adaptable housing: accommodating change …eprints.brighton.ac.uk/16390/1/french h phd.pdf ·...

ADAPTABLEHOUSING:

ACCOMMODATINGCHANGE

HILARYFRENCH

PHD 2016

AdaptableHousing:AccommodatingChange

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Abstract

Mywork,publishedessaysandbookslistedbelow,providesnewinsightsinto

architects’approachestohousingdesignsincethebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.

Drawingonmethodsfrombothhistoryandpracticetheworkusesprimarilydrawn

buildingstudiesfamiliarinprofessionaljournalsforcomparativeanalysis.Two

interrelatedissues,housingdesignedtobeadaptable(orflexible)andhousing

designedforfamiliesotherthanthenormofthestatic,nuclearfamily,characterisethe

approachtotheworkimplicitthroughtheselectionofcasestudies.Areflectiveessay

considerstheworkinthecontextofattemptstointroduceflexiblehousingtypologies

andthepotentialimpactontheroleofthearchitectandtheconsumer.Further

contextisprovidedinanappendixsettingoutanannotatedchronologyofrelevant

legislation,reportsandrecommendations,toraisequestionsaboutitscomplexities

andthecontemporaryrenewedfocusonminimumspacestandardsastheprimary

tooltoimprovehousingquality.


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Workpresentedinthesubmission

Principlepublicationsandtexts

KeyUrbanHousingoftheTwentiethCentury:PlansSectionsandElevations.Laurence

King(UK)andNorton(USA)2008.240ppTranslationsforItaly,Spain,Franceand

Brazil2010andChina2013(Author)

NewUrbanHousingLaurenceKing(UK)andYale(USA),2006EditorialiGiliSA(Spain)

andLogos(Italy)192pp.Secondeditioninpaperback2009(Author)

AccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousingDesign,TheArchitectureFoundation

andCircle33HousingGroup,2002(Editor)

LivingTogetherinImpossibleWorlds:TheArchitectureofPerfectionBirkhauser

SwitzerlandandAugustMedia,London,2001pp29-45and100-102(Essay)

PatternsofLiving:HongKong’sHigh-RiseCommunities,201ppVTCPress,HongKong

2013(jointauthor)

Supplementarypublicationsandtexts

Housingprojectsfor20th-CenturyWorldArchitecture:ThePhaidonAtlas,2012

(Contributor)

TheSimpleLifein7000WordsonHousing.CataloguefortheexhibitionComing

HomesRIBAOctober2002–January2003.RIBAPublications(Shortessay)

Architecturebeginsandendsinpictures.SpacesofHistory/HistoriesofSpace,

Berkeley,California2010(conferencepaper)

ARoomofOne’sOwnfortheArchitectureFoundation,2001(Shortessay)

MakingPlansinAccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousingDesign,The

ArchitectureFoundationandCircle33HousingGroup,2002pp158-165(Essay)


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ListofContents Page

Abstract............................................................................................................................2

Workpresentedinthesubmission..................................................................................3

ListofIllustrations...........................................................................................................5

Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................6

Author’sdeclaration........................................................................................................7

Reflectionsonthesubmittedworks................................................................................8

SECTIONONEIntroduction..........................................................................................9

BackgroundandContext........................................................................................16

MethodandApproach...........................................................................................22

SECTIONTWOAdaptableHousing.............................................................................30

UnconventionalFamilies........................................................................................30

FlexibleHousingorTightFitFunctionalism...........................................................33

HousingandConsumers........................................................................................37

IndeterminateandMonofunctionalspaces...........................................................40

Bibliography...................................................................................................................45

Appendix1 Chronologyofregulatoryframework...................................................50

Appendix2 Illustrations..........................................................................................57


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ListofIllustrations

Figure1 TypicalpagefromModernFlats,1958,Unitéd’Habitation,Marseilles1952,

LeCorbusier

Figure2 TypicalpagefromModernHousingPrototypes1978Unitéd’Habitation,

Marseilles1945-52,LeCorbusier

Figure3 TypicalpagefromtheFloorPlanManualHousing1994,Unitéd’Habitation,

Marseilles1946-47,LeCorbusier

Figure4 NagakinCapsuleTower,Tokyo,Japan1972,KishoKurakawa(1934-2007)*

Figure 5 HighCrossRoad,London2001,WalterMentethArchitects**

Figure6 Narkomfin,Moscow,Russia1930,MosieGinzburg(1892-1946)*

Figure7 Mainblock,WeissenhofEstate1927,LudwigMiesvanderRohe1886-196*

Figure8 TerracedHousing,ViennaWerkbund1932,AndreLurçat1894-1970*

Figure9 SamplepagefromSpaceintheHome1968

Figure10HongKongHousingAuthorityTypicalSlabBlockPlanFromPatternsofLiving

Figure11DwellingsforYoungPeople,Leipzig,Germany2000,HPPHentrich-

Petschnigg&Partners.**

Figure12 YerbaBuenaLofts,SanFrancisco,USA2002,StanleySaitowitzNatoma

Architects,Inc.*

Figure13 Estradenhaus,Berlin,Germany1998and2001,popp.planungen**

Figure14 SchlesischestrasseHousing,Berlin,Germany1994,LeonWohlhageWernik

Architekten*

Figure15 ConsortRoadHousing,London2007,WalterMentethArchitects*

Figure16 BakkedragetHousing,Fredensborg,Denmark1963,JørnUtzon(1918-2008)*

Figure17DonnybrookQuarter,London2006,PeterBarberArchitects

Figure18QuintadaMalaguieraHousing,Evora,Portugal,1977,AlvaroSiza(1933-)*

Figure19 CondensedHousingDevelopment,SouthBiesdorf,Berlin,Germany1999,

LeonWohlhageWernikArchitekten**

Figure20 Silodam,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands2002,MVRDV*

Figure21 RuedesSuisses,Paris,France2000,Herzog&deMeuron** casestudiesfromKeyUrbanHousingoftheTwentiethCentury** casestudiesfromNewUrbanHousing


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Acknowledgements


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Author’sdeclaration

Ideclarethattheresearchcontainedinthisthesis,unlessotherwiseformallyindicated

withinthetext,istheoriginalworkoftheauthor.Thethesishasnotbeenpreviously

submittedtothisoranyotheruniversityforadegree,anddoesnotincorporateany

materialalreadysubmittedforadegree.

Signed:________________________

Dated:_________________________


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Reflectionsonthesubmittedworks

SectionOne Introductions,backgroundandcontext,methodsandapproachSectionTwo AdaptableHousing


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“Itisthusnottobewonderedatthattheadaptablehouse-thehousewhichcould

easilybealteredascircumstanceschange-isarecurringthemeintheevidencewe

receivedandinourownthoughts”1

Atthetimeofwritingthisessay,morethanhalfacenturyaftertheParkerMorris

Report,theRIBAhasjustpublished(December2015)areportonthesizeofhousesin

Britain.2EntitledHomewise:SpaceStandardsforHomesitcomparestheaverage,

overallsizeinsquaremetresofthetypicalthree-bedroomfive-personhouseineachof

100randomlyselectedschemesbuiltsince2012.Comparedwiththecurrent

recommendedminimumsizeof93m2,despitesomeregionalvariations,theoverall

averagefallsshort.TheNationallyDescribedSpaceStandardcameintoforcein

October2015but,asitremainsvoluntaryforLocalAuthorities,thereport

acknowledgesthatduetoexcessiveandcostlybureaucracyitisunlikelytobe

implemented.TheRIBAisthereforecallingonGovernmenttoembedtheStandardin

BuildingRegulations.

Implicitinmyresearchworkisaquestioningofwhetherrelianceonspacestandards

alonecouldeverresultinbetterqualityhomesorincreasedprovision.Minimumspace

standardsareseenascrucialinmaintainingqualitybytheirsupporters;bytheir

detractorstheyareseenvariouslyaseitherhamperingtheimaginationofdesignersor

unnecessarilyincreasingconstructioncostsforcommercialdevelopers,whocan

happilybuildsmaller.Thenewspacestandardsarelittlechangedfromearlierversions.

Thereisnomentionofflexibility–theadaptablehouse–mentionedintheParker

Morrisreport,andtherearenorecommendationsonvariation.Arequirementfor

flexibility,sufficienttoprovideforchangingfamilyrequirementswouldalmost

certainlyleadtobiggerspacesbydefaultandifafamilycanstaylongerinthesame

home,thiscouldbeseenasanadvantage.

1HomesforTodayandTomorrow,Para28p.92SeeAppendix1forchronologyofrelatedlegislation,reportsandrecommendations

SECTIONONEIntroduction


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Theterms‘adaptability’or‘flexibility’arecommonlyusedinterchangeablyandthereis

someoverlapintheirdefinitions.Whilst‘flexibility’isusedheretoencompass

adaptability,ifadistinctionisappropriateStephenGroák’sisperhapsthemostuseful.

Flexibility,meansahomeis“capableofdifferentphysicalarrangements”orcanbe

alteredandadaptabilityreferstothewayahomeisinhabited,thatis,“itiscapableof

differentsocialuses”3toaccommodateagrowingorchangingfamily.

Flexibilityisfurtherdefinedinseveraldifferentways.Atthelargestscale,basedon

structuralconfiguration,itmightmeanapropertyownercangutabuildingand

reconfigureitwithoutalteringthestructureandservices.Atitssimplestitcanmean

beingabletorearrangefurniture.Bothtermsaremoreeasilyunderstoodbytheir

opposite-a‘tightfitfunctionalism’–thatseesallroomsascribedasinglepurposewith

littleoptionforotheruse,aphraseattributedtoAndrewRabeneck.4Rabeneck

categorisedtheapproachofhousingarchitectsintotwoopposingcamps.Ononehand

arethosehetermedthe‘popularmechanics’thosewhoacceptedthestatusquoand

usedtheirskilltofindingeniouswaystoachieveasmuchaspossiblewithinthe(small)

spacestandardslaiddown.(InthiscategoryheincludedtheRogersandthe

Smithsons).Theothershedescribedas‘newsociety’,thosewhowerenotpreparedto

accepttheimposedspacestandardsandconventionallayoutsbutlookedfor

alternatives.Atthetimeofwriting,improvingthespeedofproductionofhousingwas

themainagendaandhiscritiqueisfocusedonhowtheirideasmightberealisedusing

pre-fabrication,orothermechanisedmethods.

Sincethe1970s,forvolumehousebuilders,tightfitfunctionalismhasremainedthe

normandtherehasbeenverylittlepublicationsurroundinganydiscussionofflexibility

untilrecently,withthepublicationofSchneiderandTill’sbookFlexibleHousingin

2007.5Formanyarchitectshowever,withinterestbeyondthedevelopers’commercial

3Groak,Sp.154Rabeneck,A.ADVol43No111973Novpp.716-7275Schneider,T.,andTill,J.“Asthefirstcomprehensiveoverviewofthisimportantsubject,thebookexaminesthepast,presentandfutureofflexiblehousing,collectingtogetherover160internationalexamplesofthegenreasamajorpointofreference.Combininghistory,theoryanddesign,thebookmakesthecaseforflexiblehousingandalsoshowsthevariouswaysbywhichithasbeenandcanbeachieved.”Cover


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considerations,ithasoftenbeenakeydriverintheirapproachtohousingdesign.The

difficultyinlookingforwaystoincludeflexibilityoradaptability,andmoreoverto

acceptthattheremaybesomedesiredcontributiontothedesignsbytheresidents,is

summedupbyPeterSmithsoninalecturepublishedin1971

“TheIdealhouseisthatwhichonecanmakeone’sownwithoutalteringanything.

Makeone’sownintheusualway,thatiswithinthelimitsofthefashionofthetime

…….Thesearchforastylethatcanmatchthisidealhadbeenthefloatingcentreofour

effort….”6

Flexibilityraisesquestionsabouthowdecisionsaremadeabouthowpeoplelivebut

alsoraisesquestionsabouttheroleofthearchitectinmakingthosedecisions.Whilst

forresidentsflexibilityisseenasapositiveaspectofhousing,allowingthemsome

meansofcontrol,ofself-expressionorwhatmightcolloquiallybecalled‘ownership’of

theirlivingspace,itcanbeseeninanegativelightforarchitects.Designinghousing

thatcanbeinterferedwithorthatinvitesalterationinthefuture,suggeststhatthe

designisinadequateandlessthantheperfectsolutiontotheproblem.Itmeansthat

architectscouldbeseenasrelinquishingtheirusualpositionofoverallcontrol.

Myprojectsandpublications

Theworkspresentedinthissubmissiondrawonboththeoryandpractice,usingmy

knowledgeandexperienceofarchitecturalpracticeandhistory,ofinteresttoboth

practitionersandhistorians.Theseworksarethesignificantelementsofabodyof

workthatincludesotherworksonthesametopicpreparedforconference

presentations,reviews,andcontributionstootherpublications.Thefocusformywork

ishousingprovisioninEnglandfromthelate19thcenturyonwardsbutitalsodraws

onexamplesofWesternarchitecturefromEuropeandfurtherafieldwherethese

contributetothediscussion.Beyondthecomplexitiesofthesocio-economicand

politicalcontext,itfocusesonmattersofdesign,aligninghistoricalexampleswith

contemporaryprojectswhichallsharetheunchangingbrief,tocreateaplacetolive.

6Smithson,AlisonandPeter,p.126


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ThestartingpointwasanessayassignmentaspartofmyHistoryofModern

ArchitectureMaster’scourseattheBartlett(1994),entitledGenderandCities,an

explorationoftheurbanenvironmentandhousingdesign,basedontheworkofthe

materialfeministsdiscussedinDoloresHayden’swork.Iexploredthistopicfurther

throughteachinghistoryandtheorycoursesforundergraduatestudentsof

architecture,andthroughanextendedessayentitledLivingTogetherpublishedin

ImpossibleWorlds:theArchitectureofPerfection,(2001).7Thisessayraisedquestions

aboutwhycollectivehousingprojectshaveenjoyedonlylimitedsuccessandwhether

“thelowdensity,out-dated‘family’housethathasalreadydevouredsomanyacresof

greenfieldsitesissustainable?8Icontinuedtoexplorenon-standardorinnovative

formsofhousingdesignthroughdesignstudioteachinginitiallyandthenthrough

researchworkseekingoutbuiltexamplesofalternativehousingdesignstothe

pervasivenormsofEngland’svolumehousebuilders,whichformedthebasisfor

severalprojectsandbooks.

ThefirstwasasignificantprojectorganisedbytheArchitectureFoundation(AF)in

collaborationwithCircle33HousingAssociation.9Circle33wasplanningtobuildanew

housingschemeonasiteithadinBow,Londonand,ratherthanrelyontheirknown

designs,hadagreedwiththeAFtoexplorealternativemodelsthroughadesign

competition.EntitledAccommodatingChange;InnovationinHousing,thecompetition

setouttoexplorehowwemightdealwithnotonlyincreaseddensity,amajor

preoccupationatthetime,butalsochangingdemographicsandalternativestoa

functionalapproachthroughflexibilityandsharedspaces.Theprojectincludeda

parallelstudentideascompetitionandaseriesofseminarstodiscussongoinghousing

designissuesand,attheconclusion,anexhibitionattheAFGalleryinStJames’sand

anaccompanyingpublication.Iwasappointedinitiallyasaconsultanttotheproject

7ImpossibleWorlds:TheArchitectureofPerfection.“Thisbookexploresthewaysinwhichrealbuildingshaveresultedfromvisionaryideas,andassessestheextenttowhichthesehavechangedthewaypeoplelive.Inthreesectionstheeditorshavearrangedkeytextstogetherwithaselectionofprojectswhichillustratetheideas,andthebuiltrealitieswhichfollowedonfromthem.Inthefirstpart,HilaryFrenchexploresthedevelopmentofcommunitarianideas,andthewaysinwhichutopianthinkinghasgeneratednewideasforhousing.”Cover8French,HLivingTogetherp.419CircleHousing.Circle33beganlifeasatraditionalhousingassociationin1968.In2005itmergedwiththeAngliaHousingGroup,andisnowthelargestpartnersubsidiaryofCircleHousing(formerlyCircleAnglia),owning17,100homesacrossLondonandin48LocalAuthorityareashttp://www.circlegroup.org.uk/our-group/social-housing/Circle_Housing_Circle_33


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contributingtodevisingthebrief,whichwasseenasatoolforstartingthedebatein

additiontosettingouttheprogrammeandsitedescription.Asaresultofthe

competition’shugesuccess,attractingaround140entries,Iwastheninvitedtocurate

anexhibitionattheAFGalleryandproduceandeditanaccompanyingpublication.10

Thewiningproject,byPeterBarberArchitects,wascompletedlargelytothe

competitiondesignin2006.11

FollowingthesuccessofAccommodatingChangeIwasinvitedtocontributeashort

essaytothecatalogueforanRIBAexhibition,ComingHomes(2003)12andthento

carryoutafurtherprojectfundedbytheAF,Home:DesignandDesirability(2004)13

theresultsofwhichwereexhibited,invideoformat,at100%Design.Whilstnotmajor

projects,bothexploredthenotionofflexiblespaceandbothrevealedthedifficulties

associatedwithsurveyworkinrelationtopublicperceptionofhousingdesignand

obtainingdataabouthowwelive.Mylaterpublications,NewUrbanHousing(2006)

andKeyUrbanHousingoftheTwentiethCentury(2009),focusoninnovative10French,H.EdAccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousing2002Housingdesigniscentraltothedebateonthefuturedevelopmentofcitieswithpressuretoprovidemore,bothcheaplyandquickly.Thistimeitistoaccommodateanincreasingpopulationandchangingdemographics.TheAccommodatingChangeinitiativegrewoutofCircle33HousingGroup'sdesiretopromoteinterestinandthereby,improvethequalityofaffordablehousing.IncollaborationwiththeArchitectureFoundation,theyheldtwocompetitions,forarchitectsandforstudents,aseriesofworkshopsandseminarsfocusingondifferenthousingrelatedissues.ThispublicationaccompaniedtheArchitectureFoundation'sexhibitionforCircle33HousingGroupfrom22ndFebruaryto27thMarch2002,andincludesillustrationsofselectedcompetitionentriesandessaycontributionsfromarchitectsandacademics.http://shop.architecturefoundation.org.uk/products/accommodating-change-innovation-in-housing11ThepressreactiontoDonnybrookhasbeenoverwhelminglyfavourable,ascanbeseenbythisfollowingsampleofquotes:‘Barberhasjustcompletedthemostinnovativepieceoflarge-scalehousingbuiltinBritainforyears.’[Dyckhoff,Tom.Times,24January2006]‘Donnybrookisacomplex,sociallychallengingarchitecturalarrangement.TherationalismusedinBowisaboutinclusion,physicalagreementandthestartlingrealitiesofprogressiveurbanchange.’[Merrick,JayIndependent,25January2006]‘Topdogsfor2006,bestbuildingsinclass.Housing:Donnybrook...PeterBarberArchitectsis...bestplacedtomakeareallysignificantimpactonasectorthatformanyyearshasfoughtshyofinnovativedesign.’[Woodman,Ellis.BuildingDesign,6January2006]‘Thisinspiringscheme...strivestorepairsomeoftheripsthathavebeenmadeinLondon’sfabricsincetheSecondWorldWar.Ifyoucanachieveallthatwiththislevelofelegance,youcouldwellbeontosomething.’[Rose,Steve.Guardian,6February2006].Inadditiontoitspressreviews,theDonnybrookQuarterschemewasalsoincludedasanexemplarynewprojectforthecapital’sbuiltfabricaspartoftheNewLondonArchitectureExhibitioninmid-2005.http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/4823/1/Barber_3.pdf12French,H.TheSimpleLifeBasedonresponsestoaMORIpollonpopularhousingtypesin7000WordsonHousing.“AseriesofessaysonhousingandideasofhomeintheUKtoday.Leadingarchitecturalhistorians,writers,researchersandarchitects,exploreissuessuchasplanning,taste,houseprices,themeasurementofvalueindesignandthetypologiesandmodelsofsuburbia.”13Thisprojectexploredthepotentialforuserresearchwithreferencetothedefinitionofbriefsusedbyarchitectsandsociallandlordstocomparedesignintentionswithusers’experience.Thisprojectmovedawayfromthemorepragmaticissues,toinvestigatethelesstangibleaspectsofdesire-somethingthatismoreusuallyassociatedwiththewealthierworldofprivatehousingdevelopments.AseriesofcasestudiesofrecentlycompletedhousingprojectsintheLondonareawereidentifiedcoveringarangeofdifferenthousingtypes,elderly,keyworker,shelteredhousing,etc.Questionnairesweredevisedtoelicitthekeyaspectsoflivinginthatparticularbuildingprojectandtoextrapolateinformationthatmightbeusefulforotherbriefsandotherprojects.


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approachestodesign,ornewthinkingimplicitinthebuildingstudiesselectedfor

inclusion.Themostrecentproject,whichisdocumentedinthebookPatternsofLiving:

HongKong’sHighRiseCommunities(2013)wastheresultofaninvitationtocontribute

tothenewlyestablishedResearchCentreattheHongKongDesignInstitute.Through

theirparticipatoryagendaitofferedmeanopportunitytoexploretheinteriorsofthe

socialhousingunitsbuiltbytheHongKongHousingAuthority,whichmostlycomprise

indeterminatespaces,bringingtogetherbothmymainresearchstrands,flexibilityand

patternsofoccupation.14

Tocontinuethiswork,revisitingexemplarhousingprojectstoexploretherelationship

betweenthedesignideasofthearchitectsandthewaysinwhichtheresidentshave

occupiedtheirhomesovertimecouldusefullyinformfuturepractice.Howeverthe

logisticsofsuchastudyandgainingaccesstoprivatehomesmakeitanunlikely

proposition.AccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousing,documentedwhathad

beenaninspirationalprojectformanyandprovidedlastingrecordofwhatisstill

consideredanimportantproject.Findingmorewaystoencouragehousebuildersto

offerthechancetoyoungpractitionerstoexplorenewideasandbuildmore

experimentalhousingprojects,ratherthanrelyingontheirtriedandtestedtypologies,

mightoffermoresustainableadaptablemodels

ThepublicationofSchneiderandTill’sbook,FlexibleHousing,supportedbyfundsfrom

theAHRC,mightsuggestthatideasofadaptabilityarepartofthemainstream.

However,recentlegislationsuggeststhatthemoreeasilyquantifiable,space

standards,arestillthefocusforcurrentdebateonhowtoimprovehousingquality

14PatternsofLiving.IwascommissionedtocontributetoaprojectcoordinatedbyDr.LeeatHongKongDesignInstitute,auniqueopportunitytogainaccesstothestandard‘socialhousing’unitsdesignedbyarchitectsandoccupiedbyordinaryfamilies.InspiredbyEuropeanmodernism,theHongKongHousingAuthority(HKHA)haspioneeredlandreclamationandhigh-riseconstructionsincethemid-1950s,producingsomeoftheworld’sdensest,mostverticalresidentialareas.Datawascollectedandanalysedfrom120typicalhomestodiscoverhowfamiliesoccupythecompactflatsthathavecontinuedtobedeveloped,maintainedandrentedbytheHKHA.Theresearchshowsforthefirsttimetheinteriors–thelivedrealityofmodernism'shousingproject–andhashighlightedaparticularflattypethathousingstudiesnowcategoriseas‘indeterminate’:itisofferedtotenantsasashelltopartitionandarrangethemselves.Itssuccessoffersamodelwithinternationalsignificance,controversialespeciallyinrentalhousing,butwiththepotentialtoreducehousingcostsandpotentiallyawayforwardinallowingfutureflexibility.


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Mywork,hasprovidedinsightintothechangingapproachtohousingdesign,inthe

broadestsense,fromtheearlytwentiethcenturywhentheapartmentblockwas

establishedasanewbuildingtypethroughtothelatestbuiltprojects–withanimplicit

focusonadaptability.Inordertofocusondesignlayouts,well-knownhistorical

examplesarepresentedalongsidecontemporaryprojects,usingthesamestylefor

comparativepurpose.Ratherthanthe‘how-to’manualsfavouredbysomeauthorsmy

workusesprimarilyvisualanalysis,usingstandarddrawingtechnique,thecommon

languageofarchitecture,toprovideanalagousreference.

Mybackground

Beforetakinguparoleasafull-timeacademicin1998,andembarkingonresearch

workalongsideteachingandschoolmanagementduties,Ihadavariedcareerin

architecturalpractice.Iworkedforarchitectsinprivatepracticeonawiderangeof

buildingtypes,mostlypublicsectorprojects,andforInteriorDesignersforashorttime

generallyonretaildesignprojects.Myownpracticefocusedmainlyonworkstolisted

buildingsforprivateandgovernmentclients.DuringmytimeinpracticeIlearnt

somethingofthelegislativeframeworksandworkingmethodsaspartofanumberof

designteams,onnewhousingprojectsinMiltonKeynes,WarringtonNewTownand

rueFontarabieinParisamongstothers,aswellasmajorterracedhousing

refurbishmentandrehabilitationprojectsinLondon.

MyrecentacademicroleattheRCA,asHeadoftheSchoolofArchitecture&Design

withresponsibilityfortheDesignProductsDepartment,meantworkingcloselywith

industrialdesigners,notablyRonAradandTordBoontje.Inbroadterms,thiswider

contextforconsideringarchitecturalproductioninfluencedmythinkingandraised

questionsformeaboutthenatureofhousingdesign–notablyaboutwhereitmightsit

betweenarchitectureandindustrialdesignandperceptionsoftherelativestatusof

thearchitectandthedesigner.Withitsrepetitivenature,suitabilityforpre-fabrication

andvolumeproduction,thedesignofhousinghasbeenthoughttohavemorein

commonwiththeproductionofotherconsumerproductsverydifferentto

architecture’sbespoke‘iconic’masterpieces.


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BackgroundandContext

Prototypesandmodels

WorkingalongsideIndustrialDesigners,Iwasintroducedtotheirdifferentworking

methodsandparticularlytheirextensiveuseoffull-sizemodels.Unlikethescale

modelsregularlyusedbyarchitects,thefull-sizemodelsandprototypescanbeused

bydesignerstoassessthelookandfeelorfunctioningofanobject,andbythe

manufacturertoassesstoolingandmaterials.Ihadwitnessedsomelimiteduseoffull-

sizemock-upsinarchitecturalpractice,inParisintheearly1980s;oneofthePyramid

intheLouvrecourtyard(I.MPei1989),theotherpartofnewstructuresintheParcde

laVillette(ReichenetRobert1984).Bothwere,however,littlemorethanloosely

constructedthree-dimensionaloutlines,toassistthearchitectsandclientsintheir

evaluationofthevisualimpactofthenewformsonsurroundingheritagebuildings.

Someexperimentaloravantgardedesignprojectsareconsideredprototypesby

default,e.g.BedZed15orPassivhaus,16whichhaveprovidedmodelsforenergy

efficiency.TheInnovationParkattheBuildingResearchEstablishment(BRE)alsohasa

seriesoffullsizehouses,builttodemonstrateconstructionandenergyefficiency.17

TheBREhasinthepastextendedtheuseoftheir‘test’housesfordomesticscience

purposesbutitisextremelyraretofindprototypesforhousingwhichfocusonmore

generaldesignissues–space,accessarrangementsandplanorganisation.Wesee

‘showhomes’regularlyatdevelopmentsitesandthosethatappearannuallyatthe

IdealHomeShowbuttheseareaimedatencouragingpurchasersratherthan

architectsinterestedinexploringdemonstrationofnewkindsofarchitecturalthinking.

Variousmomentsinthehistoryofhousing,whencircumstancesoffundingand

politicalwillhavecometogether,haveledtosuchhousing‘prototypes’builtas

exhibitionswhich,partlyduetotheirrarity(ortheirpermanencesorpersistence),are15“BedZEDistheUK’sfirstlarge-scale,mixedusesustainablecommunitywith100homes,officespace,acollegeandcommunityfacilities.Completedin2002,thispioneeringeco-villageinsouthLondonsuburbiaremainsaninspirationforsustainableneighbourhoods.”http://www.bioregional.com/bedzed/16“ThePassivhausstandardwasdevelopedinGermanyintheearly1990sbyProfessorsBoAdamsonofSwedenandWolfgangFeistofGermanyandthefirstdwellingstobecompletedtothePassivhausStandardwereconstructedinDarmstadtin1991.”http://www.passivhaus.org.uk17“TheroleoftheInnovationParksistoinformtheindustryandpolicymakersontheviabilityofconstructioninnovationsthatcandeliverimprovedperformanceandtruesustainabilitywithinthebuiltenvironment.”http://ipark.bre.co.uk


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creditedwithconsiderablesignificanceandregularlyincludedinhistoriesofhousing.

Historiesregularlycitetheearlyexamplesofthenewmodelforurbanflatdwellings

constructedforthe1851ExhibitioninLondon’sHydePark,subsequentlyrelocatedto

KenningtonPark,18andthemuchlater,1905and1907LetchworthCheapCottages

exhibitionsdemonstratingthealternative,‘rural’option.19Otherkeyexhibitions

includetheWeissenhofSeidlungopenedin1927,thefirsttodemonstratetheideasof

themodernmovementarchitects,followedbytheViennaWerkbundexhibitionof

1932.MorerecentexamplesaretheBerlinIBAexhibitions,thefirstin1957which

continuedthemodernistapproachandthenthelesswellknown,in1984,whichsawa

‘postmodern’returntothetraditionalcityblock,whichthedirectorJosefPaul

Kleihuessawasanalogouswith‘thepaceoflifeandrhythmofurbanspace.’20The

mostrecentEuropeanmodelistheHousingFestivalintheHaguebuiltbetween1987

and2003.Intendedtoexhibitthebroadestrangeofhousingtypes,itdemonstrates

low,mediumandhigh-risetypologiesalongonelinearsite.21

ArchitectureBooks

Withfewsuchexhibitionsofferinganopportunitytoexplorethephysicalmateriality

andexperientialqualityaswellasthearchitecturalthinkingofactualbuiltexamples,18“ThefinalroomoftheExhibitionModelDwellingsmetthatdesireonareducedscale.Thisroomcontainedtwotypesofpublications:pamphletsandbooksdocumentingthecurrentstateofhousingofthepoor,andpamphletsandbooksdocumentingmodeldwellingsdesignedtoaddressandimprovethedireconditionsdocumentedinthefirstcategory.Therewerealsodisplaysofarchitecturalplansforthemodeldwellingsthroughwhichthevisitorhadjustwalkedaswellasothermodeldwellingsthesocietyhadbuiltelsewhere.Inotherwords,bookslikeRobert’sTheModelHousesforFamilies:BuiltinConnexionwiththeGreatExhibitionof1851byCommandofhisRoyalHighness,thePrinceAlbert,K.G.,displayedinthefinalroom,translatedintoprintfromthehousethroughwhichthevisitorhadjusttoured.”http://www.branchcollective.org/?ps_articles=barbara-leckie-prince-alberts-exhibition-model-dwellings19TheLetchworthCheapCottagesexhibitionsin1903and1907sponsoredbytheDailyMailledtotheIdealHomeExhibition(nowtheIdealHomeShow)whichcontinuedtoshowmodelhomes.ReferredtointheintroductiontoFrench,H.NewUrbanHousing“Itisnotsomuchamodelvillageasavillageofmodelcottages;andnotonlycottageswhicharemodelsinthesenseofbeingairy,sanitary,andfittedwithmodernappliances,butmodelsalsointhesenseofbeingexamples,tobeseenandhandled,ofwhatcanbebuiltinthisorthatmaterialtocostthisorthatsumofmoney.Here,aboveall,theby-laws,althoughtheyrightlyinsistonpropersanitation,donothingtostrangleinvention,ortochokeenterpriseindiscoveringnewmethodsandnewmaterials;sothatitispossible,insteadofmerelyreadingaboutwhatcanbedoneinframingcheapwallsandfoundationsandpartitions,actuallytowalkinandoutofcottagesmadeofironandwood,cement,expandedmetal,concrete,artificialstone,steelandplaster,andallthehundred-and-onecombinationsandvariationsofmaterialhithertoforbiddeninthegreatmajorityofruraldistricts."Ahundred-and-onevariations,"—itishardlyanexaggeration,forstandingintheExhibitiongroundsatLetchworthareactuallyahundredcottages,fiftyofthemfinishedalready,fiftymorebeingrapidlypushedtowardscompletion.”http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/22nd-july-1905/8/the-cheap-cottages-exhibition20Kleihues,IBACatalogue1984quotedinFrench,H.KeyUrbanHousingp15921French,HKeyUrbanHousingp193and196-97


18

architectsrelyheavilyonthenextbestthing,buildingreviews,whichincludeextensive

drawnanalysestogetherwithtextualdescriptionorcritique.Suchbuildingstudies

foundinprofessionaljournalsformthebasisofwhatarenowcommonlyreferredtoas

‘picturebooks’atermcoinedbyF.R.S.YorkeintheintroductiontoModernFlats

(1958),todescribebooksaimedatanarchitecturalaudience,theinformed

practitioner.

‘Picturebooks’,distinctfromtheoryortechnicalreferencebooks,sharerootswith

architects’foliosoriginallymadeforclients.AccordingtoPeterEisenman,bookswhich

combinedrawingswithtexthave“becomepartofanarchitecturaltradition.”22

Startingfromthegreatarchitecturaltreatises,citingprecedentsofVitruviusand

AlbertithroughSerlioandPalladiotoScammozziandLodoli,such‘books’included

reflectionsontheirbuiltworksaswellasdesignsandspeculationsonfutureworks

throughbothtextanddrawings.23Thisphenomenon,theinterrelationshipbetween

textanddrawingsisalsodiscussedbyAlanPowersinhisessayentitledThe

ArchitecturalBook.24Such‘picturebooks’wereofcourseusedbyarchitectsfor

promotionalpurposes,andcontinuetobeso,toshowpotentialclientstheirwork.

Beyondtheiruseasamarketingtoolandunlikea‘text’booktheyofferahybridwayto

conveyinformation,notnecessarilyinconsecutiveorder,alinearformatbutonethat

canaccommodateotherroutesthroughtheinformationcontained.

Itisimportanttomakeadistinctionbetweenwhatarereferredtohereas‘picture

books’andthe18thand19thcentury‘patternbooks’thatwereusedbybuildersata

timewhenarchitectsbecamelessandlessinvolvedinthehousingfield.Theirterraced

houseswhichtypifymostEnglishtownsandcities,arerarelycreditedtoany

architecturaldesigners.Inhisbook,TheEnglishTerracedHouse,StefanMuthesius

admitstoalackofanydetailedresearchintothedesignersofterracedhousingbut

claimsthatinanycasesuchresearchwouldbefutile.25Otherthanperhapssome

elevationsorsiteplansdrawnupbyarchitects,builderstookoverallresponsibility.

22Eisenman,P.,preface23SeeEisenman,P.,TheHousesofMemory:TheTextsofAnalogyfordiscussionofanalogouswritings,anddrawings.24SeeRattenbury,KEd.thisisnotarchitecture25Muthesius,Sp.251


19

Thisseparationbetweenarchitectsandbuilderswastoincreaseasarchitectsmoved

towardsprofessionalisation(achievedintheUKin1934)andbuildersconsolidatedan

entrepreneurialrole.Patternbookstherefore,regularlycopiedbybuilders,playedan

increasinglyusefulrole,alongwiththe‘howto’booksofvariousdifferentbuilding

constructiontradesuntilthebeginningofthe20thcenturywhentheyweregradually

replacedbycataloguesproducedbymanufacturersandsuppliers.

Inhousing,comparedtootherbuildingtypes,the‘picturebook’ismorecommon.Itis

notthepromotional‘portfolio’,norapatternbook,noracatalogueof‘offtheshelf’

typestobecopiedbuthasdevelopedasahybrid.Likethebuildingreviewsof

professionaljournals,itusesdrawnandtextualanalysisprovidinganalogousmodels

foraprofessionalaudience.

Twoofhousing’sbest-known‘picturebooks’aretheseminalworksbyFRSYorke

(1906-62)andFrederickGibberd(1908-84)TheModernFlat(1937)andModernFlats

(1958)publishedbytheArchitecturalPress.Theywereintendedtoencourage

architectstoengagewithhousingdesign,andmorespecificallythedesignofwhatwas

atthattimeanewbuildingtype–blocksofflats.TheModernFlatisfocusedon

projectsthathadbeenbuiltsince1927,withexamplesgroupedbycountry.

SymptomaticofthefirstgenerationofModernMovementarchitects,theintroductory

essayreinforcestheauthors’advocacyofhigherdensityurbandevelopment,and

particularlyflatsclaimingthat“theflathasproducedabuildingtypepeculiartoour

ownera:withoutprecedentinthearchitectureofthepast.”26Newindustrialised

fabricationsystemsratherthantraditionalbuildingmethods,akeyaspectof‘modern

architecture’,wasfurtherencouragementforarchitectstobecomeinvolvedwiththe

provisionofhousingand“aboveallseeingarchitectureasakeyelementinthedriveto

providepeoplewithbetter-qualityhousingandabetterwayofliving.”27Themain

contentofthebookistheseriesofbuildingstudies,withphotographsandshorttext

abouteachproject.Anintroductorychapterprovidesadviceonplanningwhich

includeskitchendesignclearlybasedonMargareteSchütteLihotsky’sFrankfurt

26Yorke,FRSandGibberd,FTheModernFlatp.627French,HKeyUrbanHousingp.12


20

Kitchen(1926)andbathroomswithminimumexposedpipeworkillustratedwith

Lubetkin’sHighpoint(1935).

By1958whenthesameauthorspublishedasecondvolume,thistimewithprojects

builtsincetheendofthewarin1945theyhaddecidedthatanycommentarywas

superfluous.Theyconsideredthattheirdecisionsonwhichprojectstoincludewere

adequatelyinfluentialwithouttheneedforanyadditionalcriticalcommentaryto

furthercontextualise,explainorsubstantiatetheirchoices,callingitsimply“apicture

bookinwhicharerecorded……..someofthemoredistinguishedflatbuildingswhich

havebeenbuiltinrecentyears.”28

RogerSherwood’sModernHousingPrototypespublishedin1978coverstheperiod

from1903andtherueFranklinApartments,ParisbyAugustPerretupuntilNeave

Brown’sFleetRoadHousing,Londondesignedin1967.AlthoughanAmerican

publication,itfocuseslargelyonthebest-knownEuropeanexamplesofmodernism’s

legacy.Theplanandsectiondrawingsof32casestudiesaremostlysimply

photographicallyreproducedinblackandwhitewhileaseriesofspeciallymade,

colourcoded,cutawayaxonometricprojectionsareusedforcomparison.Axonometric

(orisometric)projections,“Bypassednowbytheabilityofthecomputertotwist,turn

representandrepresent”29,aquickwaytodrawthreedimensionalformwithoutthe

laboriousconstructionrequiredforperspectives,hadbecomepopularfor

presentationsinthe1970s.BasedonJamesStirling’swork,widelypublishedinall

architecturaljournals,theydemonstratedconsiderableskillanddexterityandmade

‘technical’drawingsmoreappealingtoanon-specialistclientaudience.

TheFloorPlanManualpublishedin1994,startswiththeUnitéd’Habitationin

Marseilles(designedin1947),includesafewregularlycitedexamplesfromthe1950s

and60sthenfocusesmainlyonprojectsbuiltinthe20yearperiodfrom1975onwards

mainlyinNorthernEurope.Averyambitiousandinformativepublication,itincludes

dataandtextinGermanandEnglish,aswellaspresentingallthedrawingstoa

28Yorke,FRSandGibberd,FModernFlatsp.729Cook,Pp.99


21

uniformscale.However,inthesamewayasSherwood’sbook,itmostlyreproduces

original,oftenconstructiondrawingswithahighlevelofdetailatmuchreducedsize,

resultinginpoorlegibilityandconsiderableunevenness(Figs.1,2&3).Formatsfor

LivingContemporaryfloorplansinAmsterdam,30takesanovelapproachtothegenre.

Sixexpertswereinvitedtocurateacollectionofrecentlybuiltresidentialbuildings,

showingonlytheseriesofplans,followingashortintroductorycommentary.Theplans

arepresentedwithnoannotationotherthanthenameofthearchitect,the(street)

nameoftheprojectandwhethermarketsectororsubsidised.Itisfrustratingnotto

seethebuildingplanorsiteplanwhichwasperhapspresumedunnecessaryforthose

familiarwithAmsterdamanditshousingbutthepresentationoftheplansinavery

smallformatbook,drawninthesamestyletothesamescale,focusesattentiononthe

particularissuesofinternallayout.

Threerecentpublicationswhicharenotstrictly‘picturebooks’havemadeuseful

contributiontothesubjectofflexibility.ThemostcomprehensiveisFlexibleHousing

byTatianaSchneiderandJeremyTillpublishedin2007bytheArchitecturalPress.It

providesanhistoricalanalysisofflexiblehousing,andmakesastrongcaseforits

support.BasedonGroák’sdefinitions(seep.10)thetermflexibilityisusedtoinclude

adaptability.31Achronologicallypresentedselectionofexamplesprovidesa

comprehensivereferencedlistofprojectsand-themostimportantprojects32-are

developedfurtherinaseriesof84casestudiescarefullydrawnforconsistencyof

presentationtothesamescale,inplan(1:200).Approximatelyhalfofthecasestudies

areofapartmentbuildingsorurbanblockswithmanyunbuiltprojectsorstudies

includedaswellasdetachedandsemi-detachedhouses.

TotalHousing;alternativestourbansprawl(2010),includesonlybasicdata,randomly

scaleddrawingsandcaptionedphotographsof61projectsbuiltinthefirstdecadeof

30Kloos,MandWendt,D(Eds)“Theuniformmethodofdrawinghasresultedinalucidcollectionofplans,whichforalltheirapparentsimplicitycontainanencryptedcode–aformatforliving.”Cover31Schneider,TandTill,Jp4“Ourbroaddefinitionofflexiblehousingishousingthatcanadjusttochangingneedsandpatterns,bothsocialandtechnological.Thesechangingneedsmaybepersonal(sayanexpandingfamily),practical(i.e.theonsetofoldage)ortechnological(i.e.theupdatingofoldservices).Thechangingpatternsmightbedemographic(saytheriseofthesinglepersonhousehold),economic(i.e.theriseoftherentalmarket)orenvironmental(i.e.theneedtoupdatehousingtorespondtoclimatechange)”32Ibidp203


22

thetwentyfirstcentury.Organizedunconventionally,accordingtothetotalnumbers

ofunitsthatrangefromfourto750thesignificanceofeachprojectisnotalways

evident.Todefinethequalitiesoftheprojects,itreliesonaseriesof13‘keywords’33,

fourofwhicharegroupedundertheheading‘Flexibility’.34Thefirstofthese

‘adaptability’isdefinedasabove,‘openness’relatestoindeterminatespaceandthe

thirdis‘spaciousness’orsimplyspace.Thefourth,‘unitvariety’ismoreoftenrelated

toadaptabilityandtheoptionsforalternativeaccommodationforchangingfamiliesin

thesameapartmentblockorestate.Inthisinstance,noneofthekeywordsused

impliesthecapabilityforfuturephysicalalterations.AviFreidmaninTheAdaptable

House(2002)definesthetermas“refittingthephysicalenvironmentastheresultofa

newcircumstance”35butthengoesontotakeaslightlydifferentpositionfocusingon

process.Adaptability,heproposes,canbeintroducedatthreedifferentstagesofa

project;attheinitialdesignstage,attheconstructionstageorbytheusers.

MethodandApproach

‘Picturebooks’

Mypicturebooksbuildontheapproachofthe20thcenturypicturebooksinan

attempttoprovideanalogousreference.Theyusearchitecturalmethods,drawingand

typologicalclassificationstopresentaseriesofbuildingstudiesforcomparison.

ThebookthataccompaniedtheAccommodatingChangeexhibitiongavemetheinitial

opportunitytoexperimentwithusinganalyticaldrawingsforcomparativepurposes.

Unitplansandsiteplanswereincluded,inaminimalway,ontheinsidecoversasan

33Ferre,AandTihamer,Sp.4Thequalitiessummarizedinthekeywordsareprojects“…whichexemplifyoutstandinginnovationsinconstructionsystems,layoutofresidentialspace,systemsofunitaggregation,integrationoftheresidentialprogramintotheotherfunctionsthatmakeupourcities,andrepercussionsintheformationoftheurbanfabric.34ibidp5.ThefinalfourkeywordsgroupedundertheheadingFlexibilityare:-“10.AdaptabilityBuiltspacecanfacilitateandaccommodateagreatnumberofrequirementsandactivitiesbothpredictableandunpredictable,forknownandunknownuses.11.Openness.Spaceisendowedwithflexibilitythroughtheremovaloftraditionalassociationsbetweenfunctionsandroomsinfavouroftheindeterminationoffluidspaces12.SpaciousnessTherealluxury(andtheplatformfortheeffectivedevelopmentofmultipleactivities)isspace.13.UnitVarietyResidentialprojectsnolongertendtorespondtoasinglestandardprogramanduser.Thediversitypresentinsocietyisalsotranslatedintothespatialcomplexityoftheproject.”35Friedman,A,p.12


23

additiontothearchitects’originalcompetitionsubmissions,themaincontentofthe

book.Inthethreetitlesthatfollowed,NewUrbanHousing(2006),KeyUrbanHousing

oftheTwentiethCentury(2008)andPatternsofLiving:HongKong’sHigh-Rise

Communities(2013)drawingswerespeciallymadefortheanalysisandcomparisonof

aseriesofcasestudies.362Ddrawings,ratherthanperspectiveoraxonometric

projectionswereusedastheworksareintendedforanarchitecturalaudienceadeptat

readingdrawingsratherthanalayaudience.FurtherforbothKeyUrbanHousingand

PatternsofLiving,inadditiontoensuringreproductionofdrawingstoauniformscale

andstyleIworkedcloselywiththegraphicdesignersonthepagelayouts.

Usingthesamemethodandapproach,eachtitlehasadifferentfocus.NewUrban

Housinglookedspecificallyatprojectscompletedintherecentfive-yeartimeframe

organizedbyfourformaltypologies;terracesandrowhouses,quadranglesand

courtyards,cityblocksandinfill,andtowersandslabs.KeyUrbanHousingtookan

historicalperspectivetolookaturbanhousingdevelopmentthroughthe20thcentury.

Thepublisher’scommitmenttoa‘picturebook’–basedlargelyonthebeliefthat

computerswouldmaketheprocessmuchfasterandeasier-wascoupledwithadesire

toincludeprojectsfromasmanycountriesaspossible.Bothbookswerelimitedin

extentanditwasnecessarytoreducetheoriginallonglistofpotentialprojects.Itwas

clearthatcertainwell-knowntwentiethcenturyprojectswouldbeincluded,andIused

aloosestylisticchronologicalcategorisationtogroupthemwithothersselectedmainly

fortheirinnovativeapproachparticularlytoissuesofflexibility.PatternsofLiving

focusedontheworkofonesignificantprovider,theHongKongHousingAuthority

(HKHA)fromtheirbeginningsin1954tothepresentday.Allprioritisedrawings.

36FollowingthepublicationofAccommodatingChange,eachtitleallowedforanincreaseduseofdrawingsasfollows:NewUrbanHousing2006:Unitplans–asprovidedbyarchitects.Blockplans–newdrawingsfromdataprovidedbyarchitectsKeyUrbanHousingoftheTwentiethCentury:Unitplans–newdrawingsfromdataprovidedbyarchitectsorsourcedinarchivesandlibraries.Blockplans–newdrawingsfromdataprovidedbyarchitectsorsourcedinarchivesandlibraries.AlldrawingswereprovidedasPDFandEPSfilesinAdobeIllustratoronaCDPatternsofLiving:Unitplans–newdrawingsfromprimarysurveymaterial.Typicalblockplansandunitplans–newdrawingsfromdatasourcedintheHKHousingAuthorityarchives


24

Drawings

Drawingislanguageandmemory,ameansofcommunicationwithoneselfandwith

others,construction.”37

Unlikeotherartistsarchitectsdonotgenerallyenjoyacloseinvolvementwiththe

fabricationoftheirwork.Theyaredistancedfromproduction,obligedtousedrawings

asanintermediarytoexplainandprovidedirectiontoothersonhowtoconstructtheir

works.38Butbeyondthismostdirectrole,highlystylisedandcodifiedarchitectural

drawingisalsothemeanstodescribeandunderstandarchitecturalideas.Drawingin

AlvaroSiza’swordsis“amongstmanyotherthings,aworkingtool,awayoflearning,

understanding,communicating,transforming;awayofdesigning.”39Drawingbecomes

theessentialtoolbutisalsoameansofexpression,thesubjectofPeterCook’sbook,

andinhiswords“amotorthatabsorbsimaginationandconvertsitintousableor

transferableinformation”.40Cookmentionstheuseoftextonlyfleetinglyinawork

thatfocusesprimarilyondrawingsthatareexpressiveofideas.Textisusedtoa

greaterextentindescriptiveoranalyticaldrawings.AdrianFortyhoweverdevotes

considerableefforttoaquestioningofwhethertextordrawingssaythemost.41

Drawingisclearlyaveryefficientwaytodescribethree-dimensionalform,anduses

annotationwhennecessarytoenhancethecontent,particularlyatlargerscalewhen

greaterprecisionisrequired.Perhapsthequestionisirrelevant?AsCooksaysperhaps

theexpressivenatureofthedrawing–thedegreeofrhetoric-changestosuitthe

audiencefromthemostbasicworkingdrawingforbuilders,throughthosetodiscuss

withcolleaguesandthosetoimpressclients,tothe“Whizzbangforthenewspaper.”42

Anecdotally,architecturaldrawingshavebeenmoreusefullycomparedtomusical

scores;theysimilarlyrelyon(Italian)annotationforenhancementbuthaveamuch

moredirectrelationshipwiththemusictheydescribethananyevocationinatextual

descriptioncould,irrespectiveoflanguage.Similarlybothrelyonaparticularand

distincttalentfortheircreationandfortheirinterpretation.37Siza,Ap.2238SeeEvans,Rp.156“Iwassoonstruckbywhatseemedatthetimethepeculiardisadvantageunderwhicharchitectslabour,neverworkingdirectlywiththeobjectoftheirthought,”39Siza,Ap.1740Cook,Pp.21141SeeForty,A42Cook,Pp.104


25

Theconventionsoforthographicprojectionandgraphictechniqueforeverydaydesign

andproduction,asevidencedbyprofessionaljournals,haschangedlittlesincethefirst

decadesofthe20thcentury.Presentationstyles–whenaimedatanon-professional

audience–variedmore,notablywithaswitchfromtheuseofperspectiveto

axonometricorisometricprojectionsandofcoursecanincludescalemodels.Bythe

1970stheuseofcolourphotography,becamemoreprevalent,offering,itseemed,a

moresubjectiveandseductivedescriptionofcompletedbuildings,ratherthanthe

blackandwhiteanalyticaldrawings.AtthesametimetheswitchfromImperialto

metricmeasurementsinBritainintheearly1970saffectedlargerscaledetaildesign

drawingsandspecificationterminologybutmadelittledifferenceatsmallscaleas

metricscaleswereeasilyapproximatedtoestablishedimperialscales.43However,the

introductionofcomputerdrawingadecadelater,alongwithitseffectonexpressive

drawingsandevenondesign,changedanyperceptionofscaleatthetimedrawings

areproduced.Inthecomputer,anythingandeverythingisdrawnatanysizeandcan

bealteredinfinitelytobelookedatorprintedatanyscale,irrevocablychangingthe

waywemakechoicesaboutcontentandlegibilityeveninthesimplestofanalytical

drawings.

Typologies

Thereisnodoubtthatforarchitects,straightforwardanalyticaldrawingsarethe

fastestwaytounderstandabuildinganditsarchitecturalideas.Housingplans

particularly,oftenwithoutanyneedforsectionsorelevations,canbesufficientto

revealmeaning.Withtheunchangingbrief‘todesignafamilyhouse’foran

anonymousclient,andoftenwithouteventheinspiration(orconstraint)ofaparticular

sitetoinfluencedecisionmaking,housingdesignaccordingtoSherwood“lendsitself

readilytosystematictypologicalstudy.”44Hespeculatesthatarchitects’useofexisting

modelsorprototypesissimilartothemathematicians’useofanauxiliarytheorem;

thatistheyprovideanapproximateoranalogousanswertoaproblemtobesolved.43Thedifferencesbetweenthemostcommonlyusedimperialscalesandtheirmetricstandardequivalentsweremostlybarelyperceptible(4%)e.g.1/16inchtoafootor1:192to1:200,1/8thinchtoafootor1:96to1:100,¼inchtoafootor1:48to1:50.Theonlyperceptibledifferenceisat½inchor1:24whichbecame1:20,20%different,andsomedraughtsmancontinuedtousetheAmericanstandard1:25scaleinstead.44Sherwood,Rp.2


26

HedrawsonAlanColquhoun’stextTypologyasDesignMethodwhichsuggeststhatin

aworldwhereneitherimitationofpaststylesnorthefunctionalismofmodernismcan

providealltheanswers,the“intuitivemethodsofdesigntraditionallyusedby

architectsareincapableofdealingwiththecomplexityoftheproblemstobesolved.”45

Basedonknowledgeofhistoryandtheworkofpeers,anoutlineplanor‘typological

diagram’canbeusedtorepresentatype-thetypeitselfispositionedsomewhere

betweenthediagramandtheword.46Taxonomiesofdwellingorunitplansareeasily

readandunderstood,aidedbyadiscretevocabularyorshorthandterminology,most

oftenrelatedtoaccessarrangements.ForLeupenandMooij,inHousingDesignA

Manual,thestartingpointistheItalianarchitecturalhistorianGiulioCarloArgan’s

(1909-1992)OntheTypologyofArchitecture(1963),[inturnbasedontheworkofthe

FrenchtheoristQuatremeredeQuincy(1755-1849)]-whichproposedthree

typologicallevels:firstlytheoverallconfiguration,secondlythemajorstructural

elementsandthirdlythedecorativeelements.Forresidentialbuildings,becauseof

theircomplexity,LeupenandMooijproposeafurtherclassification.Called‘theurban

ensemble’,thisisbasedonaccessarrangementsandhowtheindividualdwellingsare

organisedasawhole.47Forthedesigners,referencetoprecedentsclassifiedby

typologiesbecomesthebasisofthe‘language’ofhousingprovidingtheanalogous

formsorthe‘auxiliarytheorems’borrowedfrommathematicians,thatenablebetter

understandingofaproblemtobesolved.

Aswithallcreativeendeavor,thereisargumentagainstknowingtoomuch,believing

thata‘blankpage’willprovokegreateroriginalityasarguedbyTillandWigglesworth.

Theysuggestthatarchitectswouldbebetterapproachinghousingdesignfromawider

perspectivelabelingthetypologicalapproach“apeculiarlyarchitecturaldescriptionof

theworld”andthatthe“poweroftypologiesisthattheseabstractionscanbeclassified

andsubjectedtorules,creatinganintrovertedarchitecturalworlduntoitself.”48There

maybesomesenseintheideathattoomuchknowledgemightbeahindranceto

somepossiblylessexperiencedarchitects,however“whatwedoknowisthatmany

45Colquhoun,Ap.1146SeeLeupen,BandMooij,HChapter2Theoriginsoftheconceptoftypeusingtheatreasanexamplep.4447ibidp.4548Till,JandWigglesworth,Sp.152


27

renownedarchitectshaveanin-depthknowledgeofarchitecturehistoryandare

extremelywellinformedabouttheircolleagues’work”49moreoveritisevidentthat

newtypologiesareinventedasarchitectsrespondtothechangingcontextfortheir

work.

Urbanensemble

“Housingschemesshouldneverbeginashousingschemesbutasurbandesigns.

Designsforhousingshouldbedriveninthefirstinstancebyanideaaboutthecity.We

shoulddesignstreetsandpublicspacesfirst-domesticlayoutsshouldfollow.”50

PeterBarberiswritinginsupportofthestreetbutwhetherstreet,cityblockor

isolatedtower,itisalmostimpossibletodescribeahomeoridentifyadwellingtype

withoutsimultaneouslyidentifyingtheurbanformtowhichitrelates.Residential

buildingsarethemostcommonbuildingtypeinanycity,formingtheframeworkofthe

cityanddefiningitsgrainortexture.Whethertheprevalenttypeisterracedorrow

houses,blocksorisolatedtowers,knowledgeofthe‘urbanensemble’isnecessaryto

completethepictureofthelocalityandthewaythattheinhabitantsmightoccupy

theirprivatespaceandthesurroundingneighbourhood.

However,architecturehasoftenignoredthecomplexitiesofthestructureoftheurban

environmentandparticularlyitsconstantlychangingnature.My1994discussionofthe

urbanenvironmentconsideredthelimitationsofmucharchitecturalhistoryandtheory

thatprivilegesthevisualandseesarchitectureaspartofastaticformalcomposition,

likeafineartpiece.Itconcludedthat“thestreetandtheoutsidespacesofthecityare

asimportantifnotmoresothanthebuildingstheyrelateto.Whetherinthetownor

thecountrytheroadrepresentstheultimatesharedspacesandourrighttotravelit.

Therearenoenclosures,nothreshold,nobarriertoourmovementalongit.”51Based

onthestudyofHeidegger’sphenomenology,itexploredhiswritingsonbuildingand

particularlyhisideasoftimeand‘permanances’andtheirusefulnessasawayto

understandthecomplexitiesofthecontinuallychangingurbanlandscape.49Leupen,BandMooij,Hp.4150Barber,Pp.1951French,HASenseofPlaceaSenseofFreedomReportsubmittedfortheUCLMSc1994


28

Thenotionofthecityas‘nonstatic’gainedpopularityfromthe1970sonwardsasa

reactiontotheprevailingideas,rootedinthevisual,picturesquetraditionstypifiedin

suchworksasGordonCullen’sTownscape(1961)andKevinLynch‘sTheImageofthe

City(1960).Atthetime,AldoRossi’sthesisTheArchitectureoftheCity(1966,Eng.

1982),presentedatimelynewapproachtotheideaofthecity,definedasthe

‘analagous’city52whichproposedanurbanmorphologybasedonculturalandsocial

considerations.Insteadofmodernism’stabularasa,heidentifieswhathenames

certain‘permanences’or‘persistences’i.e.elementsthatcontinue,coupledwitha

typologyofvernacularandneo-classicalarchitecturalform.Streetsaretheprime

exampleofpersistences.Hisclassifications,of‘inhabitedrealestate’,whichare

describedasdescriptive,geometricortopographicarethenowfamiliar

categorisations;isolatedslabs/towers,terraces,cityblocksandcourtyard

buildings.53Meaning,heposits,developsthroughuseandactivityovertime-theimage

ofthecityisnotfixed–andwillbeviewedandinterpreteddifferentlyovertime.

In1981,LionelEsherincludesinthefinalchapterofhisseminalworkABrokenWave

thestatement“weshouldceasetolayclaimtotheenvironmentasaprimarilyvisual

experience,…itisagreatdealmorethatthat;itisapprehendedbyalltheothersenses

andsomewescarcelyunderstand.Wenolongerexpectpeopletostandbacklike

touristsandgapeatourbuildings,butsimplytousethemastheyuseapubor

market.”54AsimilarideaisexpressedbyNigelCoates,inconversationwithAlicia

Pivaro,“Architectureisapublicart,asettingupofframeworkswhicharenever

absoluteinuseorinterpretation”55

Thesectionthatfollowsgivesanoverviewofhowthescanthistoryofflexiblehousing

hasbeenrepresentedinthecontextofmyworks.Myworkhasnotintendedtoinvent

newclassificationsofhousingtypologiesbuthasappliedthefamiliarlanguageofthe

52Rossi,Ap.1853ibidp.49.Hisclassificationsare:1.Ablockofhousessurroundedbyopenspace;2.Ablockofhousesconnectedtoeachotherandfacingthestreet,constitutingacontinuouswallparalleltothestreetitself;3.Adeepblockofhousesthatalmosttotallyoccupiestheavailablespace;4.Houseswithclosedcourtsandsmallinteriorstructures.54Esher,Lp.29655Coates,Np.324


29

interrelationshipof‘planconfiguration’andthe‘urbanensemble’inarangeofcase

studies.Ingeneralmyworkdoesnotfocusonurbantypologyalthoughthishasbeen

usedasacuratorialdevice.Itusesdrawingsofblockplansincombinationwithunit

planstosupporttheideaofthe“interdependenceandsymbiosisbetweenhouseand

city”56

56Oostenbrink,Mp.41


30

UnconventionalFamilies

“althoughsocialstructureshavechangedconsiderablyinthepastdecades-withthe

resultsthatthesignificanceoftheaveragenuclearfamilycontinuestodecline-the

typicalapartmentfloorplanisstillalmostexclusivelydesignedfortheneedsofjust

suchafamily…”57

Theratherobviousneedtohousemanydifferentkindsof‘families’continuestobe

largelyignoredbyvolumehousebuilders.Mostlytheyrepeatthesameidentical–

usuallytwostorey,threebedroom-housetype,preferringtomarkettheirhomesto

theidealisedversionofthe‘conventional’family–theworkingman,hiswifewho

lookedafterthehomeand,probably,twochildren.Asearlyas1937theintroduction

toTheModernFlat,whichurgedarchitectstotakemoreinterestinhousingdesign,

providedaninclusivedefinitionofthefamily“…(it)mayconsistofasingleperson,

livingeitheralone,orwithfriends,oritmayconsistofmanandwife,withorwithout

children,and/orotherdependents.”58The1944HousingManualproposedthatother

versionsofthe‘family’shouldbeaccommodatedbyprovidingdwellingsofdifferent

sizesinnewhousingestates.“Inadditiontothethreebedroomhouses,aproportionof

largerhousesforlargefamiliesandofsmallerdwellingsforoldpeople,singlepeople,

andotherswhoseneedscannotbemetbytheemergencyhouses,willusuallybe

required.59Then,onlyfiveyearslater,the1949HousingManual,takesthisonestep

furtherstatingthatthehousingshortagewouldnotbesolvedwithonly‘thenormal

familyhouses’,butsuggeststhereisaneedfor‘amuchgreatervarietyoftypesof

houses,somelarger,somesmaller……inordertomeetinabalancedwaythevarying

requirementsofthepopulationasawhole”60butleavingthedecisiononthemake-up

ofanyestatetotheLocalAuthoritywhichwasexpectedtohavebetterknowledgeof

itsneighbourhood.

57Schittich,Cp.958Yorke,FRSandGibberd,FTheModernFlat1937p.759TheHousingManual1944Para3060TheHousingManual1949Introductionp11

SECTIONTWOAdaptableHousing


31

Throughoutmywork,Ihaveresistedtreatinghousingdesignedforstudents,the

elderly,thementallyill,oranyotherkindsofsingletonsasaseparatesubjectandhave

includedexamplesofsuchhousingschemesalongsideotherkindsofhomes.Although

ithasbeenlargelyignoredbyvolumehousebuildersandoftennotsubjecttothesame

legislativeframeworks,andconsideredasonlytemporaryaccommodation,housingfor

singlepeople,particularlystudentsisneverthelessanincreasinglysignificantelement

inmanycities.6162

Fromtimetotime,smallerthannormal–‘microflats’ortheircurrentincarnationas

PocketLiving63supportedinLondonbyGLAfunds–arereinventedasawaytoprovide

affordablehomesforyoungpeopleunabletobuyatmarketprices.64Oftencriticised

fortheresultinghigherdensityandpressureonlocalamenitiesandparkingspaces

withmoredwellingstotheacre,theywillmorelikelysimplycontributetofurther

housepriceincreasesthroughincreasedpriceoflandandbecomenewpieds-à-terre

fortheveryrich.Butwemustaskourselvesabouttheabsolutes;canreasonable

accommodationbeprovidedinasmallerspacethantheminimumstandards?In

Japan,forexample,themuchhigherdensitiesofcitiessuchasTokyohavelong

supportedmuchsmallerdwellingsthanthoseinBritishcities.Oneofthebestknown

inmodernhistoriesistheCapsuleTower(1972)(Fig.4)designedbyKishoKurakawa

(1934-2007)whichisalsooneofthefewbuiltexamplesofthecontemporaryideas

aboutthenonstaticcityandflexibility.“Thebuildingcanbethoughtofintwoparts.

Oneisthefixedstructuraltowers…….Thesecondelement,….istheindividual‘pods’:

manufactured…..inafactoryandbroughttositetobeattachedtothesuperstructure,

theyaremorelikepiecesofequipmentthandwellings.”65InEngland,thesmallestliving

spacesarethosebuiltforstudentsandalthoughundersizedarenowgenerallyofa

61“WehaveseenextraordinarygrowthinUKstudentnumbersoverthepast20yearsandwhileUKstudentnumbersarenowstabilised,internationalstudentnumberssettorisedramaticallyinthenextdecade.Theprovisionofgoodqualitystudentaccommodationwastraditionallytheresponsibilityoftheuniversitiesbutinrecentyears,mostnewaccommodationhadbeenprovidedbyprivateinvestorsanddevelopers.”JHillmanchairofJLLAlternativeshttp://www.propertyfundsworld.com/2015/09/2262Censuscomparisons2001-2011inEnglandandWales.Inrelationtotheincreaseintheoverallpopulation,therewaslittlechangeinthenumberofone-personhouseholds.Howevertherewasatwofoldincreaseinpersonsincommunalestablishmentsandafourfoldincreaseinotherhouseholds.Thenumberofonefamilyhouseholdsreducedby50%.Seehttp://www.ons.gov.uk63https://www.pocketliving.com/homes/ebook64http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/davehillblog/2013/sep/06/boris-housing-covenant-pocket-homes65French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.142-3


32

highqualityandlikehotelroomsareprovidedwithen-suitebathroomsallowingthem

toeasilydoubleupasconferenceaccommodationduringthevacations.66Walter

Menteth’sschemeatHighCrossRoadinLondon(2007)(Fig.5),reinventsthetwo-

storeyterracedhouseinminiature–just47m2–toprovideaccommodationfor

mentalhealthresidents.Ononeside,thehousesmaintaintheconventionsofthe

street,ontheothertheyopenontoaprotected,shared,courtyardgarden.Peter

Barberhasalsodevisedsimilarsmallterracedhousesreferredtoas‘microhouses’

withamezzanineabovethelivingspace,basedonalmshouses,forasoontobe

completedschemeinHolmesRoad,London.67‘Efficiency’apartmentsor‘apartment

hotels’,whichvastlyreducedthespaceofanormalflat,appearedintheearly20th

centuryinNewYorkandotherbigcitiesintheUS,untiltheywereoutlawedby

changestolegislation.68InLondon,theLawnRoadFlats(Isokon)(1934),which

epitomizedtheideaofthe‘bachelorapartment’,providedprivatelivingspacewiththe

servicesofahotel,suchaslaundry,cleaningandcommunalfoodpreparation.69

ThemostextremeversionofminimallivingspacewastobeintroducedintheSoviet

Unionintheearly20thcentury.Followinglawspassedin1918tonationaliselandand

abolishprivaterealestate,anewsocialorderwastobeintroducedthatwouldrelyon

areassessmentofthefamilyandthedesignandconstructionofnewkindsofhousing.

Efficientandminimalprivatespaceswouldallowforseparatesocialspacessuchas

gyms,nurseriesandcanteens.ThebestknownistheNarkomfin(1930)(Fig.6)in

Moscow,attributedtoMoseiGinzburginhisroleasheadofthestandardisation

sectionoftheconstructioncommittee.Thebuilding,whichhasan‘F’type

‘transitional’70plan,isbestknownforitscleversplitlevelsectionanddoubleheight

spaceratherthanitsminimalapproachandiscommonlyconsideredtheforerunnerof

LeCorbusier’sUnitésection.Theideaoftheminimaldwelling–usingefficiencyto

providebasicworkershousingofhighquality-wasthefocusoftheCIAMcongressin

Frankfurtin1929andmanylessextremeversionsfollowed.Asatype,theshared66French,HKeyUrbanHousingUniversityCentreHousing,Urbino,Italy,GiancarloDeCarlo1973-83p.144andNewUrbanHousingWestfieldStudentVillage,QueenMaryCollege,London2004,FieldenCleggBradleypp.60-63,SimmonsHall,MIT,CambridgeUSA2002StevenHollpp.112-1667http://www.peterbarberarchitects.com/holmes-gardens68French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.38-3969French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.56-5970French,HLivingTogetherp.35


33

kitchensandotherelementsofcommunallivingarrangementsareacceptedasthe

normforstudenthousingandotherversionshaveappearedfromtimetotime.71

Sharedhousing(HMOs),whilsteminentlypracticalinmanyways,toprovidefor

singletonsoranyotherwiderdefinitionof‘family’,hasclearlypresenteda

considerablechallenge.Apartfromtheintroductionofthetwo-bedtwo-bathroom

apartmentsdevelopedforLondon’sincreasingbuy-to-letmarketinrecentyears,

housebuilderscontinuetoignoreallbuttheidealisedviewoftheconventionalfamily.

Moreover,aswellaspersistingwithaverynarrowviewofitsmake-up,housebuilders

persistintreatingthe‘family’asastaticentity.Whatever‘shape’,thefamilyneeds

changeaspeoplegrowolder.CleardirectionsinthegovernmentpublicationHomes

forTodayandTomorrow(1961),whichledtothepublicationoftheParkerMorris

minimumspacestandards,acknowledgedthata‘family’–ofwhatevermake-up-

wouldchangeovertime.“Inadditiontochangesinthesizeoffamilies,waysoflifein

thehomewillalsochangeduringthefamilycycle.”Designingflexiblehomesthat

wouldaccommodatesuchchangeswouldseemtobethelogicalnextstep.

FlexibleHousingorTightFitFunctionalism

“IntheUK,housesaresoldbynumberofroomsanddesignatedroomtypesinsteadof

overallfloorarea.Statusandthusvalueliefirstinthenumberofroomsratherthan

theirsize.Spacesaredesigneddowntotheabsolutelimitsoftheirdesignatedfunction,

oftendeterminedthroughtheirfurniturelayouts.”72

Flexibility,isaverybroadterm.Initsmostobviousliteralsenseitisappliedtotheuse

ofdynamicelements,slidingpartitions,orfoldawayfurniturethatmeanspacescanbe

immediatelyaltered.Wearefamiliarwiththemagicaltransformationmadepossible

byslidingandfoldingpartitionsinthefirstflooroftheSchröderHouse(Rietveld1924)

inUtrechtbutthisisnotthemostcommonapplication.Atitsmostbasictheterm

meansthatitispossibletorearrangethefurniture;forexamplewindows,doorsand

71SeeFrench,HLivingTogetherinImpossibleWorldstheArchitectureofPerfection,forahistoryofcommunalandcollectivelivingprojects72Schneider,TandTill,Jp.36


34

evenelectricsocketsarepositionedinsuchawaythatallowsthis.Attheother

extreme,atamuchlargerurbanscale,itreferstotheideaofastructural‘support’

systemthatallowsforseparate,evenindividuallydesigned,unitstobeinserted.

Somewherebetweenthetwoisanopportunityforthedesignofhousingwhichis

moreadaptable-designsthatcanaccommodatesignificantphysicalalteration

instigatedbytheresidents.Thiscanbeachievedinvariousways.Firstly,designingthe

structureandservicesinacertainwaycanmeanthattheoverallspaceofthehouse

canbeextendedexternallywithextensionsandadditions.Secondly,anapproachto

thedesignofstructureandservicesmeansthattheinternalpartitionscanbeeasily

movedsotheinteriorcanbealteredorremodelledentirely.Bothcanaccommodate

changesoveraperiodofyearsasfamilycircumstanceschange.Thirdly,layoutsthat

allowroomstobethrowntogetherorseparated,andincorporatewintergardensor

enclosedloggiasallowresidentstoaltertheirhomesmuchmorequicklyforsocial

occasions,orfromwintertosummertoaccommodatedifferentactivities.Thereisalso

growinginterestintheideaofundifferentiatedspaceorindeterminatespacethat

allowstheinhabitantstodecideontheiruse.Importantlyflexibledesignsimplythat

theresidentshavearighttoinvolvethemselvesintheprocessofdesigningtheir

environmentandthatarchitectsmustextendtheirthinkingtoimaginehowpeople

mightchoosetolivewithalternativelayoutsratherthanfixed,perfectedlayouts.

Itisdifficulttodatepreciselytheintroductionofideasofflexibilityinhousingdesign.

AccordingtoarchitecturalhistorianAdrianForty“Although……particularelementsof

flexibilityhadbeenacknowledgedinworksofarchitectureproducedearlier,asa

generalarchitecturalprinciple,thewordflexibilityenteredcurrencyaroundtheearly

1950s.”73TheearlierworkshecitesaretheShröderhouseinUtrecht(1924)andthe

MaisonduPeupleinClichy(1938)bothinhiscategoryof‘FlexibilitybyTechnical

Means’,i.e.withmovingwallsandfloors.74Alloftheversionsof‘flexibility’outlined

abovehadbeendemonstratedinhousingprojectsmuchearlier.Forexampleall

appearindifferentbuildingsintheWeissenhofmodelhousingexhibitionof1927.Mies

VanderRohe’s,prominentfour-storeyblock(Fig.7),“achievedtheideaofflexibilityin73Forty,Ap.14274Forty,A,Theother“distinctstrategiesof‘flexibility’inarchitecture”heidentifiesareRedundancyandAsaPoliticalStrategy.pp142-48


35

allitsvariousinterpretations.”75Ithasasimplelinearformwithstructuralelements

limitedgenerallytotheexteriorofthebuildingandjustafewcarefullypositioned

interiorcolumns.Windowsarearrangedasacontinuoushorizontalbandandthereare

regularlyplacedverticalshaftsfortheaccessstairscoupledwithductsforplumbing.

Thisarrangementisoneoftheearliestexamplesofa‘frame’structurethatallowedfor

severaldifferentpartitionconfigurationsresultinginavarietyofapartmentlayoutsof

differentsizes.Atalaterdate,thewholeoftheinteriorcouldbedemolishedand

redesignedwithadifferentconfigurationwhilstleavingthebuildingintact.Someof

Mies’interiorlayoutsalsoincorporatedslidingpartitionsthatallowedforchangeover

amuchshortertime,anideaseeninearlierAmericanefficiencyapartmentsand

centraltothedesignofAndreLurçat’srowofterracedhouses(Fig.8),attheVienna

Werkbund(1932).76Lurçat’shouseslookedattheuseofspaceover24hoursand

proposedfoldingbedsthatcouldbehiddenawayduringthedayallowingthespaceto

beusedforotherpurposes.Thehousesalsoincorporatedanewkindofindeterminate

space–labeleda‘breezeway’-akindofbufferzonebetweenthepublicdomainand

theprivatespaceofthehomeandaterraceatrooflevelthatallowedthepossibilityof

extension.

Despiteinterestinthemodernistideasshownattheseexhibitions,thereislittle

evidencetoshowanyimpactinhousingpracticeortheoryuntilthe1960swhenthe

Dutcharchitect,JohnHabraken(1928-),directorofSAR(NetherlandsFoundationfor

ArchitectsResearch)from1965to1975publishedwhatisnowconsideredtobethe

keyworkinthefieldofflexiblehousingentitledSupports,anAlternativetoMass

Housing(1962).77Onreflectionwecanseetheideascontainedinhisworkrealisedin

otherprojectsofthattime;buildingsthatimpliedaflexibilitythroughaclear

differentiationbetweeninfrastructureandinfillsuchasPianoandRogers’sPompidou

Centre(1977)inParis,orCedricPrice’sInteractionCentre(1973)inLondon.Ina

lecturegivenbyHabrakenonthepublicationofhisbookinEnglishin1972,hestated

75French,HKeyUrbanHousingp.48andNewUrbanHousingp.1476French,HKeyUrbanHousingp62-63andNewUrbanHousingp.1577Aformalresearchnetworkwasestablishedin1996‘TheOpenBuildingNetwork’reflectingcurrentinternationalinterestinbuildingontheworkofHabraken’sSupportsalthoughoftenusingothertermssuchas‘FreePlan’,‘skeletoninfill’,or‘rawspace’housing.http://www.open-building.org/archives/Reflections_on_the_History_and_Future_of_Open%20Building_and_the_OB_Network.pdf


36

that,thearchitectis‘theonepersonwhotriestobridgethegapbetweenhumanneeds

andtechnicalpossibilities.Heistrainedtothinkinthesetwoworlds,andhetriesvery

hardtodoso.”78

Habrakennotedthefrustrationamongarchitectsthattheywereunabletooperate

adequatelyinthese‘twoworlds’,constrainedbybureaucracyorindustry.Heisvery

clearthatsettingupSAR,withagroupof10otherarchitecturalpractices,to

investigatethepossibilityofmakinganimpactonthehousingprocess,would

necessarilyinvolvedefininganewroleforthearchitect.ThearchitectandwriterJohn

Worthingtonreinforcestheideathatitistheprocesswhichismoreimportantto

Habraken’sthesisratherthananyresultantdesignedprojects,stating,inhis1973

review,that“itoverstatesitscase,lacksdetailtogiveitcredibilityanddoesnot….do

Habraken’sideasjustice….”79Heclaimsthatthereisampleprecedentfortheideaof

thesupportorinfrastructuresandusesexamples,bothbuiltandunbuilt,ofemergency

housinginKowloon(1957)andArchigram’sPlug-inCity(1964).Worthingtonstresses

thattheimportanceofHabraken’sthesisisthealternativewaytoviewthehousing

processandtheroleofthearchitect;i.e.thatthe‘support’canbedesignedand

producedentirelyseparatelyfromtheinfillorfittingoutwhichcanbeleftforothersto

carryout–eventheendusers,theresidentsthemselves.

AsWorthingtonpointedout,ideasofflexibility–thatimpliedchangethroughthe

separationofstructureandinfillparticularly-werecurrentinarchitecturalthinkingin

the1970s.Ideasofflexibilityinhousing,championedbyearlymodernists,wereseen

bysometoofferanidealsolution.In1973,amajorjournalarticleinsupportof

flexibilityoradaptability80reviewedcurrentadaptablehousingprojectsacrossEurope

inthecontextofanhistoricaloverview.Itsummarisedtheprevailingconditionsinthe

decadessincethewar;thehousingbriefhadgrownbutspacehadnot.Leisuretime

hadincreasedandalreadysmallhomeshadmoretoolsandappliancesforlaundry,

gardening,maintenanceorcarrepairs,butnospaceforthem,withtheresultthat“the

78Habraken,JRIBAJNov1972p.47179Worthington,JAJMay197380Rabaneck,AAD1973p.698


37

homehasbecomeacrossbetweenamotelroomandastoragebinfortheclutterof

the(oftenclashing)life-stylesithastocontain”81

Thearticlegoesontostatethatachangeintheprocessisrequired.Minimumspace

standardsandtheanthropometricstudies,suchasthoseinSpaceintheHome(Fig.9)

onlyservedtofocusarchitects’ingenuityto‘miniaturise’andperfecttheirplansto

satisfyeach‘need’identifiedresultinginwhatwasthentermeda‘tightfit

functionalism’.Theconclusionisthatitisnotonlynecessarytoprovidemorespaceto

bettersuitcontemporarylifestyles,butitisnecessarytoprovideadaptablespacethat

allowsuserssomedegreeofcontroloverhowtheyoccupytheirownhome.

HousingandConsumers

“Thedesignsgenerallyhavefewerelementsthatcanbepersonalised,showless

opportunityforchange–fewersurfaceswhichcanberepainted;fewerformswhich

canbemodified;fewerpartswhichcanbechanged–thanintheaveragespec-built

house...Oftentherearenosparebedroomsforvisitors,andwheretheyexisttheyare

notlargeenoughforotheractivities.”82

Theperiodoflarge-scaleexpansioninpublichousingduringthe1950sand1960shad

resultedinincreasingcriticismofmonotonyandlackofcharacter,offeringpoorquality

andlittlemeansofself-expressionfortheresidents.Masshousingschemeshad,it

seems,reducedtheinhabitantstoanonymousconsumersandLocalAuthoritiesfelta

growingneedtoinvolvethemsomehowinthedesignprocess,toencourageamore

positiveresponse.Surveyswerefashionableandcommunityarchitecturegroupswere

setupbutfewhadmuchimpactondesignordevelopmentplans.Thebestknown

experimentwithuserparticipationistheBykerWallschemestartedin1968,in

Newcastle-upon-TynebyRalphErskine(1914-2005).Theschemereliedonaparticular

setofcircumstancesrehousingexistingtenantsonthesamesite“thearchitect’s‘open

doorpolicy’,their‘planofintent’ratherthanamoreintimidatingoralienatingmaster

81ibid.82Rapoport,ARIBAJJuly1968quotedinPawley,Mp.96


38

plan,andtheirexhaustiveconsultationmadethisamodelof‘community

architecture.”83Despiteprojectslikethis,andtherehavebeenrelativelyfew,

informationabouthowpeoplewouldchoosetoinhabittheirhomesisstilllargely

unknown.WalterSegal84pioneeredselfbuildusingamodulartimberframemethod

thatencouragedcollaborationandhigh-densitysuburbanhousingprojectsbuiltby

Span85includedcommunalparkinglotsandlegallyconstitutedresidentsassociations

givingoccupantscontroloftheestates.Otherthanafewsuchprojects,housing

architects,likevolumehousebuilders,havenotgenerallydevelopedanycloser

relationshipwithconsumers.

Manyarchitectsarestillresistanttotheideathatotherscouldofferanythingtotheart

ofhousing,preferringtorelyonprofessionalexpertise.Indeed,NeaveBrown(1929-),

renownedCamdenCouncilhousingarchitectforthewellknownAlexandraRoad

(1968-78)schemeamongstothers,inarecentlectureattheRIBA86statedthathestill

believedthatitwasthearchitect’sjob–asanexpert-toproposewhattheythinkis

thebestwayforward,nottorespondtosurveys,nortotrytointerpretclients’ideas

aboutwhattheythinktheywant.

WhetherweagreeornotwithBrown’sposition,havingmoreinformationabout

changingpatternsofoccupationcouldcontributetoimprovementindesignquality.

Researchinthefieldofhowpeopleliveishardtofind;thedifficultyingainingaccess

toprivatedwellings,andthepossibilityofcarryingoutsuchworkwithasufficiently

sizedsampleincomparablehomesdetersresearchers.Fewarchitectshavechanged

theirapproachastheresultofsuchresearchordiscoveries.NotablyGiancarloDe

Carloadmittedhisownfailings,havingfollowedmodernism’slogicalprinciplesinone83French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.174-17584“ThenameofthelateWalterSegalisnowsynonymouswithselfbuildhousing.Wheneverpeoplemeettodiscusswhattheycoulddotohousethemselves,someonementionstheSegalsystemofquickly-built,timber-frameddwellingswhichareenvironmentallyfriendly,andseemtogeneratefriendshipamongtheselfbuildgroupsthathavesucceededinhousingthemselvesthisway.TheSegalapproachwasessentiallythatofthemedievalEnglishhouse,ortheAmericanframe-house,ortheJapanesehouse,butwiththetimberframecalculatedandbasedonmodulardimensionstoavoidwasteandtofacilitatealterationsandenlargements.Hesoughttoeliminateorreducethe‘wettrades’ofconcreting,bricklayingandplastering,byreducingthesheerweightofthebuildingandbyusingcladding,insulatingandliningmaterialsintheirstandardsizes.”http://www.segalselfbuild.co.uk85SeeTheSpiritofSpanHousing,JamesStrike,2005.Spanbuiltthirtyhousingestatesbetween1948and1984.Chap6p57“ItwasalwaystheintentionofSpanthattheresidentsshouldtakeanactiveinterestinthemanagementoftheestates,bothsociallyandinlookingafterthebuildingsandgrounds”86Brown,NRIBA22March2016https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HX-uyfC2N0s


39

ofhishousingprojectsinanarticleinCasabellain1954.87Walkingpastthebuildinghe

observedthattheresidentswereusingtheirprivate,quiet,sunnybalconiesthat

affordedthemviewsacrosstheadjacentlandscapetohangtheirlaundryandinstead

weresittingoutonthenorthfacingaccessbalconies.Importantlyforthem,butnot

consideredbythearchitect,fromtheretheycouldseethestreetandengagewith

theirneighbours.PhillippeBoudon’sbookLivedinArchitecturethatrecordsthe

adaptationsmadetoLeCorbusier’s1925housingschemeinPessac,Bordeaux,

remainstheonlypublicationofitskind.Aphotographicsurveyshowsmajor

alterationstothebuildings–stripwindowsreplacedwithstandardcasements,roof

terracesenclosed,storagespaceinfilled-andinterviewswiththeresidentssetout

considerabledetailoftheirunderstandingofthearchitecturalideasandtheirown

interpretations.88ItwasnotLeCorbusier’sstatedintentionthatthesehousesshould

beadaptablebutitisinterestingtonotethattheoriginalplansshowlargely

indeterminatespacesandanopenstaircasesomewhatincontradictiontootherplans

ofthetimewhenhewasadvocatingtightfunctionalplanning.

IncontrastwithBoudon’swork,andtheveryobviouswaysinwhichoccupantshave

alteredthearchitectureexternallyandthefabricofthebuildings,thesurveycarried

outforourPatternsofLivingprojectinHongKong,focusedentirelyonthedomestic

interiorandthewaysinwhichfamilieshaveorganisedaseriesofidenticalflats.89From

theexterior,apartfromtheirquantityandproximity,thetowerblocksofHongKong

areindistinguishablefromtowerblocksanywhereelse.Theyappearinrowsordense

clusters,rarelyasisolatedindependentbuildings.Onceinside,however,theyarevery

different.Spacestandardsareverysmall90andfortheresidents,organisingtheir

internallayoutthemselvesinanindeterminatespaceisthenorm,eveninpublicsector

rentalflats.Since1954,whenitwasfirstestablished,theHKHA,underthedirectionof87SeeFrench,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.94-5fordiscussionandreferences88Boudon,Ppp.30-3289OursurveyoftheinteriorsofdwellingsinHongKonghigh-risebuildingsborrowsfromethnographicresearchmethods.Theinformationwasgatheredbydesignstudentsintheirfirstyearofstudy,whowereaskedtofocusonthearchitectureandinterioroftheirownhome,andthentheirneigbours’andfriends’.Thereareclearlylimitationstotheobjectivityofanysuchstudybutwhilstthestudentscouldnotbeconsideredknowledgeableinformantsinarchitecturalterms,theycanallbeseentobelongtoonegroup,asallapartfromone,werestilllivinginthefamilyhome.Almostallreturnedwithdrawingsandphotographsofstandardpublichousingtypes,generallythosedesignedandbuiltbytheHongKongHousingAuthority.90Thestandard‘Harmony’typeinproductionsince1982.3Bed5Personflatis52.5m2,2Bed4Person43.5m2

SourceHKHA.TheNewNationallyDescribedSpaceStandardsare86m2and70m2respectively


40

Britisharchitects,hasdevelopedasophisticatedhigh-density,high-risehousingstock

basedonthesamemodernistprinciplesemployedinEngland.Theveryearliestflats,

theKowloonemergencyhousingblocks,providedtheverybareminimumofasingle

roomforrefugeefamilies.Morerecentflatshaveakitchen,washroomandabalcony

orloggia(Fig.10),animprovementonthesharedfacilitiesoftheoriginalemergency

housingbutthemainhabitablespaceisoftenstilljustonesingleroom–an

indeterminatespace.

IndeterminateandMonofunctionalspaces

“…thespecificationofstandardsofspacebyreferencetoindividualroomswithspecific

labels–bedrooms,workinganddiningkitchens,andsoon–tendstoassumea

conventionalarrangementofthedwellingandtheparticularwayinwhichagiven

roomwillbeused.Thisinhibitsflexibility……”91

Indeterminatespace,sometimesreferredtoas‘rawspace’or‘freeplan’,isspacethat

canbeusedforanypurpose.AschemeinLeipzig(2000)(Fig.11)byHentrich

Petschnigg&Partners92hassimilarintenttotheHKflattype.Theonlyfixedelements

intheplansaretheentranceandthebathrooms;therearenointernalstructural

elementsandthemodularfaçadecanallowforavarietyofpartitionpositions.Evena

singleunlabelledroomwouldbeunusualinBritishhousingprojectsalthoughsome

urbanresidentialprojectshavesuccessfullydevelopedaversionoftheindeterminate

space,referredtoinestateagentjargonas‘lofts’,anAmericantermfortheEnglish

warehouse.Thetypedatesfromthe1960sand70s,whenabandoned19thcentury

warehousesthatwerepricedoutofmanycitycentresbecameavailableasresidential

spaces.Withlowceilings,deepplansandverylittledaylightfromadistantstreet

façade,partitioningwasnotaviableoptionandtheyresultedinsingleopenplan

spaces.TheYerbaBuenaLofts(2002)(Fig.12)inSanFranciscoisatypicalexampleofa

“…loft,orwarehouse,design-lowfloortoceilingheight,deepplanandaclose

structuralgrid.Tomakethebuildinghabitablehowevereveryunitincludesdouble

91HomesforTodayandTomorrowpara.12p.492French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.71-75


41

heightlivingspaces.”93Amoreunusualexperimentinindeterminatespaceisthepair

ofEstradenhaus(1998and2001)(Fig.13)inBerlin,“Insteadofaconventionallayoutof

aseriesofroomswithdesignatedpurpose,twounusualspatialdevices-podiumsat

eachendandmoveablescreensalongthelength-areintroducedthatinviteoccupants

toengagewiththespaceontheirownterms.Theycandivideitindifferentways,over

timetosuitchangingfamilyneeds,orintheshorttermforaparticularevent.”94Other

architectshaveexploitedthe‘loft’type,generallyofferinglargerthanusualopenplan

livingspaces.ExamplesincludeNemausus(1988)inNimesbyJeanNouvel95andthe

MondrianApartments(2002)inSydneybyStanisicAssociates.96

Themostcommonapproachtoflexibilityistoincludescopeforsomeeasily

manageablevariationwithintheconstraintsofamoreconventionalplan.Leon

WohlhageWernik’sSchlesischestrasse(1994)(Fig.14)schemeinBerlin“attemptsto

avoidthelimitationsofminimumspacestandardsbydesigningflexibleinternal

layouts.Thereislittledifferentiationinroomsizeandtype,and,typically,widesliding

doorsmeanthatroomscaninterconnect,allowingtheoccupantssomechoicebetween

amoreconventionalseparationofspacesandamoreopen-planlayout.”97Similarly

WalterMenteth’sConsortRoadinLondon(2007)(Fig.15)allowsresidentssomechoice

ofuseofrooms“Onthefirstfloor,eitherofthetwoequalsizedrooms….canbeusedas

asecondlivingroomormightforexamplebeaplayroomorstudy”and“…widesliding

doorsbetweenthelivingroomandbedroommeansthatthespacescanbethrown

togetherorseparated.Wintergardensonthestreetsideoffertheoptiontobeleft

openorclosedoff.98AtFredensborg,inDenmark,anexampleofJornUtzon’s

courtyardhousing(Fig.16)hasanexternalversionofamultipurposespaceinthe

centreofthehouse.Conceivedasthefocusfortheeverydayactivities“Itisdesigned

asaneutralspacethatcanbeoccupiedinavarietyofwaystosuittheinhabitants.

93French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.216-1794French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.100-10395French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.178-7996French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.80-8597French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.200-20198ibidpp.226-27


42

Withoutchangingthebasicnatureofthehouses,thecourtyardcanbeusedasdining

room,workshop,gardenorplaygroundforchildren.”99

Encouragingextensionoradditionaspartofthedesignisakeypartoftwosimilar

contemporaryschemes,SoldPedroPrado(2003),inChilebyElemental,andtheDonny

BrookQuarter(2002)(Fig.17)inLondonbyPeterBarber,100thewinningdesignforthe

AFcompetitionAccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousing.Theterracedhouses

arearrangedinsuchawaywithexternalpatiosandterracesthatinvitetheresidents’

intervention.Whetherthesecondhalfofthehouse(partofthefundingstrategyin

Chiletoreducecostsbybuildingonehalfonly)orthelean-toshedorconservatoryin

Londonbothprovideasupportingratherthanaconstrainingstructure.InAlvaroSiza’s,

QuintadaMalagueira(1977)(Fig.18)housing,almostcertainlyaninspirationforboth

schemes,“flexibilityisanintentionofthescheme.Theconstructionoftheunitswith

thedifferentoptionsavailable,meansthattheycanbeextendedatalaterdate.”101

Similarly,LeonWohlhageWernik’sSouthBiesdorfhousingscheme(1999)(Fig.19)in

Berlin,whilstlargelyconventionalintermsofitsplantypeprovideseitheraroof

terrace“intendedtoprovideforthepotentialforlaterexpansion,oranadditional

externallyaccessiblespaceforalodgerornanny.”102

Apartfromthelongertermremodelingopportunitiesforbuildingowners,flexibilityin

theinteriorspacesofanapartmentallowstheinhabitantsadegreeofindependence

toorganizetheirfurnitureandbelongingsandarrangetheirlivingspacetosuit

themselves,ameansofself-expression.Formanyarchitectsitisclearthataflexible

designapproachfortheindividualdwellingisconsideredareasonableaim.Forsome,

attentiontotheexterioroftheblockisseenasequallyimportantbecauseofthesense

ofidentityitestablishes.TheDutcharchitecturalpracticeMVRDVareattheforefront

ofrecentthinkingthatsetsouttoavoidthemonotonyfrequentlyfoundinlarge

housingschemesbysettingouttomakeindividuallyidentifiableelementspartofthe

99ibidpp.130-31100French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.94-95,AC101French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.156-57102French,HNewUrbanHousingpp.30-33


43

architecturalwhole.Theapparent‘patchwork’façadeofSilodam103(2002)(Fig.20)in

AmsterdamisrepeatedintheMirador104(2004)inMadridreflectingtheideaof

separatelyrecognisable‘minineighbourhoods’groupedintoone‘superblock’.

Forotherarchitects,theunityoftheblockasasingularelementintheurbanfabric

takesprecedence.Twoschemesshowhowflexibilitycanbeprovided,through

externalbalconiesthatextendtheinteriorspace–butbehindascreenedfaçade,

thereforemaintainingtheoverallcoherenceoftheblockfromtheexterior.Theinfill

schemeonRuedesSuisses,Paris(2000)(Fig.21),byHerzog&deMeuronhasa

uniformshutteredfaçade;“Shuttersonthefaçadeofthecentreblock…meanit,too,is

notstaticbutchangestosuittheresidents’needforshadingordesireforprivacy.

Directlybehindtheshutterseachapartmenthasanarrowbalconyalongitsentire

length,accessiblefromeachoftherooms…”105FOAhavetakenasimilarapproachto

theirCarabanchelschemeinMadrid(2007).Additionalexternalbalconyspaceonboth

sidescanbeusedwiththeindoorspace“Therelativelynarrow,tubelikespaceofeach

apartmentis…freeofanystructuralelements.Thewidthofthebuildingisextendedat

bothendsbyterraces...enclosedwithslidingandfoldingscreens….Thescreensprovide

shadingfromthestrongsunlight,andresidentscanopenthemupindifferent

configurationsinordertousetheterracesaspartoftheinsidespaceoftheflats.”106

Finally

“Thepublichavearighttoexpectthateventhemostdistinguishedarchitectsshould

givetheirbestattention,forthegeneralgood,toaquestion(housing)ofsomuch

socialimportance.”107

Itisclearthatsincetheearliesthousinglegislationthatfocusedondesignquality

ratherthanconstructionissues,littleimprovementhasbeenmadeintermsofspace

103French,HKeyUrbanHousingpp.202-203104ibidpp.222-25105ibidpp.210-11106ibidpp.228-29107FromRobertKerr,Ontheproblemofprovidingdwellingsforthepoorintown,inRIBATransactionsseries1,volumeandxvii1866pp.39-56quotedinFrench,HNewUrbanHousingp.9


44

standards.108Thelowdensity,gardencityprinciplesadvocatedbyRaymondUnwinand

setoutintheTudorWaltersreportof1918wereeagerlyadoptedbyvolume

housebuildersyettherecommendationsfordifferentsizedhouses,variationsinlayout

andforflexibilitywerelargelyignored.Recommendationsforaccommodating

changingfamiliesorflexibledwellingsofanykindcontinuetobelargelyignored

althoughtheresultofanyrequirementforflexibilitywouldalmostcertainlybebigger

spaces.Recentchangesinestateagentlistingstoincludefloorplansand

measurementsmightcontributetoabetter-informedconsumerbutoverallsizehas

notyetenteredintocommonparlance.Westillhankeraftertheadditionalrooms

beyondthebasicsthatimplystatusandvalue.Inhisessay,TheMobileHomeonthe

Range,JohnBrinkerhoffJacksonwritinginthecontextofAmericanlandscape,posits

thatthemonofunctionalspaceisrelatedtoclasswithitsrootsinthe19thcentury

whenhousesfortherichsoughttoprovidededicatedspacesforeverykindofactivity,

separatedfromtheservantswithcorridors.Heseesthecontinuationofthis

phenomenon,with‘mediaandentertainmentcentres,hobbyrooms,exerciserooms

andsuper-bathrooms.’109Andconcludingthatdefiningspacewhetherinsideoroutside

bycontentorfunctionisanunnecessaryimposition.“Theonlysignificanceisthatthe

workingclasshomehasbeenlargelyimmunetotheappealofthemonofunctional

spaces.Thehousemaywellcontainmanyrooms,butmostofthemserveseveraluses,

useswhichcanchangefromhourtohourordaytoday.Thegarageservesasastorage

room,thenbecomesaworkshop.Thekitcheniswherewewatchtelevisionandcook

andeat;thediningroom-ifthereisone-isforhomework.Theout-of-workbrother-in-

lawsleepsonthelivingroomcouch,andthemeninthefamilytuneupthesecond-

handcaronthepatchoflawn.Thesearestrictlytemporaryexpedients.Alloralmost

all,spacesinthehousecanbesharedandusedinavarietyofways.”110

108SeeAppendix1forchronologyoflegislation,reportsandrecommendationsonstandardsinhousing109Jackson,JBp.65110ibid.p65


45

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submittedworks.

Governmentmanuals,reports,pamphlets,internetsourcedregulatoryframeworks,

recommendationsandreferencetorelevantlegislationarelistedinAppendix2


46

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DesignManualHatjeCantz,Ostfildern,2012

Boudon,Philippe,Lived-inArchitectureLeCorbusier'sPessacrevisitedMITPress,

Cambridge1972

Cook,PeterDrawing:TheMotiveForceofArchitecture,ADPrimer,Wiley,Chichester

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Cullen,GordonTheconciseTownscape,ThearchitecturalPress,London1968

Esher,Lionel,ABrokenWave:TheRebuildingofEngland1940-1980AllenLane,

London1981

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Barcelona–NewYork,2010

Forty,Adrian,WordsandBuildingsAVocabularyofModernArchitecture,Thames&

Hudson,London,2004

Friedman,Avi,TheAdaptableHouse:DesigningHomesforChangeMcGraw-Hill,New

York,2002

Groák,Stephen,TheIdeaofBuildingE&FNSponLondon1992

Habraken,JohnSupports:analternativetomasshousing,ArchitecturalPress,London

1972

Kloos,MaartenandWendt,Dave(Eds)FormatsforLivingContemporaryfloorplansin

AmsterdamARCAM/Architectura&NaturaPress,Amsterdam,2000

Leupen,BernardandMooij,HaraldHousingDesignAManual,NAiPublishers,

Rotterdam,2011

Lynch,KevinTheImageoftheCity,TheMITPress,CambridgeandLondon1960

Muthesius,StefanTheEnglishTerracedHouseYaleUniversityPress,Newhavenand

London1982

Pawley,MartinArchitectureversusHousing,StudioVista,London1971

RossiAldoTheArchitectureoftheCityTheMITPress,CambridgeandLondon1982

Schneider,FriederikeEd.FloorPlanManual:Housing,Birkhauser,Basel2004

Schneider,TatjanaandTill,JeremyFlexibleHousing,Elsevier,Oxford2007

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47

Siza,ÁlvaroArchitectureWritings,(WritingsonArchitecture)Skira,Milan1997

Strike,JamesTheSpiritofSpanHousing,Strikeprint,London2005

Yorke,F.R.S.andGibberd,FrederickTheModernFlatTheArchitecturalPress,London

1937SecondEdition1948

Yorke,F.R.S.andGibberd,FrederickModernFlatsTheArchitecturalPress,London

1958

Essays/chaptersinbooks

Barber,PeterTheStreetathttp://www.peterbarberarchitects.com/the-street/

accessedon13.05.2016andinAccommodatingChange:InnovationinHousing,

Circle33andtheAF,London2002pp.18-29

Coates,NigelBriefEncounters:aconversationwithAliciaPivaroinBorden,Ian,Kerr

JoeandRendell,JanewithPivaro,AliciaEds,TheUnknownCityContesting

ArchitectureandSocialSpaceMITPress,CambridgeandLondon2001pp.315-328

Evans,RobinTranslationsfromDrawingtoBuildinginEvans,RobinTranslationsfrom

DrawingtoBuildingandOtherEssays,AAPublications,London,1997

Eisenman,Peter,TheHousesofMemory:TheTextsofAnalogyinRossi,AldoThe

ArchitectureoftheCityTheMITPress,CambridgeandLondon1982

Jackson,JohnBrinckerhoff,TheMobileHomeontheRangeinJackson,John

BrinckerhoffASenseofPlaceaSenseofTime,YaleUniversityPress,Newhavenand

London,1994pp.53-67

Oosternbrink,MarinusNewDirectionsinFloorplansforAmsterdaminKloos,Maarten

andWendt,DaveEdsFormatsforLiving,ARCAM/Architectura&NaturaPress,

Amsterdam,2001,

Powers,AlanTheArchitecturalBookinRattenbury,KesterEd.,thisisnotarchitecture

MediaConstructions,Routledge,LondonandNewYork2002pp.157-173

Schittich,ChristianTheChallengeofHigh-DensityHousinginSchittich,ChristianEd.,In

DetailHigh-DensityHousing:ConceptsPlanningConstruction,Birkhauser,Basel

2004pp.9-11

Smithson,AlisonandPeterSignsofOccupancy1970inSmithson,AlisonandPeter

ChangingtheArtofInhabitationArtemis,London,1994


48

Till,JeremyandWigglesworth,SarahTheBackgroundTypeinAccommodatingChange:

InnovationinHousing,Circle33andtheAF,London2002pp.151-157

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Colquhoun,Alan,TypologyandDesignMethodArenaJune1967pp.11-14

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pp.77-89

Habraken,N.J.InvolvingpeopleinthehousingprocessRIBAJNov1972pp.469-479

Rabeneck,Andrew,Sheppard,DavidandTown,PeterHousingflexibility?ADVol.43

No.11November1973pp.698-727

Rabeneck,Andrew,Sheppard,DavidandTown,PeterHousingflexibility/adaptability?

ADFebruary1974pp.76-90

Rapoport,AmosThePersonalelementinHousing;anargumentforopen-endeddesign

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Worthington,JohnanalternativeinterpretationTheArchitects’Journal9May1973

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ArchitectureFoundation,

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housing/Circle_Housing_Circle_33,Accessed08.05.2016

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49

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50

Appendix1 Chronologyofregulatoryframework

Thefollowingisachronologyofregulations,legislation,reportsand

explanatoryandadvisoryinformationrelatedtohousingwithbriefnotesonkey

content.


51

DATE ACTS,REPORTS,ETC. NOTES

1774 TheLondonBuildingAct Focusedonthequalityofbuildingconstruction1841 TheMetropolitanAssociationfor

ImprovingtheConditionsoftheIndustriousClasses

FoundedinSpitalfields,London

1842 TheChadwickReportonThesanitaryconditionsofthelabouringpopulationofGreatBritain

Toimproveconditionsinslums

1844 TheShaftsburySociety ResponsiblewithHenryRobertsforthemodeldwellingsbuiltforthe1851Exhibition.

1846 TheappointmentofthefirstmedicalOfficerofHealth(WilliamHenryDuncaninLiverpool)

FirstinLondonJohnSimon,in1848

1855 NuisancesRemovalandDiseasesPrevention(ConsolidationAct)

Powerofentrytoascertaincourseofdrains

1862 ThePeabodyTrust Suchsocietieswereaimedatencouraginginvestorstobuildhousingforrent

1866 SanitaryAct LocalAuthoritiestoberesponsiblefordrains,waterandstreetcleaning.Housestobeconnectedtosewers.

1868 TheTorrensAct Toensurethatlandlordsassumeresponsibilityforkeepingpropertiesinastatefitforhumanhabitation

1875 TheHousingAct(Artisans'DwellingAct)

CompulsorypurchaserightsforLocalAuthoritiesinlargertowns

1875 ThePublicHealthAct LocalAuthoritiesempoweredtoinspectprivatelyownedpropertiesandtocondemnthoseconsideredunfit

1875 ThePublicHealthActSection157 LocalAuthoritiesempoweredtomakeby-lawsforlayoutofstreets.

1877 IntroductionoffirstsetofModelByeLaws(Government)

Leadstowhatbecameknownas'by-lawhousing'1880-1914generallyforrentbuiltbyprivatedevelopers(650-850sqft/60-80m2)

Bythisstagelegislationhasgonebeyondthebasicstoensureadequatestructuralandsanitarymeasuresandbeginstofocusontypesofhousesandstreetlayouts.1888 LondonCountyCouncil(LCC)was

formedTenementblockbuildingbegins(familiarinScotlandandFrancebutnewtoEngland)

1890 HousingoftheWorkingClassesAct.

LocalAuthoritiesempoweredtopurchaselandanddevelophousing

1895 BoundaryStreetEstate,BethnalGreen,London

Acknowledgedasfirstofakind-toplanthewholeareanotjusttheindividualbuildings.

1890 Employeemodelvillages Examples:Cadbury'sBournville,1893-1900,Rowntree'sNewEarswick1902-04,Lever'sPortSunlight1888-1914.(FollowingthepublicationofPoverty:AstudyofTownLifebySeebohmRowntree1901)

1898 TheGardenCityAssociation. Lowdensities12-30dwellingsperacre.1902 LetchworthGardenCity ThefirstGardenCityBasedonverylowdensitiesof12

dwellingsperacre(See1903and1907CheapCottagesExhibitions)

1903 LCCSuburbanEstateTotterdownFields,Tooting,London

31dwellingsperacreintwostoreyterracedhouseswithgardens


52

Healthandwelfarearestillthekeyissuesinmovestoimprovethequalityofhousing1915 RentRestrictionsAct Topostponetheinevitablehardshipandshortagescaused

by“creditrestrictions,shortageofmaterialsandthegrowingdemandsoftotalwarbroughthousebuildingtoastandstill”Pawley,Martinp.21

1918 TheTudorWaltersReportReportoftheCommitteeonQuestionsofBuildingConstructioninconnectionwiththeprovisionsofdwellingsfortheworkingclasses.

Marksashiftinfocus-specificallyonhousingstandards.Keypointsare:Targetlifeof60years.Widefrontedsemi-detachedhouses.Lowdensity-12housesperacreintownand8inthecountryMinimumareas:885sq.ft/82.2m2forthree-bedroom,(non-parlour)1,055sq.ft/98m2(withparlour).

1919 FirstMinistryofHealth Responsibleforhousinglegislationuntil1951(MinistryofHousingandLocalGovernmentsetup)

1919 TheAddisonAct GovernmentfinancialsupportforLocalAuthoritycostsbeyondacertainlevelforeveryhouseerected

1927 HousingManual(andreprinted1934)

Onthedesignconstructionandrepairofdwellings

1929 CIAMdiscusstheexistenzminimum

LeCorbusier’sandGinzburgsminimumspacesAnarchitecturalinterestinthefunctionalorrationaldwelling.

Theindividualdwellingsizeandspacestandardsarenowconsideredalongsidemeasurementofdensityinnumbersofdwellingsperacre1944 TheDudleyReportandHousing

ManualMinistryofHealth,MinistryofWorks,HMSO,London1944

Flatsareincludedforthefirsttime.Density-24dwellingsperacre.Threestoreyhousesareproposedtoincreasedensityintowns.Houseswithscullery,livingroomandparlourarereplacedbyhouseswithkitchenandliving/diningrooms.Minimumareasincreasedto900-950sq.ft/83-88m2foratypicalthree-bedroomhouse.Refersto"thehousewifeorconsumer'sview"

1944 TheAbercrombieGreaterLondonPlan

Generallyinfavourofdecentralisation

1946 NewTownsAct DevelopmentCorporationsaresetup1949 HousingManual

MinistryofHealth,HMSO,London1949

Questionsuniformlow-density.ProposesterracedhousingandblocksofmaisonettesinfavouroftheTudorWalterssemi-detachedmodel.The'Radburn'effectisevidentinrecommendationsforseparationofpedestrianandvehiculartraffic.

1951 MinistryofHousingandLocalGovernment(MHLG)established.

TypicalhouseplansareissuedtoLocalAuthorities.Forlowdensity,estates-18-25'/5.5-7.6mfrontages.Heavilycriticisedfor:lackofstoragespace;lackofasecondWCinlargehomes;reductioninspaceofaprox.50sqft./4.6m2perhouse

1952 HaroldMcMillan'speopleshouses(MHLG)

Familyflatsatfirstfloorlevelrecommendedaswellasterracedhouseswithnarrower-16footfrontages


53

1953 Houses1953(MHLG)supplementtothePeoplesHouses

"chiefcontributiontowardsfurthereconomiesistheraisingofdensities”Lloyd,atShelter,pointedoutthatMacmillan’sachievement(300,000housesin1953)wasnotwithoutitsdrawbacks:“Theslightflyintheointmentisthatnotallofthemwerethebesthouses.Someofthemostshockingtower-blockmonstrositieswerebuiltinthatera.”Macmillansacrificedqualitytoquantity.HishousesweresmallerthanthosebuiltbyNyeBevan,whoduringmostofthepost-warLabourgovernmenthadbeenresponsibleforbothhealthandhousing.Macmillanwasmuchmoreanxioustobeseenasprogressivethantoworryabouttheaestheticsofwhathewasdoing.http://www.conservativehome.com/thetorydiary/2013/10/how-macmillan-built-300000-houses-a-year.htmlAccessed14.05.2016

1958 FlatsandHouses1958(MHLG) Increaseddensitiesonurbansitestoupto160habitableroomsperacre

1961 HomesforTodayandTomorrowtheParkerMorrisreportDoEHMSO,1961

Intendedasarecommendationforbothprivateandpublichousing.Itdefinedactivitiesorfunctionsratherthanroomareas.Fiveperson,twostoreyterracedhouse910sq.ft/84.5m2(+50sq.ft/4.6m2storage)Fourpersonversion800sq.ft/74m2(+50sq.ft/4.6m2storage)

1967 ParkerMorrisstandardsmademandatoryforNewTownsandallLocalAuthorityhousing

Minimumspacestandardswereveryquicklytobecomemaximum.

1968 DesignBulletin6–SpaceintheHomeDoEHMSOLondon1968(MetricEditionreprinted1974)

Thefollowuptothereportwhichincludesillustrationsandexamplesoftypicalarrangements.

1969 HousingAct LocalAuthoritiesandHousingAssociationscanusecapitalgrantsforpurchasinghousingstockanditsrehabilitationfora30yearlife.

1973 VATreplacespurchasetax Allconstructionandalterationworkiszerorated.

1974 HousingAct Improvedonthe1969Actandintroducesanewgrantsystemforrehabilitationwithadvisorystandardsforrepairandimprovement

1980 HousingAct MargaretThatcher’sgovernmentintroducedthe‘RighttoBuy’

1981 ParkerMorrisstandardsandthehousingcostsyardstickareabandoned.

Withtheideatobringnewandrehabilitatedpublichousingmoreintolinewiththeprivatesector.Nominimumspacestandardsexceptforsinglepeople,thedisabledandtheelderly.

1984 VAT Onlynewconstructioniszerorated.(Forrepairsoralterations,onlyworktolistedbuildingsisexempt)

Startinginthe1990sawholeseriesofdifferentsetsofregulationsbasedonarangeoffactors–ageingpopulation,disabilitylegislation,energyefficiency,urbanenvironments–addedconsiderablytothecomplexityofthefield1992 PPG3,updated2000andinforce

until2006.ReplacedbyPPS3inNov2006

Toencouragehigherdensitydevelopmentparticularlyon'brownfield'sites,inurbanenvironmentsandtocompeldeveloperstoincludeaffordablehomes


54

1994 TheLathamreportCommissionedbyGovernmenttoreviewprocurementandcontractualarrangements

“condemningexistingindustrypracticesas'adversarial','ineffective','fragmented','incapableofdeliveringforitsclients'and'lackingrespectforitsemployees'.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latham_Report

1995 LifetimeHomesStandard(AgeUK,TCPAandHabintegHousingAssociation)RevisedinJuly2010,From2011forallpublicsectorprojects.Nowinbuildingregs

AnexpressionofInclusiveDesign."HousingthatisdesignedtotheLifetimeHomesStandardwillbeconvenientformostoccupants,includingsome(butnotall)wheelchairusersanddisabledvisitors,withoutthenecessityforsubstantialalterations."http://www.lifetimehomes.org.uk/pages/revised-design-criteria.html

2000 UrbanDesignCompendium(EnglishPartnerships,HousingCorporationecohomes.org)

“Byhavinganunderstandingoffactorssuchasthehistoryoftheplace,howitdeveloped,thepeoplewholivethereandhowitfunctionsdevelopmentscanbemoreeffectivelyandappropriatelypositionedhttp://udc.homesandcommunities.co.uk/urban-design-compendium?page_id=3899&page=44.”

2001 BetterPlacestoLivebyDesign:acompanionguidetoPPG3,DTLRandCABE.WithdrawnMarch2014

“…itdrawstogethertheprinciplesofgoodurbandesignastheyrelatetotheresidentialenvironmenttohelpmovethepracticeofgooddesignforward.….focusesontheattributesthatunderliesuccessfulresidentialenvironmentsinordertoprovideguidanceonimplementingthenewapproachtoplanningforhousingsetoutinPlanningPolicyGuidance3:Housing(PPG3).”

2003 Off-siteConstructionBREhttp://www.bre.co.uk/news/Putting-the-case-for-offsite-construction-110.html

“WithmillionsofnewhomesneededintheUK,andanacuteskillsshortage,off-siteconstructionhasobviousbenefitsforthehousebuildingsector.”

2004 Thehomebuyer'sguide:whattolookforandaskforwhenbuyinganewhomeAleEly,CABE,BlackDogPublishing

Encouraginganinformedconsumerperspective"Weallhavetostartdemandingmore,raisingexpectationsandcoercingbuildersintobuildinghomesthatsuitourneeds.Whatwewantarewell-deigned,carefullyplannedandexpertlydeliveredhomeswithanaftercareservicebetterthatthebestcardealers"

2004 HousingAct(NationallyDescribedSpacestandardsDraft)http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/34/part/4/chapter/3

Includesrulestopreventovercrowdingandsexualovercrowding(Homeinformationpacksintroducedandlaterabandoned)

2004 HousingFutures2024,AprovocativelookatfuturetrendsinhousingRIBACABE,JohnWorthington

Openingupthedebateaboutpossiblefutures,throughtheRBAthinktankBuildingFuturesandongoingpublicationinbuildingMagazine."Housinginthefutureneedstobemoreadaptableandresponsivetochange."

2006 CodeforSustainableHomesDCLGWithdrawn2015

Theintroductionofanassessmentsystemforratingandcertifyingtheenergyperformanceofnewhomes

2007 DesignandQualityStandardsHousingCorporation

ToreplacetheSDS–which“willbephasedoutinparallelwiththecompletionoftheNationalAffordableHousingProgramme(NAHP)2006-08.“https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/313392/design_quality_standards.pdf

2009 SpaceinNewHomesDesignCouncilCabeRIBAIpsosMoripostalsurvey

Supportsthecaseformorespaceinprivatehomes,toensurethattheyarefunctional,flexibleandfitforpurpose."Themarketdoesnotappeartoprovidethespacethatresidentsrequire"

2010 Policypaper2010to2015governmentpolicy:energy

ConservativeandLiberalDemocratcoalitiongovernmentpolicy.Primarilyaimedatreducingcarbonemissions.


55

efficiencyinbuildingsupdated8May2015

“WehaveintroducedtheCodeforSustainableHomeswhichprovidesasinglenationalstandardforthedesignandconstructionofsustainablenewhomes.”https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2010-to-2015-government-policy-energy-efficiency-in-buildings/2010-to-2015-government-policy-energy-efficiency-in-buildings

2010 LondonHousingDesignGuideInterimEditionMayorofLondonLDA

"Atthecoreoftheguidearenewminimumspacestandards".Minorconcessiontoflexibility"Dwellingplansshoulddemonstratethatdwellingtypesprovideflexibilitybyallowingforalternativeseatingarrangementsinlivingroomsandbyaccommodatingdoubleortwinbedsinatleastonedoublebedroom."https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/interim_london_housing_design_guide.pdf

TheRedTapeChallengeislaunchedfollowedbytheHousingStandardsReviewin2013toavoidduplicationandcontradictioninthemanydifferentrecommendationsbynongovernmentalgroups2011 TheCaseforSpacethesizeof

England'sHomesRIBA(TheHomewiseCampaign)

Surveysofcurrentprovision.Planstoshowwhatthemissingspacescouldmeaninstandardhomes.

2012 TheWayweLiveNowRIBAHomewiseIpsosMori

Averylimitedethnographicsurveybasedonquestionnaireslookingatdecisionmakingprocessforpeoplethinkingofbuyinganewhome

2012 BuildingforLife.Deliveringgreatplacestolive.CABEandtheHomeBuildersFederation(HBF)

Supportedbygovernmentasthe"standardforthedesignqualityofnewhomes.Itincludesaquestiononflexibility"Dointernalspacesandlayoutallowforadaptation,conversionorextension?

2013 Governmentexpandedpermitteddevelopmentrights–toboosttheprovisionofnewhomes-toallowtheconversionofofficebuildingsintohousing.Madepermanentin2015.

Conversionsarenotrequiredtomeetspacestandards,oranyotherplanning-basedqualitystandardssuchasenergyefficiency,disabilitynoraffordability.

2014 HomeTruthsLondonFirstHousingTaskForceDatafromGLAandLSEhttp://londonfirst.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/LF_HOUSING_REPORT.pdf

Oneoftheirrecommendations“Boroughscouldusetheircompulsorypurchasepowerstobringlandbacktothemarket,where:areasonableperiodoftimefromthepermissionbeinggranted–sayfiveyears–haselapsed;andafterconsultationwiththelandownerand/ordeveloper,theyaresatisfiedtherearenocredibleplanstodevelopinthemediumterm;andwhereitisinthepublicinterestthatitbebroughtforward.”

2015 Homewise:SpaceStandardsforHomesRIBA

RIBAcallforthereintroductionofminimumspacestandards3B5phouse93m2"We’recallingforminimumspacestandardstoapplytoallhomes,ineverylocation.We’reaskingthegovernmenttocreateafairhousingofferbyembeddingtheNationallyDescribedSpaceStandardinbuildingregulations."

2015 TechnicalHousingStandards-nationallydescribedspacestandardDCLGhttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/technical-housing-standards-nationally-described-space-standard

Onebedonepersonflat=37m2Threebedfivepersonhome=93m2“Thisnewstandardwassupposedtoimprovethequalityofnew-buildhousingbyensuringtheyarebuilttoanadequatesize.InOctober2015,newruleswereintroducedgivingLocalAuthoritiestheoptiontosetaminimumspacestandardfornewhomes.Theruleswere


56

Notapplicabletostudenthousing,officeconversions…

introducedtorationalise,simplifyandstreamlinetheplanningsystem,buttheprocesstosetthenewstandardisoverlycomplicatedandonerous.Crucially,thespacestandardisoptional”housing.org.uk

2015 BuildingforLife123rdeditionCABEatDesignCouncil,DesignforHomes,HBF,NottinghamTrentUniversity.BasedonNationalPlanningPolicyFrameworkhttp://www.designcouncil.org.uk/resources/guide/building-life-12-third-edition

Noquestionsonthequalitiesofthehomeitself.“BfL12isveryclearlyfocusedonpromotingqualityinurbandesignfornewresidentialdevelopments.Intheabsenceofnationalspacestandardsfornewhomes,experiencesuggestedthatthequestionsrelatingtotheinternalqualitiesofthehomewerelargelyineffectiveandproveddifficulttoapply.”

2015 GLAHousingStandardsReview:EvidenceofNeedFinalReport

ItdemonstratesaclearneedfortheinclusionofhousingstandardswithintheLondonPlan.Theyareanecessaryandappropriatemechanismtoensurethathousingissustainableandofhighqualitywhilstofferingthespaceandflexibilityrequiredtoaccommodatethedemandsofarapidlygrowingandageingpopulationinahighdensitycityfacingdistinctclimatechallenges.

2015 BuildingRegulations IncorporatingSecurebyDesign,LifeTimeHomes,CodeforSustainableHomes.StudentHousingandOfficeconversionsarenotcovered

2016 HousingandPlanningBill2015-16Part4SocialHousinginEngland,Chap.1ImplementingtherighttobuyonavoluntarybasisChap2VacantHighValueLocalAuthorityHousingChap.3RentsforHighIncomeSocialTenantsChap.6SecureTenancies

Currentlyinprocess.Includescontroversialaspectssuchasthe'phasingoutoftenanciesforlife',‘Powertochangerents','Dutytoconsidersellingvacanthighvaluehousing'and'policiesforhighincomesocialtenants'FollowingagreementbybothHousesonthetextoftheBillitreceivedRoyalAssenton12May.TheBillisnowanActofParliament(law).http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2015-16/housingandplanning.html

Allwebsitesaccessed14.05.2016

WiththankstoDavidLevitt’sexcellentarticleHousingStandards:Standardspast–andfuture?AJ

November1982pp.77-89


57

Appendix2 Illustrations

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Figure 2 Typical page from Modern Housing Prototypes 1978Unite d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1945-52 Le Corbusier

Colour coded cutaway axonometric drawn for the publication


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Figure 3 Typical part page from the Floor Plan Manual Housing 1994

Unite d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1946-47 Le Corbusier

Plans to show how the basic type can be varied.


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Figure 4 Nagakin Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan 1972Kisho Kurakawa

Level 6 floor plan


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Figure 5 High Cross Road, London 2001Walter Menteth Architects

Single-person terraces houses 47.5m2 with living room on the ground floor and bedroom on the first floor.

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Figure 6 Narkomfin, Moscow, 1930Mosie Ginzburg and Ignati Milinis

Typical, minimal size, split-level apartments with double height living spaces


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Figure 21 Rue des Suisses, Paris, France, 2000Herzog & de Meuron

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Figure 21 Rue des Suisses, Paris, France, 2000Herzog & de Meuron

Louvred facades of the infill block on rue des Suisses

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adaptable housing: accommodating change …eprints.brighton.ac.uk/16390/1/french h phd.pdf ·...

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