturersandsuppliers.
Inhousing,comparedtootherbuildingtypes,the‘picturebook’ismorecommon.Itis
notthepromotional‘portfolio’,norapatternbook,noracatalogueof‘offtheshelf’
typestobecopiedbuthasdevelopedasahybrid.Likethebuildingreviewsof
professionaljournals,itusesdrawnandtextualanalysisprovidinganalogousmodels
foraprofessionalaudience.
Twoofhousing’sbest-known‘picturebooks’aretheseminalworksbyFRSYorke
(1906-62)andFrederickGibberd(1908-84)TheModernFlat(1937)andModernFlats
(1958)publishedbytheArchitecturalPress.Theywereintendedtoencourage
architectstoengagewithhousingdesign,andmorespecificallythedesignofwhatwas
atthattimeanewbuildingtype–blocksofflats.TheModernFlatisfocusedon
projectsthathadbeenbuiltsince1927,withexamplesgroupedbycountry.
SymptomaticofthefirstgenerationofModernMovementarchitects,theintroductory
essayreinforcestheauthors’advocacyofhigherdensityurbandevelopment,and
particularlyflatsclaimingthat“theflathasproducedabuildingtypepeculiartoour
ownera:withoutprecedentinthearchitectureofthepast.”26Newindustrialised
fabricationsystemsratherthantraditionalbuildingmethods,akeyaspectof‘modern
architecture’,wasfurtherencouragementforarchitectstobecomeinvolvedwiththe
provisionofhousingand“aboveallseeingarchitectureasakeyelementinthedriveto
providepeoplewithbetter-qualityhousingandabetterwayofliving.”27Themain
contentofthebookistheseriesofbuildingstudies,withphotographsandshorttext
abouteachproject.Anintroductorychapterprovidesadviceonplanningwhich
includeskitchendesignclearlybasedonMargareteSchütteLihotsky’sFrankfurt
26Yorke,FRSandGibberd,FTheModernFlatp.627French,HKeyUrbanHousingp.12
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
20
Kitchen(1926)andbathroomswithminimumexposedpipeworkillustratedwith
Lubetkin’sHighpoint(1935).
By1958whenthesameauthorspublishedasecondvolume,thistimewithprojects
builtsincetheendofthewarin1945theyhaddecidedthatanycommentarywas
superfluous.Theyconsideredthattheirdecisionsonwhichprojectstoincludewere
adequatelyinfluentialwithouttheneedforanyadditionalcriticalcommentaryto
furthercontextualise,explainorsubstantiatetheirchoices,callingitsimply“apicture
bookinwhicharerecorded……..someofthemoredistinguishedflatbuildingswhich
havebeenbuiltinrecentyears.”28
RogerSherwood’sModernHousingPrototypespublishedin1978coverstheperiod
from1903andtherueFranklinApartments,ParisbyAugustPerretupuntilNeave
Brown’sFleetRoadHousing,Londondesignedin1967.AlthoughanAmerican
publication,itfocuseslargelyonthebest-knownEuropeanexamplesofmodernism’s
legacy.Theplanandsectiondrawingsof32casestudiesaremostlysimply
photographicallyreproducedinblackandwhitewhileaseriesofspeciallymade,
colourcoded,cutawayaxonometricprojectionsareusedforcomparison.Axonometric
(orisometric)projections,“Bypassednowbytheabilityofthecomputertotwist,turn
representandrepresent”29,aquickwaytodrawthreedimensionalformwithoutthe
laboriousconstructionrequiredforperspectives,hadbecomepopularfor
presentationsinthe1970s.BasedonJamesStirling’swork,widelypublishedinall
architecturaljournals,theydemonstratedconsiderableskillanddexterityandmade
‘technical’drawingsmoreappealingtoanon-specialistclientaudience.
TheFloorPlanManualpublishedin1994,startswiththeUnitéd’Habitationin
Marseilles(designedin1947),includesafewregularlycitedexamplesfromthe1950s
and60sthenfocusesmainlyonprojectsbuiltinthe20yearperiodfrom1975onwards
mainlyinNorthernEurope.Averyambitiousandinformativepublication,itincludes
dataandtextinGermanandEnglish,aswellaspresentingallthedrawingstoa
28Yorke,FRSandGibberd,FModernFlatsp.729Cook,Pp.99
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
21
uniformscale.However,inthesamewayasSherwood’sbook,itmostlyreproduces
original,oftenconstructiondrawingswithahighlevelofdetailatmuchreducedsize,
resultinginpoorlegibilityandconsiderableunevenness(Figs.1,2&3).Formatsfor
LivingContemporaryfloorplansinAmsterdam,30takesanovelapproachtothegenre.
Sixexpertswereinvitedtocurateacollectionofrecentlybuiltresidentialbuildings,
showingonlytheseriesofplans,followingashortintroductorycommentary.Theplans
arepresentedwithnoannotationotherthanthenameofthearchitect,the(street)
nameoftheprojectandwhethermarketsectororsubsidised.Itisfrustratingnotto
seethebuildingplanorsiteplanwhichwasperhapspresumedunnecessaryforthose
familiarwithAmsterdamanditshousingbutthepresentationoftheplansinavery
smallformatbook,drawninthesamestyletothesamescale,focusesattentiononthe
particularissuesofinternallayout.
Threerecentpublicationswhicharenotstrictly‘picturebooks’havemadeuseful
contributiontothesubjectofflexibility.ThemostcomprehensiveisFlexibleHousing
byTatianaSchneiderandJeremyTillpublishedin2007bytheArchitecturalPress.It
providesanhistoricalanalysisofflexiblehousing,andmakesastrongcaseforits
support.BasedonGroák’sdefinitions(seep.10)thetermflexibilityisusedtoinclude
adaptability.31Achronologicallypresentedselectionofexamplesprovidesa
comprehensivereferencedlistofprojectsand-themostimportantprojects32-are
developedfurtherinaseriesof84casestudiescarefullydrawnforconsistencyof
presentationtothesamescale,inplan(1:200).Approximatelyhalfofthecasestudies
areofapartmentbuildingsorurbanblockswithmanyunbuiltprojectsorstudies
includedaswellasdetachedandsemi-detachedhouses.
TotalHousing;alternativestourbansprawl(2010),includesonlybasicdata,randomly
scaleddrawingsandcaptionedphotographsof61projectsbuiltinthefirstdecadeof
30Kloos,MandWendt,D(Eds)“Theuniformmethodofdrawinghasresultedinalucidcollectionofplans,whichforalltheirapparentsimplicitycontainanencryptedcode–aformatforliving.”Cover31Schneider,TandTill,Jp4“Ourbroaddefinitionofflexiblehousingishousingthatcanadjusttochangingneedsandpatterns,bothsocialandtechnological.Thesechangingneedsmaybepersonal(sayanexpandingfamily),practical(i.e.theonsetofoldage)ortechnological(i.e.theupdatingofoldservices).Thechangingpatternsmightbedemographic(saytheriseofthesinglepersonhousehold),economic(i.e.theriseoftherentalmarket)orenvironmental(i.e.theneedtoupdatehousingtorespondtoclimatechange)”32Ibidp203
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
22
thetwentyfirstcentury.Organizedunconventionally,accordingtothetotalnumbers
ofunitsthatrangefromfourto750thesignificanceofeachprojectisnotalways
evident.Todefinethequalitiesoftheprojects,itreliesonaseriesof13‘keywords’33,
fourofwhicharegroupedundertheheading‘Flexibility’.34Thefirstofthese
‘adaptability’isdefinedasabove,‘openness’relatestoindeterminatespaceandthe
thirdis‘spaciousness’orsimplyspace.Thefourth,‘unitvariety’ismoreoftenrelated
toadaptabilityandtheoptionsforalternativeaccommodationforchangingfamiliesin
thesameapartmentblockorestate.Inthisinstance,noneofthekeywordsused
impliesthecapabilityforfuturephysicalalterations.AviFreidmaninTheAdaptable
House(2002)definesthetermas“refittingthephysicalenvironmentastheresultofa
newcircumstance”35butthengoesontotakeaslightlydifferentpositionfocusingon
process.Adaptability,heproposes,canbeintroducedatthreedifferentstagesofa
project;attheinitialdesignstage,attheconstructionstageorbytheusers.
MethodandApproach
‘Picturebooks’
Mypicturebooksbuildontheapproachofthe20thcenturypicturebooksinan
attempttoprovideanalogousreference.Theyusearchitecturalmethods,drawingand
typologicalclassificationstopresentaseriesofbuildingstudiesforcomparison.
ThebookthataccompaniedtheAccommodatingChangeexhibitiongavemetheinitial
opportunitytoexperimentwithusinganalyticaldrawingsforcomparativepurposes.
Unitplansandsiteplanswereincluded,inaminimalway,ontheinsidecoversasan
33Ferre,AandTihamer,Sp.4Thequalitiessummarizedinthekeywordsareprojects“…whichexemplifyoutstandinginnovationsinconstructionsystems,layoutofresidentialspace,systemsofunitaggregation,integrationoftheresidentialprogramintotheotherfunctionsthatmakeupourcities,andrepercussionsintheformationoftheurbanfabric.34ibidp5.ThefinalfourkeywordsgroupedundertheheadingFlexibilityare:-“10.AdaptabilityBuiltspacecanfacilitateandaccommodateagreatnumberofrequirementsandactivitiesbothpredictableandunpredictable,forknownandunknownuses.11.Openness.Spaceisendowedwithflexibilitythroughtheremovaloftraditionalassociationsbetweenfunctionsandroomsinfavouroftheindeterminationoffluidspaces12.SpaciousnessTherealluxury(andtheplatformfortheeffectivedevelopmentofmultipleactivities)isspace.13.UnitVarietyResidentialprojectsnolongertendtorespondtoasinglestandardprogramanduser.Thediversitypresentinsocietyisalsotranslatedintothespatialcomplexityoftheproject.”35Friedman,A,p.12
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
23
additiontothearchitects’originalcompetitionsubmissions,themaincontentofthe
book.Inthethreetitlesthatfollowed,NewUrbanHousing(2006),KeyUrbanHousing
oftheTwentiethCentury(2008)andPatternsofLiving:HongKong’sHigh-Rise
Communities(2013)drawingswerespeciallymadefortheanalysisandcomparisonof
aseriesofcasestudies.362Ddrawings,ratherthanperspectiveoraxonometric
projectionswereusedastheworksareintendedforanarchitecturalaudienceadeptat
readingdrawingsratherthanalayaudience.FurtherforbothKeyUrbanHousingand
PatternsofLiving,inadditiontoensuringreproductionofdrawingstoauniformscale
andstyleIworkedcloselywiththegraphicdesignersonthepagelayouts.
Usingthesamemethodandapproach,eachtitlehasadifferentfocus.NewUrban
Housinglookedspecificallyatprojectscompletedintherecentfive-yeartimeframe
organizedbyfourformaltypologies;terracesandrowhouses,quadranglesand
courtyards,cityblocksandinfill,andtowersandslabs.KeyUrbanHousingtookan
historicalperspectivetolookaturbanhousingdevelopmentthroughthe20thcentury.
Thepublisher’scommitmenttoa‘picturebook’–basedlargelyonthebeliefthat
computerswouldmaketheprocessmuchfasterandeasier-wascoupledwithadesire
toincludeprojectsfromasmanycountriesaspossible.Bothbookswerelimitedin
extentanditwasnecessarytoreducetheoriginallonglistofpotentialprojects.Itwas
clearthatcertainwell-knowntwentiethcenturyprojectswouldbeincluded,andIused
aloosestylisticchronologicalcategorisationtogroupthemwithothersselectedmainly
fortheirinnovativeapproachparticularlytoissuesofflexibility.PatternsofLiving
focusedontheworkofonesignificantprovider,theHongKongHousingAuthority
(HKHA)fromtheirbeginningsin1954tothepresentday.Allprioritisedrawings.
36FollowingthepublicationofAccommodatingChange,eachtitleallowedforanincreaseduseofdrawingsasfollows:NewUrbanHousing2006:Unitplans–asprovidedbyarchitects.Blockplans–newdrawingsfromdataprovidedbyarchitectsKeyUrbanHousingoftheTwentiethCentury:Unitplans–newdrawingsfromdataprovidedbyarchitectsorsourcedinarchivesandlibraries.Blockplans–newdrawingsfromdataprovidedbyarchitectsorsourcedinarchivesandlibraries.AlldrawingswereprovidedasPDFandEPSfilesinAdobeIllustratoronaCDPatternsofLiving:Unitplans–newdrawingsfromprimarysurveymaterial.Typicalblockplansandunitplans–newdrawingsfromdatasourcedintheHKHousingAuthorityarchives
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
24
Drawings
Drawingislanguageandmemory,ameansofcommunicationwithoneselfandwith
others,construction.”37
Unlikeotherartistsarchitectsdonotgenerallyenjoyacloseinvolvementwiththe
fabricationoftheirwork.Theyaredistancedfromproduction,obligedtousedrawings
asanintermediarytoexplainandprovidedirectiontoothersonhowtoconstructtheir
works.38Butbeyondthismostdirectrole,highlystylisedandcodifiedarchitectural
drawingisalsothemeanstodescribeandunderstandarchitecturalideas.Drawingin
AlvaroSiza’swordsis“amongstmanyotherthings,aworkingtool,awayoflearning,
understanding,communicating,transforming;awayofdesigning.”39Drawingbecomes
theessentialtoolbutisalsoameansofexpression,thesubjectofPeterCook’sbook,
andinhiswords“amotorthatabsorbsimaginationandconvertsitintousableor
transferableinformation”.40Cookmentionstheuseoftextonlyfleetinglyinawork
thatfocusesprimarilyondrawingsthatareexpressiveofideas.Textisusedtoa
greaterextentindescriptiveoranalyticaldrawings.AdrianFortyhoweverdevotes
considerableefforttoaquestioningofwhethertextordrawingssaythemost.41
Drawingisclearlyaveryefficientwaytodescribethree-dimensionalform,anduses
annotationwhennecessarytoenhancethecontent,particularlyatlargerscalewhen
greaterprecisionisrequired.Perhapsthequestionisirrelevant?AsCooksaysperhaps
theexpressivenatureofthedrawing–thedegreeofrhetoric-changestosuitthe
audiencefromthemostbasicworkingdrawingforbuilders,throughthosetodiscuss
withcolleaguesandthosetoimpressclients,tothe“Whizzbangforthenewspaper.”42
Anecdotally,architecturaldrawingshavebeenmoreusefullycomparedtomusical
scores;theysimilarlyrelyon(Italian)annotationforenhancementbuthaveamuch
moredirectrelationshipwiththemusictheydescribethananyevocationinatextual
descriptioncould,irrespectiveoflanguage.Similarlybothrelyonaparticularand
distincttalentfortheircreationandfortheirinterpretation.37Siza,Ap.2238SeeEvans,Rp.156“Iwassoonstruckbywhatseemedatthetimethepeculiardisadvantageunderwhicharchitectslabour,neverworkingdirectlywiththeobjectoftheirthought,”39Siza,Ap.1740Cook,Pp.21141SeeForty,A42Cook,Pp.104
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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Theconventionsoforthographicprojectionandgraphictechniqueforeverydaydesign
andproduction,asevidencedbyprofessionaljournals,haschangedlittlesincethefirst
decadesofthe20thcentury.Presentationstyles–whenaimedatanon-professional
audience–variedmore,notablywithaswitchfromtheuseofperspectiveto
axonometricorisometricprojectionsandofcoursecanincludescalemodels.Bythe
1970stheuseofcolourphotography,becamemoreprevalent,offering,itseemed,a
moresubjectiveandseductivedescriptionofcompletedbuildings,ratherthanthe
blackandwhiteanalyticaldrawings.AtthesametimetheswitchfromImperialto
metricmeasurementsinBritainintheearly1970saffectedlargerscaledetaildesign
drawingsandspecificationterminologybutmadelittledifferenceatsmallscaleas
metricscaleswereeasilyapproximatedtoestablishedimperialscales.43However,the
introductionofcomputerdrawingadecadelater,alongwithitseffectonexpressive
drawingsandevenondesign,changedanyperceptionofscaleatthetimedrawings
areproduced.Inthecomputer,anythingandeverythingisdrawnatanysizeandcan
bealteredinfinitelytobelookedatorprintedatanyscale,irrevocablychangingthe
waywemakechoicesaboutcontentandlegibilityeveninthesimplestofanalytical
drawings.
Typologies
Thereisnodoubtthatforarchitects,straightforwardanalyticaldrawingsarethe
fastestwaytounderstandabuildinganditsarchitecturalideas.Housingplans
particularly,oftenwithoutanyneedforsectionsorelevations,canbesufficientto
revealmeaning.Withtheunchangingbrief‘todesignafamilyhouse’foran
anonymousclient,andoftenwithouteventheinspiration(orconstraint)ofaparticular
sitetoinfluencedecisionmaking,housingdesignaccordingtoSherwood“lendsitself
readilytosystematictypologicalstudy.”44Hespeculatesthatarchitects’useofexisting
modelsorprototypesissimilartothemathematicians’useofanauxiliarytheorem;
thatistheyprovideanapproximateoranalogousanswertoaproblemtobesolved.43Thedifferencesbetweenthemostcommonlyusedimperialscalesandtheirmetricstandardequivalentsweremostlybarelyperceptible(4%)e.g.1/16inchtoafootor1:192to1:200,1/8thinchtoafootor1:96to1:100,¼inchtoafootor1:48to1:50.Theonlyperceptibledifferenceisat½inchor1:24whichbecame1:20,20%different,andsomedraughtsmancontinuedtousetheAmericanstandard1:25scaleinstead.44Sherwood,Rp.2
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
26
HedrawsonAlanColquhoun’stextTypologyasDesignMethodwhichsuggeststhatin
aworldwhereneitherimitationofpaststylesnorthefunctionalismofmodernismcan
providealltheanswers,the“intuitivemethodsofdesigntraditionallyusedby
architectsareincapableofdealingwiththecomplexityoftheproblemstobesolved.”45
Basedonknowledgeofhistoryandtheworkofpeers,anoutlineplanor‘typological
diagram’canbeusedtorepresentatype-thetypeitselfispositionedsomewhere
betweenthediagramandtheword.46Taxonomiesofdwellingorunitplansareeasily
readandunderstood,aidedbyadiscretevocabularyorshorthandterminology,most
oftenrelatedtoaccessarrangements.ForLeupenandMooij,inHousingDesignA
Manual,thestartingpointistheItalianarchitecturalhistorianGiulioCarloArgan’s
(1909-1992)OntheTypologyofArchitecture(1963),[inturnbasedontheworkofthe
FrenchtheoristQuatremeredeQuincy(1755-1849)]-whichproposedthree
typologicallevels:firstlytheoverallconfiguration,secondlythemajorstructural
elementsandthirdlythedecorativeelements.Forresidentialbuildings,becauseof
theircomplexity,LeupenandMooijproposeafurtherclassification.Called‘theurban
ensemble’,thisisbasedonaccessarrangementsandhowtheindividualdwellingsare
organisedasawhole.47Forthedesigners,referencetoprecedentsclassifiedby
typologiesbecomesthebasisofthe‘language’ofhousingprovidingtheanalogous
formsorthe‘auxiliarytheorems’borrowedfrommathematicians,thatenablebetter
understandingofaproblemtobesolved.
Aswithallcreativeendeavor,thereisargumentagainstknowingtoomuch,believing
thata‘blankpage’willprovokegreateroriginalityasarguedbyTillandWigglesworth.
Theysuggestthatarchitectswouldbebetterapproachinghousingdesignfromawider
perspectivelabelingthetypologicalapproach“apeculiarlyarchitecturaldescriptionof
theworld”andthatthe“poweroftypologiesisthattheseabstractionscanbeclassified
andsubjectedtorules,creatinganintrovertedarchitecturalworlduntoitself.”48There
maybesomesenseintheideathattoomuchknowledgemightbeahindranceto
somepossiblylessexperiencedarchitects,however“whatwedoknowisthatmany
45Colquhoun,Ap.1146SeeLeupen,BandMooij,HChapter2Theoriginsoftheconceptoftypeusingtheatreasanexamplep.4447ibidp.4548Till,JandWigglesworth,Sp.152
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
27
renownedarchitectshaveanin-depthknowledgeofarchitecturehistoryandare
extremelywellinformedabouttheircolleagues’work”49moreoveritisevidentthat
newtypologiesareinventedasarchitectsrespondtothechangingcontextfortheir
work.
Urbanensemble
“Housingschemesshouldneverbeginashousingschemesbutasurbandesigns.
Designsforhousingshouldbedriveninthefirstinstancebyanideaaboutthecity.We
shoulddesignstreetsandpublicspacesfirst-domesticlayoutsshouldfollow.”50
PeterBarberiswritinginsupportofthestreetbutwhetherstreet,cityblockor
isolatedtower,itisalmostimpossibletodescribeahomeoridentifyadwellingtype
withoutsimultaneouslyidentifyingtheurbanformtowhichitrelates.Residential
buildingsarethemostcommonbuildingtypeinanycity,formingtheframeworkofthe
cityanddefiningitsgrainortexture.Whethertheprevalenttypeisterracedorrow
houses,blocksorisolatedtowers,knowledgeofthe‘urbanensemble’isnecessaryto
completethepictureofthelocalityandthewaythattheinhabitantsmightoccupy
theirprivatespaceandthesurroundingneighbourhood.
However,architecturehasoftenignoredthecomplexitiesofthestructureoftheurban
environmentandparticularlyitsconstantlychangingnature.My1994discussionofthe
urbanenvironmentconsideredthelimitationsofmucharchitecturalhistoryandtheory
thatprivilegesthevisualandseesarchitectureaspartofastaticformalcomposition,
likeafineartpiece.Itconcludedthat“thestreetandtheoutsidespacesofthecityare
asimportantifnotmoresothanthebuildingstheyrelateto.Whetherinthetownor
thecountrytheroadrepresentstheultimatesharedspacesandourrighttotravelit.
Therearenoenclosures,nothreshold,nobarriertoourmovementalongit.”51Based
onthestudyofHeidegger’sphenomenology,itexploredhiswritingsonbuildingand
particularlyhisideasoftimeand‘permanances’andtheirusefulnessasawayto
understandthecomplexitiesofthecontinuallychangingurbanlandscape.49Leupen,BandMooij,Hp.4150Barber,Pp.1951French,HASenseofPlaceaSenseofFreedomReportsubmittedfortheUCLMSc1994
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
28
Thenotionofthecityas‘nonstatic’gainedpopularityfromthe1970sonwardsasa
reactiontotheprevailingideas,rootedinthevisual,picturesquetraditionstypifiedin
suchworksasGordonCullen’sTownscape(1961)andKevinLynch‘sTheImageofthe
City(1960).Atthetime,AldoRossi’sthesisTheArchitectureoftheCity(1966,Eng.
1982),presentedatimelynewapproachtotheideaofthecity,definedasthe
‘analagous’city52whichproposedanurbanmorphologybasedonculturalandsocial
considerations.Insteadofmodernism’stabularasa,heidentifieswhathenames
certain‘permanences’or‘persistences’i.e.elementsthatcontinue,coupledwitha
typologyofvernacularandneo-classicalarchitecturalform.Streetsaretheprime
exampleofpersistences.Hisclassifications,of‘inhabitedrealestate’,whichare
describedasdescriptive,geometricortopographicarethenowfamiliar
categorisations;isolatedslabs/towers,terraces,cityblocksandcourtyard
buildings.53Meaning,heposits,developsthroughuseandactivityovertime-theimage
ofthecityisnotfixed–andwillbeviewedandinterpreteddifferentlyovertime.
In1981,LionelEsherincludesinthefinalchapterofhisseminalworkABrokenWave
thestatement“weshouldceasetolayclaimtotheenvironmentasaprimarilyvisual
experience,…itisagreatdealmorethatthat;itisapprehendedbyalltheothersenses
andsomewescarcelyunderstand.Wenolongerexpectpeopletostandbacklike
touristsandgapeatourbuildings,butsimplytousethemastheyuseapubor
market.”54AsimilarideaisexpressedbyNigelCoates,inconversationwithAlicia
Pivaro,“Architectureisapublicart,asettingupofframeworkswhicharenever
absoluteinuseorinterpretation”55
Thesectionthatfollowsgivesanoverviewofhowthescanthistoryofflexiblehousing
hasbeenrepresentedinthecontextofmyworks.Myworkhasnotintendedtoinvent
newclassificationsofhousingtypologiesbuthasappliedthefamiliarlanguageofthe
52Rossi,Ap.1853ibidp.49.Hisclassificationsare:1.Ablockofhousessurroundedbyopenspace;2.Ablockofhousesconnectedtoeachotherandfacingthestreet,constitutingacontinuouswallparalleltothestreetitself;3.Adeepblockofhousesthatalmosttotallyoccupiestheavailablespace;4.Houseswithclosedcourtsandsmallinteriorstructures.54Esher,Lp.29655Coates,Np.324
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
29
interrelationshipof‘planconfiguration’andthe‘urbanensemble’inarangeofcase
studies.Ingeneralmyworkdoesnotfocusonurbantypologyalthoughthishasbeen
usedasacuratorialdevice.Itusesdrawingsofblockplansincombinationwithunit
planstosupporttheideaofthe“interdependenceandsymbiosisbetweenhouseand
city”56
56Oostenbrink,Mp.41
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
30
UnconventionalFamilies
“althoughsocialstructureshavechangedconsiderablyinthepastdecades-withthe
resultsthatthesignificanceoftheaveragenuclearfamilycontinuestodecline-the
typicalapartmentfloorplanisstillalmostexclusivelydesignedfortheneedsofjust
suchafamily…”57
Theratherobviousneedtohousemanydifferentkindsof‘families’continuestobe
largelyignoredbyvolumehousebuilders.Mostlytheyrepeatthesameidentical–
usuallytwostorey,threebedroom-housetype,preferringtomarkettheirhomesto
theidealisedversionofthe‘conventional’family–theworkingman,hiswifewho
lookedafterthehomeand,probably,twochildren.Asearlyas1937theintroduction
toTheModernFlat,whichurgedarchitectstotakemoreinterestinhousingdesign,
providedaninclusivedefinitionofthefamily“…(it)mayconsistofasingleperson,
livingeitheralone,orwithfriends,oritmayconsistofmanandwife,withorwithout
children,and/orotherdependents.”58The1944HousingManualproposedthatother
versionsofthe‘family’shouldbeaccommodatedbyprovidingdwellingsofdifferent
sizesinnewhousingestates.“Inadditiontothethreebedroomhouses,aproportionof
largerhousesforlargefamiliesandofsmallerdwellingsforoldpeople,singlepeople,
andotherswhoseneedscannotbemetbytheemergencyhouses,willusuallybe
required.59Then,onlyfiveyearslater,the1949HousingManual,takesthisonestep
furtherstatingthatthehousingshortagewouldnotbesolvedwithonly‘thenormal
familyhouses’,butsuggeststhereisaneedfor‘amuchgreatervarietyoftypesof
houses,somelarger,somesmaller……inordertomeetinabalancedwaythevarying
requirementsofthepopulationasawhole”60butleavingthedecisiononthemake-up
ofanyestatetotheLocalAuthoritywhichwasexpectedtohavebetterknowledgeof
itsneighbourhood.
57Schittich,Cp.958Yorke,FRSandGibberd,FTheModernFlat1937p.759TheHousingManual1944Para3060TheHousingManual1949Introductionp11
SECTIONTWOAdaptableHousing
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
31
Throughoutmywork,Ihaveresistedtreatinghousingdesignedforstudents,the
elderly,thementallyill,oranyotherkindsofsingletonsasaseparatesubjectandhave
includedexamplesofsuchhousingschemesalongsideotherkindsofhomes.Although
ithasbeenlargelyignoredbyvolumehousebuildersandoftennotsubjecttothesame
legislativeframeworks,andconsideredasonlytemporaryaccommodation,housingfor
singlepeople,particularlystudentsisneverthelessanincreasinglysignificantelement
inmanycities.6162
Fromtimetotime,smallerthannormal–‘microflats’ortheircurrentincarnationas
PocketLiving63supportedinLondonbyGLAfunds–arereinventedasawaytoprovide
affordablehomesforyoungpeopleunabletobuyatmarketprices.64Oftencriticised
fortheresultinghigherdensityandpressureonlocalamenitiesandparkingspaces
withmoredwellingstotheacre,theywillmorelikelysimplycontributetofurther
housepriceincreasesthroughincreasedpriceoflandandbecomenewpieds-à-terre
fortheveryrich.Butwemustaskourselvesabouttheabsolutes;canreasonable
accommodationbeprovidedinasmallerspacethantheminimumstandards?In
Japan,forexample,themuchhigherdensitiesofcitiessuchasTokyohavelong
supportedmuchsmallerdwellingsthanthoseinBritishcities.Oneofthebestknown
inmodernhistoriesistheCapsuleTower(1972)(Fig.4)designedbyKishoKurakawa
(1934-2007)whichisalsooneofthefewbuiltexamplesofthecontemporaryideas
aboutthenonstaticcityandflexibility.“Thebuildingcanbethoughtofintwoparts.
Oneisthefixedstructuraltowers…….Thesecondelement,….istheindividual‘pods’:
manufactured…..inafactoryandbroughttositetobeattachedtothesuperstructure,
theyaremorelikepiecesofequipmentthandwellings.”65InEngland,thesmallestliving
spacesarethosebuiltforstudentsandalthoughundersizedarenowgenerallyofa
61“WehaveseenextraordinarygrowthinUKstudentnumbersoverthepast20yearsandwhileUKstudentnumbersarenowstabilised,internationalstudentnumberssettorisedramaticallyinthenextdecade.Theprovisionofgoodqualitystudentaccommodationwastraditionallytheresponsibilityoftheuniversitiesbutinrecentyears,mostnewaccommodationhadbeenprovidedbyprivateinvestorsanddevelopers.”JHillmanchairofJLLAlternativeshttp://www.propertyfundsworld.com/2015/09/2262Censuscomparisons2001-2011inEnglandandWales.Inrelationtotheincreaseintheoverallpopulation,therewaslittlechangeinthenumberofone-personhouseholds.Howevertherewasatwofoldincreaseinpersonsincommunalestablishmentsandafourfoldincreaseinotherhouseholds.Thenumberofonefamilyhouseholdsreducedby50%.Seehttp://www.ons.gov.uk63https://www.pocketliving.com/homes/ebook64http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/davehillblog/2013/sep/06/boris-housing-covenant-pocket-homes65French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.142-3
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
32
highqualityandlikehotelroomsareprovidedwithen-suitebathroomsallowingthem
toeasilydoubleupasconferenceaccommodationduringthevacations.66Walter
Menteth’sschemeatHighCrossRoadinLondon(2007)(Fig.5),reinventsthetwo-
storeyterracedhouseinminiature–just47m2–toprovideaccommodationfor
mentalhealthresidents.Ononeside,thehousesmaintaintheconventionsofthe
street,ontheothertheyopenontoaprotected,shared,courtyardgarden.Peter
Barberhasalsodevisedsimilarsmallterracedhousesreferredtoas‘microhouses’
withamezzanineabovethelivingspace,basedonalmshouses,forasoontobe
completedschemeinHolmesRoad,London.67‘Efficiency’apartmentsor‘apartment
hotels’,whichvastlyreducedthespaceofanormalflat,appearedintheearly20th
centuryinNewYorkandotherbigcitiesintheUS,untiltheywereoutlawedby
changestolegislation.68InLondon,theLawnRoadFlats(Isokon)(1934),which
epitomizedtheideaofthe‘bachelorapartment’,providedprivatelivingspacewiththe
servicesofahotel,suchaslaundry,cleaningandcommunalfoodpreparation.69
ThemostextremeversionofminimallivingspacewastobeintroducedintheSoviet
Unionintheearly20thcentury.Followinglawspassedin1918tonationaliselandand
abolishprivaterealestate,anewsocialorderwastobeintroducedthatwouldrelyon
areassessmentofthefamilyandthedesignandconstructionofnewkindsofhousing.
Efficientandminimalprivatespaceswouldallowforseparatesocialspacessuchas
gyms,nurseriesandcanteens.ThebestknownistheNarkomfin(1930)(Fig.6)in
Moscow,attributedtoMoseiGinzburginhisroleasheadofthestandardisation
sectionoftheconstructioncommittee.Thebuilding,whichhasan‘F’type
‘transitional’70plan,isbestknownforitscleversplitlevelsectionanddoubleheight
spaceratherthanitsminimalapproachandiscommonlyconsideredtheforerunnerof
LeCorbusier’sUnitésection.Theideaoftheminimaldwelling–usingefficiencyto
providebasicworkershousingofhighquality-wasthefocusoftheCIAMcongressin
Frankfurtin1929andmanylessextremeversionsfollowed.Asatype,theshared66French,HKeyUrbanHousingUniversityCentreHousing,Urbino,Italy,GiancarloDeCarlo1973-83p.144andNewUrbanHousingWestfieldStudentVillage,QueenMaryCollege,London2004,FieldenCleggBradleypp.60-63,SimmonsHall,MIT,CambridgeUSA2002StevenHollpp.112-1667http://www.peterbarberarchitects.com/holmes-gardens68French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.38-3969French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.56-5970French,HLivingTogetherp.35
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
33
kitchensandotherelementsofcommunallivingarrangementsareacceptedasthe
normforstudenthousingandotherversionshaveappearedfromtimetotime.71
Sharedhousing(HMOs),whilsteminentlypracticalinmanyways,toprovidefor
singletonsoranyotherwiderdefinitionof‘family’,hasclearlypresenteda
considerablechallenge.Apartfromtheintroductionofthetwo-bedtwo-bathroom
apartmentsdevelopedforLondon’sincreasingbuy-to-letmarketinrecentyears,
housebuilderscontinuetoignoreallbuttheidealisedviewoftheconventionalfamily.
Moreover,aswellaspersistingwithaverynarrowviewofitsmake-up,housebuilders
persistintreatingthe‘family’asastaticentity.Whatever‘shape’,thefamilyneeds
changeaspeoplegrowolder.CleardirectionsinthegovernmentpublicationHomes
forTodayandTomorrow(1961),whichledtothepublicationoftheParkerMorris
minimumspacestandards,acknowledgedthata‘family’–ofwhatevermake-up-
wouldchangeovertime.“Inadditiontochangesinthesizeoffamilies,waysoflifein
thehomewillalsochangeduringthefamilycycle.”Designingflexiblehomesthat
wouldaccommodatesuchchangeswouldseemtobethelogicalnextstep.
FlexibleHousingorTightFitFunctionalism
“IntheUK,housesaresoldbynumberofroomsanddesignatedroomtypesinsteadof
overallfloorarea.Statusandthusvalueliefirstinthenumberofroomsratherthan
theirsize.Spacesaredesigneddowntotheabsolutelimitsoftheirdesignatedfunction,
oftendeterminedthroughtheirfurniturelayouts.”72
Flexibility,isaverybroadterm.Initsmostobviousliteralsenseitisappliedtotheuse
ofdynamicelements,slidingpartitions,orfoldawayfurniturethatmeanspacescanbe
immediatelyaltered.Wearefamiliarwiththemagicaltransformationmadepossible
byslidingandfoldingpartitionsinthefirstflooroftheSchröderHouse(Rietveld1924)
inUtrechtbutthisisnotthemostcommonapplication.Atitsmostbasictheterm
meansthatitispossibletorearrangethefurniture;forexamplewindows,doorsand
71SeeFrench,HLivingTogetherinImpossibleWorldstheArchitectureofPerfection,forahistoryofcommunalandcollectivelivingprojects72Schneider,TandTill,Jp.36
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
34
evenelectricsocketsarepositionedinsuchawaythatallowsthis.Attheother
extreme,atamuchlargerurbanscale,itreferstotheideaofastructural‘support’
systemthatallowsforseparate,evenindividuallydesigned,unitstobeinserted.
Somewherebetweenthetwoisanopportunityforthedesignofhousingwhichis
moreadaptable-designsthatcanaccommodatesignificantphysicalalteration
instigatedbytheresidents.Thiscanbeachievedinvariousways.Firstly,designingthe
structureandservicesinacertainwaycanmeanthattheoverallspaceofthehouse
canbeextendedexternallywithextensionsandadditions.Secondly,anapproachto
thedesignofstructureandservicesmeansthattheinternalpartitionscanbeeasily
movedsotheinteriorcanbealteredorremodelledentirely.Bothcanaccommodate
changesoveraperiodofyearsasfamilycircumstanceschange.Thirdly,layoutsthat
allowroomstobethrowntogetherorseparated,andincorporatewintergardensor
enclosedloggiasallowresidentstoaltertheirhomesmuchmorequicklyforsocial
occasions,orfromwintertosummertoaccommodatedifferentactivities.Thereisalso
growinginterestintheideaofundifferentiatedspaceorindeterminatespacethat
allowstheinhabitantstodecideontheiruse.Importantlyflexibledesignsimplythat
theresidentshavearighttoinvolvethemselvesintheprocessofdesigningtheir
environmentandthatarchitectsmustextendtheirthinkingtoimaginehowpeople
mightchoosetolivewithalternativelayoutsratherthanfixed,perfectedlayouts.
Itisdifficulttodatepreciselytheintroductionofideasofflexibilityinhousingdesign.
AccordingtoarchitecturalhistorianAdrianForty“Although……particularelementsof
flexibilityhadbeenacknowledgedinworksofarchitectureproducedearlier,asa
generalarchitecturalprinciple,thewordflexibilityenteredcurrencyaroundtheearly
1950s.”73TheearlierworkshecitesaretheShröderhouseinUtrecht(1924)andthe
MaisonduPeupleinClichy(1938)bothinhiscategoryof‘FlexibilitybyTechnical
Means’,i.e.withmovingwallsandfloors.74Alloftheversionsof‘flexibility’outlined
abovehadbeendemonstratedinhousingprojectsmuchearlier.Forexampleall
appearindifferentbuildingsintheWeissenhofmodelhousingexhibitionof1927.Mies
VanderRohe’s,prominentfour-storeyblock(Fig.7),“achievedtheideaofflexibilityin73Forty,Ap.14274Forty,A,Theother“distinctstrategiesof‘flexibility’inarchitecture”heidentifiesareRedundancyandAsaPoliticalStrategy.pp142-48
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
35
allitsvariousinterpretations.”75Ithasasimplelinearformwithstructuralelements
limitedgenerallytotheexteriorofthebuildingandjustafewcarefullypositioned
interiorcolumns.Windowsarearrangedasacontinuoushorizontalbandandthereare
regularlyplacedverticalshaftsfortheaccessstairscoupledwithductsforplumbing.
Thisarrangementisoneoftheearliestexamplesofa‘frame’structurethatallowedfor
severaldifferentpartitionconfigurationsresultinginavarietyofapartmentlayoutsof
differentsizes.Atalaterdate,thewholeoftheinteriorcouldbedemolishedand
redesignedwithadifferentconfigurationwhilstleavingthebuildingintact.Someof
Mies’interiorlayoutsalsoincorporatedslidingpartitionsthatallowedforchangeover
amuchshortertime,anideaseeninearlierAmericanefficiencyapartmentsand
centraltothedesignofAndreLurçat’srowofterracedhouses(Fig.8),attheVienna
Werkbund(1932).76Lurçat’shouseslookedattheuseofspaceover24hoursand
proposedfoldingbedsthatcouldbehiddenawayduringthedayallowingthespaceto
beusedforotherpurposes.Thehousesalsoincorporatedanewkindofindeterminate
space–labeleda‘breezeway’-akindofbufferzonebetweenthepublicdomainand
theprivatespaceofthehomeandaterraceatrooflevelthatallowedthepossibilityof
extension.
Despiteinterestinthemodernistideasshownattheseexhibitions,thereislittle
evidencetoshowanyimpactinhousingpracticeortheoryuntilthe1960swhenthe
Dutcharchitect,JohnHabraken(1928-),directorofSAR(NetherlandsFoundationfor
ArchitectsResearch)from1965to1975publishedwhatisnowconsideredtobethe
keyworkinthefieldofflexiblehousingentitledSupports,anAlternativetoMass
Housing(1962).77Onreflectionwecanseetheideascontainedinhisworkrealisedin
otherprojectsofthattime;buildingsthatimpliedaflexibilitythroughaclear
differentiationbetweeninfrastructureandinfillsuchasPianoandRogers’sPompidou
Centre(1977)inParis,orCedricPrice’sInteractionCentre(1973)inLondon.Ina
lecturegivenbyHabrakenonthepublicationofhisbookinEnglishin1972,hestated
75French,HKeyUrbanHousingp.48andNewUrbanHousingp.1476French,HKeyUrbanHousingp62-63andNewUrbanHousingp.1577Aformalresearchnetworkwasestablishedin1996‘TheOpenBuildingNetwork’reflectingcurrentinternationalinterestinbuildingontheworkofHabraken’sSupportsalthoughoftenusingothertermssuchas‘FreePlan’,‘skeletoninfill’,or‘rawspace’housing.http://www.open-building.org/archives/Reflections_on_the_History_and_Future_of_Open%20Building_and_the_OB_Network.pdf
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
36
that,thearchitectis‘theonepersonwhotriestobridgethegapbetweenhumanneeds
andtechnicalpossibilities.Heistrainedtothinkinthesetwoworlds,andhetriesvery
hardtodoso.”78
Habrakennotedthefrustrationamongarchitectsthattheywereunabletooperate
adequatelyinthese‘twoworlds’,constrainedbybureaucracyorindustry.Heisvery
clearthatsettingupSAR,withagroupof10otherarchitecturalpractices,to
investigatethepossibilityofmakinganimpactonthehousingprocess,would
necessarilyinvolvedefininganewroleforthearchitect.ThearchitectandwriterJohn
Worthingtonreinforcestheideathatitistheprocesswhichismoreimportantto
Habraken’sthesisratherthananyresultantdesignedprojects,stating,inhis1973
review,that“itoverstatesitscase,lacksdetailtogiveitcredibilityanddoesnot….do
Habraken’sideasjustice….”79Heclaimsthatthereisampleprecedentfortheideaof
thesupportorinfrastructuresandusesexamples,bothbuiltandunbuilt,ofemergency
housinginKowloon(1957)andArchigram’sPlug-inCity(1964).Worthingtonstresses
thattheimportanceofHabraken’sthesisisthealternativewaytoviewthehousing
processandtheroleofthearchitect;i.e.thatthe‘support’canbedesignedand
producedentirelyseparatelyfromtheinfillorfittingoutwhichcanbeleftforothersto
carryout–eventheendusers,theresidentsthemselves.
AsWorthingtonpointedout,ideasofflexibility–thatimpliedchangethroughthe
separationofstructureandinfillparticularly-werecurrentinarchitecturalthinkingin
the1970s.Ideasofflexibilityinhousing,championedbyearlymodernists,wereseen
bysometoofferanidealsolution.In1973,amajorjournalarticleinsupportof
flexibilityoradaptability80reviewedcurrentadaptablehousingprojectsacrossEurope
inthecontextofanhistoricaloverview.Itsummarisedtheprevailingconditionsinthe
decadessincethewar;thehousingbriefhadgrownbutspacehadnot.Leisuretime
hadincreasedandalreadysmallhomeshadmoretoolsandappliancesforlaundry,
gardening,maintenanceorcarrepairs,butnospaceforthem,withtheresultthat“the
78Habraken,JRIBAJNov1972p.47179Worthington,JAJMay197380Rabaneck,AAD1973p.698
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
37
homehasbecomeacrossbetweenamotelroomandastoragebinfortheclutterof
the(oftenclashing)life-stylesithastocontain”81
Thearticlegoesontostatethatachangeintheprocessisrequired.Minimumspace
standardsandtheanthropometricstudies,suchasthoseinSpaceintheHome(Fig.9)
onlyservedtofocusarchitects’ingenuityto‘miniaturise’andperfecttheirplansto
satisfyeach‘need’identifiedresultinginwhatwasthentermeda‘tightfit
functionalism’.Theconclusionisthatitisnotonlynecessarytoprovidemorespaceto
bettersuitcontemporarylifestyles,butitisnecessarytoprovideadaptablespacethat
allowsuserssomedegreeofcontroloverhowtheyoccupytheirownhome.
HousingandConsumers
“Thedesignsgenerallyhavefewerelementsthatcanbepersonalised,showless
opportunityforchange–fewersurfaceswhichcanberepainted;fewerformswhich
canbemodified;fewerpartswhichcanbechanged–thanintheaveragespec-built
house...Oftentherearenosparebedroomsforvisitors,andwheretheyexisttheyare
notlargeenoughforotheractivities.”82
Theperiodoflarge-scaleexpansioninpublichousingduringthe1950sand1960shad
resultedinincreasingcriticismofmonotonyandlackofcharacter,offeringpoorquality
andlittlemeansofself-expressionfortheresidents.Masshousingschemeshad,it
seems,reducedtheinhabitantstoanonymousconsumersandLocalAuthoritiesfelta
growingneedtoinvolvethemsomehowinthedesignprocess,toencourageamore
positiveresponse.Surveyswerefashionableandcommunityarchitecturegroupswere
setupbutfewhadmuchimpactondesignordevelopmentplans.Thebestknown
experimentwithuserparticipationistheBykerWallschemestartedin1968,in
Newcastle-upon-TynebyRalphErskine(1914-2005).Theschemereliedonaparticular
setofcircumstancesrehousingexistingtenantsonthesamesite“thearchitect’s‘open
doorpolicy’,their‘planofintent’ratherthanamoreintimidatingoralienatingmaster
81ibid.82Rapoport,ARIBAJJuly1968quotedinPawley,Mp.96
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
38
plan,andtheirexhaustiveconsultationmadethisamodelof‘community
architecture.”83Despiteprojectslikethis,andtherehavebeenrelativelyfew,
informationabouthowpeoplewouldchoosetoinhabittheirhomesisstilllargely
unknown.WalterSegal84pioneeredselfbuildusingamodulartimberframemethod
thatencouragedcollaborationandhigh-densitysuburbanhousingprojectsbuiltby
Span85includedcommunalparkinglotsandlegallyconstitutedresidentsassociations
givingoccupantscontroloftheestates.Otherthanafewsuchprojects,housing
architects,likevolumehousebuilders,havenotgenerallydevelopedanycloser
relationshipwithconsumers.
Manyarchitectsarestillresistanttotheideathatotherscouldofferanythingtotheart
ofhousing,preferringtorelyonprofessionalexpertise.Indeed,NeaveBrown(1929-),
renownedCamdenCouncilhousingarchitectforthewellknownAlexandraRoad
(1968-78)schemeamongstothers,inarecentlectureattheRIBA86statedthathestill
believedthatitwasthearchitect’sjob–asanexpert-toproposewhattheythinkis
thebestwayforward,nottorespondtosurveys,nortotrytointerpretclients’ideas
aboutwhattheythinktheywant.
WhetherweagreeornotwithBrown’sposition,havingmoreinformationabout
changingpatternsofoccupationcouldcontributetoimprovementindesignquality.
Researchinthefieldofhowpeopleliveishardtofind;thedifficultyingainingaccess
toprivatedwellings,andthepossibilityofcarryingoutsuchworkwithasufficiently
sizedsampleincomparablehomesdetersresearchers.Fewarchitectshavechanged
theirapproachastheresultofsuchresearchordiscoveries.NotablyGiancarloDe
Carloadmittedhisownfailings,havingfollowedmodernism’slogicalprinciplesinone83French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.174-17584“ThenameofthelateWalterSegalisnowsynonymouswithselfbuildhousing.Wheneverpeoplemeettodiscusswhattheycoulddotohousethemselves,someonementionstheSegalsystemofquickly-built,timber-frameddwellingswhichareenvironmentallyfriendly,andseemtogeneratefriendshipamongtheselfbuildgroupsthathavesucceededinhousingthemselvesthisway.TheSegalapproachwasessentiallythatofthemedievalEnglishhouse,ortheAmericanframe-house,ortheJapanesehouse,butwiththetimberframecalculatedandbasedonmodulardimensionstoavoidwasteandtofacilitatealterationsandenlargements.Hesoughttoeliminateorreducethe‘wettrades’ofconcreting,bricklayingandplastering,byreducingthesheerweightofthebuildingandbyusingcladding,insulatingandliningmaterialsintheirstandardsizes.”http://www.segalselfbuild.co.uk85SeeTheSpiritofSpanHousing,JamesStrike,2005.Spanbuiltthirtyhousingestatesbetween1948and1984.Chap6p57“ItwasalwaystheintentionofSpanthattheresidentsshouldtakeanactiveinterestinthemanagementoftheestates,bothsociallyandinlookingafterthebuildingsandgrounds”86Brown,NRIBA22March2016https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HX-uyfC2N0s
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
39
ofhishousingprojectsinanarticleinCasabellain1954.87Walkingpastthebuildinghe
observedthattheresidentswereusingtheirprivate,quiet,sunnybalconiesthat
affordedthemviewsacrosstheadjacentlandscapetohangtheirlaundryandinstead
weresittingoutonthenorthfacingaccessbalconies.Importantlyforthem,butnot
consideredbythearchitect,fromtheretheycouldseethestreetandengagewith
theirneighbours.PhillippeBoudon’sbookLivedinArchitecturethatrecordsthe
adaptationsmadetoLeCorbusier’s1925housingschemeinPessac,Bordeaux,
remainstheonlypublicationofitskind.Aphotographicsurveyshowsmajor
alterationstothebuildings–stripwindowsreplacedwithstandardcasements,roof
terracesenclosed,storagespaceinfilled-andinterviewswiththeresidentssetout
considerabledetailoftheirunderstandingofthearchitecturalideasandtheirown
interpretations.88ItwasnotLeCorbusier’sstatedintentionthatthesehousesshould
beadaptablebutitisinterestingtonotethattheoriginalplansshowlargely
indeterminatespacesandanopenstaircasesomewhatincontradictiontootherplans
ofthetimewhenhewasadvocatingtightfunctionalplanning.
IncontrastwithBoudon’swork,andtheveryobviouswaysinwhichoccupantshave
alteredthearchitectureexternallyandthefabricofthebuildings,thesurveycarried
outforourPatternsofLivingprojectinHongKong,focusedentirelyonthedomestic
interiorandthewaysinwhichfamilieshaveorganisedaseriesofidenticalflats.89From
theexterior,apartfromtheirquantityandproximity,thetowerblocksofHongKong
areindistinguishablefromtowerblocksanywhereelse.Theyappearinrowsordense
clusters,rarelyasisolatedindependentbuildings.Onceinside,however,theyarevery
different.Spacestandardsareverysmall90andfortheresidents,organisingtheir
internallayoutthemselvesinanindeterminatespaceisthenorm,eveninpublicsector
rentalflats.Since1954,whenitwasfirstestablished,theHKHA,underthedirectionof87SeeFrench,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.94-5fordiscussionandreferences88Boudon,Ppp.30-3289OursurveyoftheinteriorsofdwellingsinHongKonghigh-risebuildingsborrowsfromethnographicresearchmethods.Theinformationwasgatheredbydesignstudentsintheirfirstyearofstudy,whowereaskedtofocusonthearchitectureandinterioroftheirownhome,andthentheirneigbours’andfriends’.Thereareclearlylimitationstotheobjectivityofanysuchstudybutwhilstthestudentscouldnotbeconsideredknowledgeableinformantsinarchitecturalterms,theycanallbeseentobelongtoonegroup,asallapartfromone,werestilllivinginthefamilyhome.Almostallreturnedwithdrawingsandphotographsofstandardpublichousingtypes,generallythosedesignedandbuiltbytheHongKongHousingAuthority.90Thestandard‘Harmony’typeinproductionsince1982.3Bed5Personflatis52.5m2,2Bed4Person43.5m2
SourceHKHA.TheNewNationallyDescribedSpaceStandardsare86m2and70m2respectively
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
40
Britisharchitects,hasdevelopedasophisticatedhigh-density,high-risehousingstock
basedonthesamemodernistprinciplesemployedinEngland.Theveryearliestflats,
theKowloonemergencyhousingblocks,providedtheverybareminimumofasingle
roomforrefugeefamilies.Morerecentflatshaveakitchen,washroomandabalcony
orloggia(Fig.10),animprovementonthesharedfacilitiesoftheoriginalemergency
housingbutthemainhabitablespaceisoftenstilljustonesingleroom–an
indeterminatespace.
IndeterminateandMonofunctionalspaces
“…thespecificationofstandardsofspacebyreferencetoindividualroomswithspecific
labels–bedrooms,workinganddiningkitchens,andsoon–tendstoassumea
conventionalarrangementofthedwellingandtheparticularwayinwhichagiven
roomwillbeused.Thisinhibitsflexibility……”91
Indeterminatespace,sometimesreferredtoas‘rawspace’or‘freeplan’,isspacethat
canbeusedforanypurpose.AschemeinLeipzig(2000)(Fig.11)byHentrich
Petschnigg&Partners92hassimilarintenttotheHKflattype.Theonlyfixedelements
intheplansaretheentranceandthebathrooms;therearenointernalstructural
elementsandthemodularfaçadecanallowforavarietyofpartitionpositions.Evena
singleunlabelledroomwouldbeunusualinBritishhousingprojectsalthoughsome
urbanresidentialprojectshavesuccessfullydevelopedaversionoftheindeterminate
space,referredtoinestateagentjargonas‘lofts’,anAmericantermfortheEnglish
warehouse.Thetypedatesfromthe1960sand70s,whenabandoned19thcentury
warehousesthatwerepricedoutofmanycitycentresbecameavailableasresidential
spaces.Withlowceilings,deepplansandverylittledaylightfromadistantstreet
façade,partitioningwasnotaviableoptionandtheyresultedinsingleopenplan
spaces.TheYerbaBuenaLofts(2002)(Fig.12)inSanFranciscoisatypicalexampleofa
“…loft,orwarehouse,design-lowfloortoceilingheight,deepplanandaclose
structuralgrid.Tomakethebuildinghabitablehowevereveryunitincludesdouble
91HomesforTodayandTomorrowpara.12p.492French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.71-75
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
41
heightlivingspaces.”93Amoreunusualexperimentinindeterminatespaceisthepair
ofEstradenhaus(1998and2001)(Fig.13)inBerlin,“Insteadofaconventionallayoutof
aseriesofroomswithdesignatedpurpose,twounusualspatialdevices-podiumsat
eachendandmoveablescreensalongthelength-areintroducedthatinviteoccupants
toengagewiththespaceontheirownterms.Theycandivideitindifferentways,over
timetosuitchangingfamilyneeds,orintheshorttermforaparticularevent.”94Other
architectshaveexploitedthe‘loft’type,generallyofferinglargerthanusualopenplan
livingspaces.ExamplesincludeNemausus(1988)inNimesbyJeanNouvel95andthe
MondrianApartments(2002)inSydneybyStanisicAssociates.96
Themostcommonapproachtoflexibilityistoincludescopeforsomeeasily
manageablevariationwithintheconstraintsofamoreconventionalplan.Leon
WohlhageWernik’sSchlesischestrasse(1994)(Fig.14)schemeinBerlin“attemptsto
avoidthelimitationsofminimumspacestandardsbydesigningflexibleinternal
layouts.Thereislittledifferentiationinroomsizeandtype,and,typically,widesliding
doorsmeanthatroomscaninterconnect,allowingtheoccupantssomechoicebetween
amoreconventionalseparationofspacesandamoreopen-planlayout.”97Similarly
WalterMenteth’sConsortRoadinLondon(2007)(Fig.15)allowsresidentssomechoice
ofuseofrooms“Onthefirstfloor,eitherofthetwoequalsizedrooms….canbeusedas
asecondlivingroomormightforexamplebeaplayroomorstudy”and“…widesliding
doorsbetweenthelivingroomandbedroommeansthatthespacescanbethrown
togetherorseparated.Wintergardensonthestreetsideoffertheoptiontobeleft
openorclosedoff.98AtFredensborg,inDenmark,anexampleofJornUtzon’s
courtyardhousing(Fig.16)hasanexternalversionofamultipurposespaceinthe
centreofthehouse.Conceivedasthefocusfortheeverydayactivities“Itisdesigned
asaneutralspacethatcanbeoccupiedinavarietyofwaystosuittheinhabitants.
93French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.216-1794French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.100-10395French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.178-7996French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.80-8597French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.200-20198ibidpp.226-27
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
42
Withoutchangingthebasicnatureofthehouses,thecourtyardcanbeusedasdining
room,workshop,gardenorplaygroundforchildren.”99
Encouragingextensionoradditionaspartofthedesignisakeypartoftwosimilar
contemporaryschemes,SoldPedroPrado(2003),inChilebyElemental,andtheDonny
BrookQuarter(2002)(Fig.17)inLondonbyPeterBarber,100thewinningdesignforthe
AFcompetitionAccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousing.Theterracedhouses
arearrangedinsuchawaywithexternalpatiosandterracesthatinvitetheresidents’
intervention.Whetherthesecondhalfofthehouse(partofthefundingstrategyin
Chiletoreducecostsbybuildingonehalfonly)orthelean-toshedorconservatoryin
Londonbothprovideasupportingratherthanaconstrainingstructure.InAlvaroSiza’s,
QuintadaMalagueira(1977)(Fig.18)housing,almostcertainlyaninspirationforboth
schemes,“flexibilityisanintentionofthescheme.Theconstructionoftheunitswith
thedifferentoptionsavailable,meansthattheycanbeextendedatalaterdate.”101
Similarly,LeonWohlhageWernik’sSouthBiesdorfhousingscheme(1999)(Fig.19)in
Berlin,whilstlargelyconventionalintermsofitsplantypeprovideseitheraroof
terrace“intendedtoprovideforthepotentialforlaterexpansion,oranadditional
externallyaccessiblespaceforalodgerornanny.”102
Apartfromthelongertermremodelingopportunitiesforbuildingowners,flexibilityin
theinteriorspacesofanapartmentallowstheinhabitantsadegreeofindependence
toorganizetheirfurnitureandbelongingsandarrangetheirlivingspacetosuit
themselves,ameansofself-expression.Formanyarchitectsitisclearthataflexible
designapproachfortheindividualdwellingisconsideredareasonableaim.Forsome,
attentiontotheexterioroftheblockisseenasequallyimportantbecauseofthesense
ofidentityitestablishes.TheDutcharchitecturalpracticeMVRDVareattheforefront
ofrecentthinkingthatsetsouttoavoidthemonotonyfrequentlyfoundinlarge
housingschemesbysettingouttomakeindividuallyidentifiableelementspartofthe
99ibidpp.130-31100French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.94-95,AC101French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.156-57102French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.30-33
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
43
architecturalwhole.Theapparent‘patchwork’façadeofSilodam103(2002)(Fig.20)in
AmsterdamisrepeatedintheMirador104(2004)inMadridreflectingtheideaof
separatelyrecognisable‘minineighbourhoods’groupedintoone‘superblock’.
Forotherarchitects,theunityoftheblockasasingularelementintheurbanfabric
takesprecedence.Twoschemesshowhowflexibilitycanbeprovided,through
externalbalconiesthatextendtheinteriorspace–butbehindascreenedfaçade,
thereforemaintainingtheoverallcoherenceoftheblockfromtheexterior.Theinfill
schemeonRuedesSuisses,Paris(2000)(Fig.21),byHerzog&deMeuronhasa
uniformshutteredfaçade;“Shuttersonthefaçadeofthecentreblock…meanit,too,is
notstaticbutchangestosuittheresidents’needforshadingordesireforprivacy.
Directlybehindtheshutterseachapartmenthasanarrowbalconyalongitsentire
length,accessiblefromeachoftherooms…”105FOAhavetakenasimilarapproachto
theirCarabanchelschemeinMadrid(2007).Additionalexternalbalconyspaceonboth
sidescanbeusedwiththeindoorspace“Therelativelynarrow,tubelikespaceofeach
apartmentis…freeofanystructuralelements.Thewidthofthebuildingisextendedat
bothendsbyterraces...enclosedwithslidingandfoldingscreens….Thescreensprovide
shadingfromthestrongsunlight,andresidentscanopenthemupindifferent
configurationsinordertousetheterracesaspartoftheinsidespaceoftheflats.”106
Finally
“Thepublichavearighttoexpectthateventhemostdistinguishedarchitectsshould
givetheirbestattention,forthegeneralgood,toaquestion(housing)ofsomuch
socialimportance.”107
Itisclearthatsincetheearliesthousinglegislationthatfocusedondesignquality
ratherthanconstructionissues,littleimprovementhasbeenmadeintermsofspace
103French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.202-203104ibidpp.222-25105ibidpp.210-11106ibidpp.228-29107FromRobertKerr,Ontheproblemofprovidingdwellingsforthepoorintown,inRIBATransactionsseries1,volumeandxvii1866pp.39-56quotedinFrench,HNewUrbanHousingp.9
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
44
standards.108Thelowdensity,gardencityprinciplesadvocatedbyRaymondUnwinand
setoutintheTudorWaltersreportof1918wereeagerlyadoptedbyvolume
housebuildersyettherecommendationsfordifferentsizedhouses,variationsinlayout
andforflexibilitywerelargelyignored.Recommendationsforaccommodating
changingfamiliesorflexibledwellingsofanykindcontinuetobelargelyignored
althoughtheresultofanyrequirementforflexibilitywouldalmostcertainlybebigger
spaces.Recentchangesinestateagentlistingstoincludefloorplansand
measurementsmightcontributetoabetter-informedconsumerbutoverallsizehas
notyetenteredintocommonparlance.Westillhankeraftertheadditionalrooms
beyondthebasicsthatimplystatusandvalue.Inhisessay,TheMobileHomeonthe
Range,JohnBrinkerhoffJacksonwritinginthecontextofAmericanlandscape,posits
thatthemonofunctionalspaceisrelatedtoclasswithitsrootsinthe19thcentury
whenhousesfortherichsoughttoprovidededicatedspacesforeverykindofactivity,
separatedfromtheservantswithcorridors.Heseesthecontinuationofthis
phenomenon,with‘mediaandentertainmentcentres,hobbyrooms,exerciserooms
andsuper-bathrooms.’109Andconcludingthatdefiningspacewhetherinsideoroutside
bycontentorfunctionisanunnecessaryimposition.“Theonlysignificanceisthatthe
workingclasshomehasbeenlargelyimmunetotheappealofthemonofunctional
spaces.Thehousemaywellcontainmanyrooms,butmostofthemserveseveraluses,
useswhichcanchangefromhourtohourordaytoday.Thegarageservesasastorage
room,thenbecomesaworkshop.Thekitcheniswherewewatchtelevisionandcook
andeat;thediningroom-ifthereisone-isforhomework.Theout-of-workbrother-in-
lawsleepsonthelivingroomcouch,andthemeninthefamilytuneupthesecond-
handcaronthepatchoflawn.Thesearestrictlytemporaryexpedients.Alloralmost
all,spacesinthehousecanbesharedandusedinavarietyofways.”110
108SeeAppendix1forchronologyoflegislation,reportsandrecommendationsonstandardsinhousing109Jackson,JBp.65110ibid.p65
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
45
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Governmentmanuals,reports,pamphlets,internetsourcedregulatoryframeworks,
recommendationsandreferencetorelevantlegislationarelistedinAppendix2
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
46
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DesignManualHatjeCantz,Ostfildern,2012
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Cambridge1972
Cook,PeterDrawing:TheMotiveForceofArchitecture,ADPrimer,Wiley,Chichester
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Cullen,GordonTheconciseTownscape,ThearchitecturalPress,London1968
Esher,Lionel,ABrokenWave:TheRebuildingofEngland1940-1980AllenLane,
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Forty,Adrian,WordsandBuildingsAVocabularyofModernArchitecture,Thames&
Hudson,London,2004
Friedman,Avi,TheAdaptableHouse:DesigningHomesforChangeMcGraw-Hill,New
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Groák,Stephen,TheIdeaofBuildingE&FNSponLondon1992
Habraken,JohnSupports:analternativetomasshousing,ArchitecturalPress,London
1972
Kloos,MaartenandWendt,Dave(Eds)FormatsforLivingContemporaryfloorplansin
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Leupen,BernardandMooij,HaraldHousingDesignAManual,NAiPublishers,
Rotterdam,2011
Lynch,KevinTheImageoftheCity,TheMITPress,CambridgeandLondon1960
Muthesius,StefanTheEnglishTerracedHouseYaleUniversityPress,Newhavenand
London1982
Pawley,MartinArchitectureversusHousing,StudioVista,London1971
RossiAldoTheArchitectureoftheCityTheMITPress,CambridgeandLondon1982
Schneider,FriederikeEd.FloorPlanManual:Housing,Birkhauser,Basel2004
Schneider,TatjanaandTill,JeremyFlexibleHousing,Elsevier,Oxford2007
Sherwood,RogerModernHousingPrototypesHarvardUniversityPress,Cambridgeand
London1978
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Siza,ÁlvaroArchitectureWritings,(WritingsonArchitecture)Skira,Milan1997
Strike,JamesTheSpiritofSpanHousing,Strikeprint,London2005
Yorke,F.R.S.andGibberd,FrederickTheModernFlatTheArchitecturalPress,London
1937SecondEdition1948
Yorke,F.R.S.andGibberd,FrederickModernFlatsTheArchitecturalPress,London
1958
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Barber,PeterTheStreetathttp://www.peterbarberarchitects.com/the-street/
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Coates,NigelBriefEncounters:aconversationwithAliciaPivaroinBorden,Ian,Kerr
JoeandRendell,JanewithPivaro,AliciaEds,TheUnknownCityContesting
ArchitectureandSocialSpaceMITPress,CambridgeandLondon2001pp.315-328
Evans,RobinTranslationsfromDrawingtoBuildinginEvans,RobinTranslationsfrom
DrawingtoBuildingandOtherEssays,AAPublications,London,1997
Eisenman,Peter,TheHousesofMemory:TheTextsofAnalogyinRossi,AldoThe
ArchitectureoftheCityTheMITPress,CambridgeandLondon1982
Jackson,JohnBrinckerhoff,TheMobileHomeontheRangeinJackson,John
BrinckerhoffASenseofPlaceaSenseofTime,YaleUniversityPress,Newhavenand
London,1994pp.53-67
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andWendt,DaveEdsFormatsforLiving,ARCAM/Architectura&NaturaPress,
Amsterdam,2001,
Powers,AlanTheArchitecturalBookinRattenbury,KesterEd.,thisisnotarchitecture
MediaConstructions,Routledge,LondonandNewYork2002pp.157-173
Schittich,ChristianTheChallengeofHigh-DensityHousinginSchittich,ChristianEd.,In
DetailHigh-DensityHousing:ConceptsPlanningConstruction,Birkhauser,Basel
2004pp.9-11
Smithson,AlisonandPeterSignsofOccupancy1970inSmithson,AlisonandPeter
ChangingtheArtofInhabitationArtemis,London,1994
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
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Till,JeremyandWigglesworth,SarahTheBackgroundTypeinAccommodatingChange:
InnovationinHousing,Circle33andtheAF,London2002pp.151-157
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Colquhoun,Alan,TypologyandDesignMethodArenaJune1967pp.11-14
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pp.77-89
Habraken,N.J.InvolvingpeopleinthehousingprocessRIBAJNov1972pp.469-479
Rabeneck,Andrew,Sheppard,DavidandTown,PeterHousingflexibility?ADVol.43
No.11November1973pp.698-727
Rabeneck,Andrew,Sheppard,DavidandTown,PeterHousingflexibility/adaptability?
ADFebruary1974pp.76-90
Rapoport,AmosThePersonalelementinHousing;anargumentforopen-endeddesign
RIBAJournal,July1968(QuotedinArchitectureversusHousing)
Worthington,JohnanalternativeinterpretationTheArchitects’Journal9May1973
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AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
49
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AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
50
Appendix1 Chronologyofregulatoryframework
Thefollowingisachronologyofregulations,legislation,reportsand
explanatoryandadvisoryinformationrelatedtohousingwithbriefnotesonkey
content.
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
51
DATE ACTS,REPORTS,ETC. NOTES
1774 TheLondonBuildingAct Focusedonthequalityofbuildingconstruction1841 TheMetropolitanAssociationfor
ImprovingtheConditionsoftheIndustriousClasses
FoundedinSpitalfields,London
1842 TheChadwickReportonThesanitaryconditionsofthelabouringpopulationofGreatBritain
Toimproveconditionsinslums
1844 TheShaftsburySociety ResponsiblewithHenryRobertsforthemodeldwellingsbuiltforthe1851Exhibition.
1846 TheappointmentofthefirstmedicalOfficerofHealth(WilliamHenryDuncaninLiverpool)
FirstinLondonJohnSimon,in1848
1855 NuisancesRemovalandDiseasesPrevention(ConsolidationAct)
Powerofentrytoascertaincourseofdrains
1862 ThePeabodyTrust Suchsocietieswereaimedatencouraginginvestorstobuildhousingforrent
1866 SanitaryAct LocalAuthoritiestoberesponsiblefordrains,waterandstreetcleaning.Housestobeconnectedtosewers.
1868 TheTorrensAct Toensurethatlandlordsassumeresponsibilityforkeepingpropertiesinastatefitforhumanhabitation
1875 TheHousingAct(Artisans'DwellingAct)
CompulsorypurchaserightsforLocalAuthoritiesinlargertowns
1875 ThePublicHealthAct LocalAuthoritiesempoweredtoinspectprivatelyownedpropertiesandtocondemnthoseconsideredunfit
1875 ThePublicHealthActSection157 LocalAuthoritiesempoweredtomakeby-lawsforlayoutofstreets.
1877 IntroductionoffirstsetofModelByeLaws(Government)
Leadstowhatbecameknownas'by-lawhousing'1880-1914generallyforrentbuiltbyprivatedevelopers(650-850sqft/60-80m2)
Bythisstagelegislationhasgonebeyondthebasicstoensureadequatestructuralandsanitarymeasuresandbeginstofocusontypesofhousesandstreetlayouts.1888 LondonCountyCouncil(LCC)was
formedTenementblockbuildingbegins(familiarinScotlandandFrancebutnewtoEngland)
1890 HousingoftheWorkingClassesAct.
LocalAuthoritiesempoweredtopurchaselandanddevelophousing
1895 BoundaryStreetEstate,BethnalGreen,London
Acknowledgedasfirstofakind-toplanthewholeareanotjusttheindividualbuildings.
1890 Employeemodelvillages Examples:Cadbury'sBournville,1893-1900,Rowntree'sNewEarswick1902-04,Lever'sPortSunlight1888-1914.(FollowingthepublicationofPoverty:AstudyofTownLifebySeebohmRowntree1901)
1898 TheGardenCityAssociation. Lowdensities12-30dwellingsperacre.1902 LetchworthGardenCity ThefirstGardenCityBasedonverylowdensitiesof12
dwellingsperacre(See1903and1907CheapCottagesExhibitions)
1903 LCCSuburbanEstateTotterdownFields,Tooting,London
31dwellingsperacreintwostoreyterracedhouseswithgardens
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
52
Healthandwelfarearestillthekeyissuesinmovestoimprovethequalityofhousing1915 RentRestrictionsAct Topostponetheinevitablehardshipandshortagescaused
by“creditrestrictions,shortageofmaterialsandthegrowingdemandsoftotalwarbroughthousebuildingtoastandstill”Pawley,Martinp.21
1918 TheTudorWaltersReportReportoftheCommitteeonQuestionsofBuildingConstructioninconnectionwiththeprovisionsofdwellingsfortheworkingclasses.
Marksashiftinfocus-specificallyonhousingstandards.Keypointsare:Targetlifeof60years.Widefrontedsemi-detachedhouses.Lowdensity-12housesperacreintownand8inthecountryMinimumareas:885sq.ft/82.2m2forthree-bedroom,(non-parlour)1,055sq.ft/98m2(withparlour).
1919 FirstMinistryofHealth Responsibleforhousinglegislationuntil1951(MinistryofHousingandLocalGovernmentsetup)
1919 TheAddisonAct GovernmentfinancialsupportforLocalAuthoritycostsbeyondacertainlevelforeveryhouseerected
1927 HousingManual(andreprinted1934)
Onthedesignconstructionandrepairofdwellings
1929 CIAMdiscusstheexistenzminimum
LeCorbusier’sandGinzburgsminimumspacesAnarchitecturalinterestinthefunctionalorrationaldwelling.
Theindividualdwellingsizeandspacestandardsarenowconsideredalongsidemeasurementofdensityinnumbersofdwellingsperacre1944 TheDudleyReportandHousing
ManualMinistryofHealth,MinistryofWorks,HMSO,London1944
Flatsareincludedforthefirsttime.Density-24dwellingsperacre.Threestoreyhousesareproposedtoincreasedensityintowns.Houseswithscullery,livingroomandparlourarereplacedbyhouseswithkitchenandliving/diningrooms.Minimumareasincreasedto900-950sq.ft/83-88m2foratypicalthree-bedroomhouse.Refersto"thehousewifeorconsumer'sview"
1944 TheAbercrombieGreaterLondonPlan
Generallyinfavourofdecentralisation
1946 NewTownsAct DevelopmentCorporationsaresetup1949 HousingManual
MinistryofHealth,HMSO,London1949
Questionsuniformlow-density.ProposesterracedhousingandblocksofmaisonettesinfavouroftheTudorWalterssemi-detachedmodel.The'Radburn'effectisevidentinrecommendationsforseparationofpedestrianandvehiculartraffic.
1951 MinistryofHousingandLocalGovernment(MHLG)established.
TypicalhouseplansareissuedtoLocalAuthorities.Forlowdensity,estates-18-25'/5.5-7.6mfrontages.Heavilycriticisedfor:lackofstoragespace;lackofasecondWCinlargehomes;reductioninspaceofaprox.50sqft./4.6m2perhouse
1952 HaroldMcMillan'speopleshouses(MHLG)
Familyflatsatfirstfloorlevelrecommendedaswellasterracedhouseswithnarrower-16footfrontages
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
53
1953 Houses1953(MHLG)supplementtothePeoplesHouses
"chiefcontributiontowardsfurthereconomiesistheraisingofdensities”Lloyd,atShelter,pointedoutthatMacmillan’sachievement(300,000housesin1953)wasnotwithoutitsdrawbacks:“Theslightflyintheointmentisthatnotallofthemwerethebesthouses.Someofthemostshockingtower-blockmonstrositieswerebuiltinthatera.”Macmillansacrificedqualitytoquantity.HishousesweresmallerthanthosebuiltbyNyeBevan,whoduringmostofthepost-warLabourgovernmenthadbeenresponsibleforbothhealthandhousing.Macmillanwasmuchmoreanxioustobeseenasprogressivethantoworryabouttheaestheticsofwhathewasdoing.http://www.conservativehome.com/thetorydiary/2013/10/how-macmillan-built-300000-houses-a-year.htmlAccessed14.05.2016
1958 FlatsandHouses1958(MHLG) Increaseddensitiesonurbansitestoupto160habitableroomsperacre
1961 HomesforTodayandTomorrowtheParkerMorrisreportDoEHMSO,1961
Intendedasarecommendationforbothprivateandpublichousing.Itdefinedactivitiesorfunctionsratherthanroomareas.Fiveperson,twostoreyterracedhouse910sq.ft/84.5m2(+50sq.ft/4.6m2storage)Fourpersonversion800sq.ft/74m2(+50sq.ft/4.6m2storage)
1967 ParkerMorrisstandardsmademandatoryforNewTownsandallLocalAuthorityhousing
Minimumspacestandardswereveryquicklytobecomemaximum.
1968 DesignBulletin6–SpaceintheHomeDoEHMSOLondon1968(MetricEditionreprinted1974)
Thefollowuptothereportwhichincludesillustrationsandexamplesoftypicalarrangements.
1969 HousingAct LocalAuthoritiesandHousingAssociationscanusecapitalgrantsforpurchasinghousingstockanditsrehabilitationfora30yearlife.
1973 VATreplacespurchasetax Allconstructionandalterationworkiszerorated.
1974 HousingAct Improvedonthe1969Actandintroducesanewgrantsystemforrehabilitationwithadvisorystandardsforrepairandimprovement
1980 HousingAct MargaretThatcher’sgovernmentintroducedthe‘RighttoBuy’
1981 ParkerMorrisstandardsandthehousingcostsyardstickareabandoned.
Withtheideatobringnewandrehabilitatedpublichousingmoreintolinewiththeprivatesector.Nominimumspacestandardsexceptforsinglepeople,thedisabledandtheelderly.
1984 VAT Onlynewconstructioniszerorated.(Forrepairsoralterations,onlyworktolistedbuildingsisexempt)
Startinginthe1990sawholeseriesofdifferentsetsofregulationsbasedonarangeoffactors–ageingpopulation,disabilitylegislation,energyefficiency,urbanenvironments–addedconsiderablytothecomplexityofthefield1992 PPG3,updated2000andinforce
until2006.ReplacedbyPPS3inNov2006
Toencouragehigherdensitydevelopmentparticularlyon'brownfield'sites,inurbanenvironmentsandtocompeldeveloperstoincludeaffordablehomes
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
54
1994 TheLathamreportCommissionedbyGovernmenttoreviewprocurementandcontractualarrangements
“condemningexistingindustrypracticesas'adversarial','ineffective','fragmented','incapableofdeliveringforitsclients'and'lackingrespectforitsemployees'.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latham_Report
1995 LifetimeHomesStandard(AgeUK,TCPAandHabintegHousingAssociation)RevisedinJuly2010,From2011forallpublicsectorprojects.Nowinbuildingregs
AnexpressionofInclusiveDesign."HousingthatisdesignedtotheLifetimeHomesStandardwillbeconvenientformostoccupants,includingsome(butnotall)wheelchairusersanddisabledvisitors,withoutthenecessityforsubstantialalterations."http://www.lifetimehomes.org.uk/pages/revised-design-criteria.html
2000 UrbanDesignCompendium(EnglishPartnerships,HousingCorporationecohomes.org)
“Byhavinganunderstandingoffactorssuchasthehistoryoftheplace,howitdeveloped,thepeoplewholivethereandhowitfunctionsdevelopmentscanbemoreeffectivelyandappropriatelypositionedhttp://udc.homesandcommunities.co.uk/urban-design-compendium?page_id=3899&page=44.”
2001 BetterPlacestoLivebyDesign:acompanionguidetoPPG3,DTLRandCABE.WithdrawnMarch2014
“…itdrawstogethertheprinciplesofgoodurbandesignastheyrelatetotheresidentialenvironmenttohelpmovethepracticeofgooddesignforward.….focusesontheattributesthatunderliesuccessfulresidentialenvironmentsinordertoprovideguidanceonimplementingthenewapproachtoplanningforhousingsetoutinPlanningPolicyGuidance3:Housing(PPG3).”
2003 Off-siteConstructionBREhttp://www.bre.co.uk/news/Putting-the-case-for-offsite-construction-110.html
“WithmillionsofnewhomesneededintheUK,andanacuteskillsshortage,off-siteconstructionhasobviousbenefitsforthehousebuildingsector.”
2004 Thehomebuyer'sguide:whattolookforandaskforwhenbuyinganewhomeAleEly,CABE,BlackDogPublishing
Encouraginganinformedconsumerperspective"Weallhavetostartdemandingmore,raisingexpectationsandcoercingbuildersintobuildinghomesthatsuitourneeds.Whatwewantarewell-deigned,carefullyplannedandexpertlydeliveredhomeswithanaftercareservicebetterthatthebestcardealers"
2004 HousingAct(NationallyDescribedSpacestandardsDraft)http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/34/part/4/chapter/3
Includesrulestopreventovercrowdingandsexualovercrowding(Homeinformationpacksintroducedandlaterabandoned)
2004 HousingFutures2024,AprovocativelookatfuturetrendsinhousingRIBACABE,JohnWorthington
Openingupthedebateaboutpossiblefutures,throughtheRBAthinktankBuildingFuturesandongoingpublicationinbuildingMagazine."Housinginthefutureneedstobemoreadaptableandresponsivetochange."
2006 CodeforSustainableHomesDCLGWithdrawn2015
Theintroductionofanassessmentsystemforratingandcertifyingtheenergyperformanceofnewhomes
2007 DesignandQualityStandardsHousingCorporation
ToreplacetheSDS–which“willbephasedoutinparallelwiththecompletionoftheNationalAffordableHousingProgramme(NAHP)2006-08.“https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/313392/design_quality_standards.pdf
2009 SpaceinNewHomesDesignCouncilCabeRIBAIpsosMoripostalsurvey
Supportsthecaseformorespaceinprivatehomes,toensurethattheyarefunctional,flexibleandfitforpurpose."Themarketdoesnotappeartoprovidethespacethatresidentsrequire"
2010 Policypaper2010to2015governmentpolicy:energy
ConservativeandLiberalDemocratcoalitiongovernmentpolicy.Primarilyaimedatreducingcarbonemissions.
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
55
efficiencyinbuildingsupdated8May2015
“WehaveintroducedtheCodeforSustainableHomeswhichprovidesasinglenationalstandardforthedesignandconstructionofsustainablenewhomes.”https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2010-to-2015-government-policy-energy-efficiency-in-buildings/2010-to-2015-government-policy-energy-efficiency-in-buildings
2010 LondonHousingDesignGuideInterimEditionMayorofLondonLDA
"Atthecoreoftheguidearenewminimumspacestandards".Minorconcessiontoflexibility"Dwellingplansshoulddemonstratethatdwellingtypesprovideflexibilitybyallowingforalternativeseatingarrangementsinlivingroomsandbyaccommodatingdoubleortwinbedsinatleastonedoublebedroom."https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/interim_london_housing_design_guide.pdf
TheRedTapeChallengeislaunchedfollowedbytheHousingStandardsReviewin2013toavoidduplicationandcontradictioninthemanydifferentrecommendationsbynongovernmentalgroups2011 TheCaseforSpacethesizeof
England'sHomesRIBA(TheHomewiseCampaign)
Surveysofcurrentprovision.Planstoshowwhatthemissingspacescouldmeaninstandardhomes.
2012 TheWayweLiveNowRIBAHomewiseIpsosMori
Averylimitedethnographicsurveybasedonquestionnaireslookingatdecisionmakingprocessforpeoplethinkingofbuyinganewhome
2012 BuildingforLife.Deliveringgreatplacestolive.CABEandtheHomeBuildersFederation(HBF)
Supportedbygovernmentasthe"standardforthedesignqualityofnewhomes.Itincludesaquestiononflexibility"Dointernalspacesandlayoutallowforadaptation,conversionorextension?
2013 Governmentexpandedpermitteddevelopmentrights–toboosttheprovisionofnewhomes-toallowtheconversionofofficebuildingsintohousing.Madepermanentin2015.
Conversionsarenotrequiredtomeetspacestandards,oranyotherplanning-basedqualitystandardssuchasenergyefficiency,disabilitynoraffordability.
2014 HomeTruthsLondonFirstHousingTaskForceDatafromGLAandLSEhttp://londonfirst.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/LF_HOUSING_REPORT.pdf
Oneoftheirrecommendations“Boroughscouldusetheircompulsorypurchasepowerstobringlandbacktothemarket,where:areasonableperiodoftimefromthepermissionbeinggranted–sayfiveyears–haselapsed;andafterconsultationwiththelandownerand/ordeveloper,theyaresatisfiedtherearenocredibleplanstodevelopinthemediumterm;andwhereitisinthepublicinterestthatitbebroughtforward.”
2015 Homewise:SpaceStandardsforHomesRIBA
RIBAcallforthereintroductionofminimumspacestandards3B5phouse93m2"We’recallingforminimumspacestandardstoapplytoallhomes,ineverylocation.We’reaskingthegovernmenttocreateafairhousingofferbyembeddingtheNationallyDescribedSpaceStandardinbuildingregulations."
2015 TechnicalHousingStandards-nationallydescribedspacestandardDCLGhttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/technical-housing-standards-nationally-described-space-standard
Onebedonepersonflat=37m2Threebedfivepersonhome=93m2“Thisnewstandardwassupposedtoimprovethequalityofnew-buildhousingbyensuringtheyarebuilttoanadequatesize.InOctober2015,newruleswereintroducedgivingLocalAuthoritiestheoptiontosetaminimumspacestandardfornewhomes.Theruleswere
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
56
Notapplicabletostudenthousing,officeconversions…
introducedtorationalise,simplifyandstreamlinetheplanningsystem,buttheprocesstosetthenewstandardisoverlycomplicatedandonerous.Crucially,thespacestandardisoptional”housing.org.uk
2015 BuildingforLife123rdeditionCABEatDesignCouncil,DesignforHomes,HBF,NottinghamTrentUniversity.BasedonNationalPlanningPolicyFrameworkhttp://www.designcouncil.org.uk/resources/guide/building-life-12-third-edition
Noquestionsonthequalitiesofthehomeitself.“BfL12isveryclearlyfocusedonpromotingqualityinurbandesignfornewresidentialdevelopments.Intheabsenceofnationalspacestandardsfornewhomes,experiencesuggestedthatthequestionsrelatingtotheinternalqualitiesofthehomewerelargelyineffectiveandproveddifficulttoapply.”
2015 GLAHousingStandardsReview:EvidenceofNeedFinalReport
ItdemonstratesaclearneedfortheinclusionofhousingstandardswithintheLondonPlan.Theyareanecessaryandappropriatemechanismtoensurethathousingissustainableandofhighqualitywhilstofferingthespaceandflexibilityrequiredtoaccommodatethedemandsofarapidlygrowingandageingpopulationinahighdensitycityfacingdistinctclimatechallenges.
2015 BuildingRegulations IncorporatingSecurebyDesign,LifeTimeHomes,CodeforSustainableHomes.StudentHousingandOfficeconversionsarenotcovered
2016 HousingandPlanningBill2015-16Part4SocialHousinginEngland,Chap.1ImplementingtherighttobuyonavoluntarybasisChap2VacantHighValueLocalAuthorityHousingChap.3RentsforHighIncomeSocialTenantsChap.6SecureTenancies
Currentlyinprocess.Includescontroversialaspectssuchasthe'phasingoutoftenanciesforlife',‘Powertochangerents','Dutytoconsidersellingvacanthighvaluehousing'and'policiesforhighincomesocialtenants'FollowingagreementbybothHousesonthetextoftheBillitreceivedRoyalAssenton12May.TheBillisnowanActofParliament(law).http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2015-16/housingandplanning.html
Allwebsitesaccessed14.05.2016
WiththankstoDavidLevitt’sexcellentarticleHousingStandards:Standardspast–andfuture?AJ
November1982pp.77-89
AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange
57
Appendix2 Illustrations
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Figure 2 Typical page from Modern Housing Prototypes 1978Unite d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1945-52 Le Corbusier
Colour coded cutaway axonometric drawn for the publication
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Figure 3 Typical part page from the Floor Plan Manual Housing 1994
Unite d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1946-47 Le Corbusier
Plans to show how the basic type can be varied.
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Figure 4 Nagakin Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan 1972Kisho Kurakawa
Level 6 floor plan
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Figure 5 High Cross Road, London 2001Walter Menteth Architects
Single-person terraces houses 47.5m2 with living room on the ground floor and bedroom on the first floor.
First
Ground Floor
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Figure 6 Narkomfin, Moscow, 1930Mosie Ginzburg and Ignati Milinis
Typical, minimal size, split-level apartments with double height living spaces
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Figure 21 Rue des Suisses, Paris, France, 2000Herzog & de Meuron
Louvred facades of the infill block on rue des Suisses
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Louvred facades of the infill block on rue des Suisses