Action Research

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

• What is it good for?

• Where does it come from?

• How do you do it?

• How is it different from other research?

• How can we trust it?

ACTION RESEARCH

• Informs Action

• Developed from a tradition of Qualitative Research Methods and Naturalistic Inquiry

• Is concerned with issues of Subjectivity, the researcher’s position in a system

• Often asks Critical Questions of Power Relations

• Focuses on Systemic Change

• Focuses on Empowering Stakeholders

In action research:

• Our theory for action will be grounded in reality.

• We will be reflective in our actions toward positive change.

• We will be engaged in a continuous process of collecting data, organizing data, and forming theories for action.

www2.warwick.ac.uk/.../ evaluation/tools/action/

In Action Research there is an established plan for action and assessment

• what actions will be taken• what data will be collected to assess the

influence of action• when data will be analyzed to assess

influence• how data will be used to inform future

action• when the next cycle of assessment will

take place

Action Research Is Cyclical

Source: Damme, S. (1998) The "outcomes" challenge: An action research approach to evaluation in community program development. The Action Evaluation Project, The Aria Group. (Obtained from <http://www.aepro.org/inprint/conference/damme.html> Accessed 27 October 1999). As quoted by Allen, W.J. (2001) Working together for environmental management: the role of information sharing and collaborative learning. PhD (Development Studies), Massey University.

This Diagram was taken from the article:• What a GAS!

Action research as a peer support process for postgraduate studentsby Dr. Kath Fisher, James Bennett-Levy und Ros Irwinpdf version of Southern Cross University, Lismoree, N.S.W., Australia.

The most important property of

ACTION RESEARCH

is the constant interplay between action and reflection.

In Action Research Data Collection Should fit the Question of

WHAT DO YOU WANT TO ACHIEVE?

Some consider action research to only employ qualitative methodology.

However, action research should be designed to best answer the question at hand—which could

require either, or both, qualitative and quantitative methods.

Qualitative Research

• Uses words rather than numbers.

• Flows from concreteness to abstractness.

• Compared to quantitative research is relatively new. Thus, new techniques and strategies are emerging.

• Data collection occurs concurrently with data analysis.

• Involves the researcher influencing the individuals being studied to varying degrees. In turn, the researcher is influenced by those being studied.

Quantitative Research

• Uses numbers to represent phenomenon.

• Attempts to generalize from a sample onto a larger population.

• Is often associated with the experimental method of hypothesis testing.

• Data collection occurs BEFORE data analysis.

• The researcher is considered objective observer The researcher is NOT influenced by those being studied.

How Is Action Research Different From Scientific Inquiry?

• NOT HYPOTHESIS TESTING

• Researcher is influencing and influenced by findings

• Data Analysis is conducted DURING data collection

• Primary concern is to understand and explain phenomenon to INFORM practice

• Goal is to present Credible, dependable data that can be transferred to different systems or processes to INFORM practice and not to generalize valid findings of behavior and outcomes onto a larger population

Image taken from: www.communitysolutions.com.au/ papers

Targeting the Future

In Action Research, we examine lived experience to help make changes to improve processes and outcomes in a system

Data Collection

Data will enable you to assess outcomes and evaluate the usefulness of actions for improving outcomes and achieving goals.

Data Collection

All Data Collection Techniques are tools for:

• Capturing day-to-day events and experiences

• Questioning participants and stakeholders

To improve validity gather information

through various data collection techniques:

– Experiencing (through observation and field notes)

– Enquiring (When you the researcher asks)– Examining (Using and making records)

As adapted from Geoffrey E. Mills Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher. 2003. (pg. 71)

Data Collection

Data Collection: Experiencing

• Experiencing (through observation and field notes)– Participant Observation– Active Observer– Passive Observer

As adapted from Geoffrey E. Mills Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher. 2003. (pg. 71)

Image taken from: www.communitysolutions.com.au/ papers

Data Collection: Experiencing

• Participant Observation– You are an ACTIVE PARTICIPANT in the

event or process that are the focus a systematic inquiry.

– This can be difficult because you are immersed in the subject of your study.

– Journaling and reflection on your own thoughts and behaviors is an excellent strategy to reduce bias on findings

Data Collection: Experiencing

• Privileged Active Observer– In this position you are still an active member

of an event of phenomenon, but you may not be active at the time of your observation. You may be watching someone else acting out a similar role or taking on your responsibilities. Here you are privileged by your insider knowledge of a role, but not actively participating at the time of observation.

As adapted from Geoffrey E. Mills Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher. 2003. (pg. 71)

Data Collection: Experiencing

• Passive Observer– As a passive observer you have no responsibilities

during the event or processes under investigation. You are focused on data collection.

– In this position you may not be a member of the event, process, or system under investigation.

– Journaling on your position may help reduce bias in findings as you reflect on how being outside a system, being neither a stakeholder or a participant may alter your interpretations and assessment.

Data Collection: Enquiring

• Enquiring (When you the researcher asks)– Interviews

• Formal and structured• Informal and conversational

– Questionnaires

– Attitude ScalesAs adapted from Geoffrey E. Mills Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher. 2003.

Data Collection: Examining

• Examining (Using and making records)– Archival Documents– Journals– Artifacts

As adapted from Geoffrey E. Mills Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher. 2003.

Data Collection: Examining

• Artifacts– Maps– Seating charts– Furniture– Mementos– Pamphlets– Handouts– Geographical Landmarks– Photographs, audiotapes, videotapes

Data Collection: Examining

• Archival Documents– Policies– Minutes of meetings– Attendance rates– Mission and by-lays– Bills – Emails– Newspaper and Journal articles– TV media– Reports– Photographs– Audio and Videotapes

Data Collection: Examining

• Journals– Daily observations– Reflections– Expense Records & Receipts– Emails– Daily Log– Dairy– Calendar, date planner

Data Analysis: Critical Questions

• be thoughtful of how different information sources characterize or speak for different groups:– People without power

– People with power

– People invested in a system or process

– People who are not invested, but are associated with the system or process

By providing detailed explanations of our action plan, how it was implemented, what happened, and how we continued to change it

we can enable others to TRANSFER or consider the usefulness of our findings to

their situation

Building a Network of Ideas to Support Positive Change

Action Research is Focused on Change

Image taken from: www.ppstraining.com

/ teambuilding/approach.html

Action Research, Trustworthiness, and Naturalistic Inquiry

• In Action Research we examine Lived Experience.

• Naturalistic Inquiry is interested in exploring and describing lived experience, not controlled environments.

• Naturalistic inquiry depends on a presentation of "solid descriptive data," or "thick description" to improve transferability of findings. (Lincoln and Guba, 1985)

Trustworthiness

• Transferability – The emergent theory of naturalistic inquiry is

dependent on a specific context and interactive dynamics of participants

– Attention to context and dynamics of the real world decrease the possibility as well as the desirability of a focus on external validity

(Lincoln and Guba, 1985)

Trustworthiness

– The basic question regarding trustworthiness in naturalistic inquiry is:

"How can an inquirer persuade his or her audiences that the findings of an inquiry are

worth paying attention to, worth taking account of?"

(Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p. 301).

Trustworthiness

• Criteria for trustworthiness:

– credibility– transferability– dependability – confirmability

(Lincoln and Guba, 1985)

Trustworthiness

• We improve the trustworthiness of findings by presenting the information in a way that indicates that different sources of data resonate with one another, this is accomplished through:– Triangulation– Member checks– Peer Debriefing– Auditing

Trustworthiness

• Triangulation– By utilizing data collecting from multiple resources

and people and various levels of participation, we can find where versions of what is happening intersect and resonate with one another.

– Obtaining multiple versions of what is happening from various participants can also help explain differences in understanding and offer a larger picture of the situation and what change may be needed.

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985)

Trustworthiness

• Peer debriefing– "a process of exposing oneself to a

disinterested peer in a manner paralleling an analytic session and for the purpose of exploring aspects of the inquiry that might otherwise remain only implicit within the inquirer's mind."

(Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p. 308)

Trustworthiness

• Member checking– A process through which respondents verify

data and the researchers interpretations– My asking participants what they think of your

findings, you decrease the bias from your own perspective

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985)

Trustworthiness

• Audit Trail– A process where the auditor keeps records to

track the various stages of the study, including the analytic techniques that were conducted.

Image taken from: www2.warwick.ac.uk/.../ evaluation/tools/action/

Action Research Promotes Change In the Real World

QUESTIONS?

References• Allen, W.J. (2001) Working together for environmental management: the role of information

sharing and collaborative learning. PhD (Development Studies), Massey University.• Argyris, C. (1985) Strategy, change and defensive routines. Boston, USA:Pitman.• Argyris, C., Putnam, R. & Smith, D.M. (1985) Action science. San Francisco, USA:Jossey-Bass.• Cronbach, L.J., Ambron, S.R., Dornbusch, S.M., Hess, R.D., Hornik, R.C., Philips, D.C., Walker,

D.F. & Weiner, S.S. (1981) Toward reform of program evaluation. San Francisco, USA: Jossey Bass.

• Guba, E. G. & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Newbury Park, CA, USA: Sage.

• Lewin, K. (1951) Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

• Huber, G.P. (1991) Organizational learning: The contributing processes and the literatures. Organization Science 2(1): 88-115.

• Mills, G. (2003) Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher. 2nd edition. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Prentice Hall.

• McNiff, J., Lomax, P., & Whitehead, J. (2003). You and Your Action Research Project. 2nd edition. London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

• Shadish, W.R., Cook, T.D, & Leviton, L.C. (1991). Foundations of Program Evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.