C a t h e r i n e A H o n e y m a n , P h D 2 0 1 7

Accountability practices and policies in Rwanda’s education system

This paper was commissioned by the Global Education Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2017/8 GEM Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the Global Education Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments”. For further information, please contact gemreport@unesco.org.

ED/GEMR/MRT/2017/C1/9

Country case study prepared for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report

Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments

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Table of Contents I. Accountability in Rwanda’s three official languages 3

II. Rwanda country profile 4

III. The role of the “Imihigo”, or performance contracts 7

IV. Top-down accountability structures and practices 10

V. Bottom-up accountability structures and practices 14

VI. Horizontal accountability structures and practices 17

VII. Policy recommendations 21

VIII. References 21

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ThiscasestudyofaccountabilityintheRwandaneducationsystemdrawsonextensivedeskresearch;onatotalof55formalinterviewsatthenational,district,sector,cell,andschoollevelsconductedin2014foraseparatepolitical economy analysis of Rwanda’s education system (Honeyman2015); on direct involvement in policydevelopmentprocesses inRwanda’seducationsector in2014and2015;andonasmallnumberoffollow-upinterviewsconductedin2016toensureup-to-dateinformation.SectionIdiscussestheconceptofaccountabilityas it isemployed in theRwandancontext inEnglish, French,andKinyarwanda.Section IIprovidesa countryprofile,discussingRwanda’sgovernmentstructure,theeducationsystem’sstructure,educationchallenges,andtheemergenceofaccountabilityasanissueinthissector.SectionIIIthenfocusesonthecross-cuttingroleofthe“Imihigo”inRwandanaccountabilitypractices.SectionIVdiscussestop-downaccountability,followedbySectionVonbottom-upaccountability,andSectionVIonhorizontalaccountabilityintheRwandaneducationsystem.Finally, Section VII offers brief policy recommendations for improving the effectiveness of accountability toimproveeducationalaccessandqualityinRwanda.1

I. Accountability in Rwanda’s three official languages TheconceptofaccountabilityinRwandaisinfluencedbyarangeofunderstandingsofthisideainEnglish,French,andmostimportantly,Kinyarwanda.PolicyandformalinstitutionsinRwandaarecurrentlystronglyshapedbyEnglish through the return of a significant diaspora population fromAnglophone countries and through theinfluenceofmembership inbodies suchas theEastAfricanCommunityand theBritishCommonwealth.TheEnglish term “accountability” appears inmany policies and programs, and accountability has been officiallydefinedas“theextenttowhichresponsibilityandliabilityisgiven,assigned,oracceptedwithinthecontextofmonitoringandevaluation” (MINEDUC2015b:8).However, themeaningof accountability inRwanda is alsofilteredthroughhistoricalandcontemporaryusesofFrenchandKinyarwanda.FrenchhasstronglyshapedRwanda’spolicyandformalinstitutionalspherethroughthelegacyoftheBelgiancolonialperiodandcontinuedFrancophoneties.Frenchisoneofthethreeofficiallanguagesinwhichlawsarepublished,althoughFrenchisnotcurrentlyusedforpolicydevelopment.InFrench,theideaofaccountabilityisexpressedby responsibility (responsabilité), taking responsibility forone’s actions (le faitde répondrede sesactes),andgivinganaccountofone’sactions(rendredescomptes)orbeinganswerabletosomeone(rendredescomptesàquelqu’un).Thereisthusanin-builtunderstandingofownershipofwhatonehasdone,ratherthanpassingblame,andofhierarchyorowinganexplanationtosomeoneelse.WhileEnglishandFrenchnotionsofaccountabilityarecertainlyinfluentialinRwanda,thisinfluenceisoftenfeltthroughthemediumofKinyarwanda,whichcontinuestobeRwanda’sdominantlanguageforinformallife,andretainsastrongplacealongsideEnglishinformaldocumentsandregulations.Thereisnoexacttranslationfor“accountability” inKinyarwanda,but twodistinct familiesof concepts inKinyarwandahavebeenadapted toexpressandshapethenotionofaccountabilityincontemporaryRwanda.ThefirstandmoreprosaicofthesecloselymirrorstheFrenchinitsemphasison“responsibility”(inshingano,aterm that can mean responsibility, role, or duty). Someone who is accountable has “fulfilled his or herresponsibilities”appropriately(kuzuzainshinganoze),asdefinedbysomeonehigherupinahierarchy.

1WrittenbyCatherineA.Honeyman,PhD,WorldLearningandIshyaConsulting,LLC

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The second familyof concepts that is currentlymostused in relation to “accountability”, andwhich ismostgenerative of new meanings in the contemporary Rwandan context, is derived from the verb “to vow, topromise”(guhiga).Therelatednounimihigo,2ofprominentimportanceincontemporaryRwandaanddiscussedinalatersectionofthisreview,wasoriginallyusedinthesenseofavowtoundertakeanactofbraveryinthecontextofcompetingwithothers(guhiganwa)—buttodayitmeansapledgeorapromiseregardingwhatwillbeaccomplishedbytheresponsibleparty(Ingelaere2011;Rwandapedia2016;Scher2010).Afteronehasmadethispledge,oneshould“showwhatonehasachieved”(guhigura).Inthissense,Rwandangovernmentandpublicdiscoursetodaypromotesaccountabilityas“thecultureofsettinggoalsandachievingthem”(umucowoguhiganoguhigura)(see,forexample,Gahiji2015b).

II. Rwanda country profile RwandaislocatedneartheEquatorintheCentral/EasternAfricaGreatLakesRegion,borderedbyBurundi,theDemocraticRepublicof theCongo,Uganda, andTanzania. It currentlyhasapopulationof approximately11millionpeople,withadensitypf434people/km2,makingitoneofthemostdenselypopulatedcountriesinAfrica(NISR2015).79%ofthepopulationlivesinruralareas.EarlyhistoryandcolonizationPre-colonialRwandawascharacterizedbyanagriculturalandpastoraleconomyandanincreasinglycentralizedpoliticalstateruledbyaKingandahierarchyofchiefs,withaco-existingdecentralizedclansystem(Vansina2004;Newbury2009).ThemodernterritoriesofRwandaandBurundiwerecolonizedbyGermanyin1884,andsubsequentlycededtoBelgiumduringWorldWarI.Belgiancolonialrulewaslargelyeffectedthroughtheexistingpolitical system,butwithsome imposedconsolidationof thesocialandpoliticalhierarchy.TheBelgiansalsointroducedidentitycardsthatdefinitivelysortedthepopulationintoTutsi,Hutu,andTwaidentitiesbasedoncolonialjudgmentsofappearance,wealth,andoccupation(theTutsiidentitybeinglinkedtophysicalattributessuchasgreaterheight,tohighersocialstatus,andtocattlewealth),limitingadegreeoffluiditybetweenthesegroupsthatmayhaveexistedpriortocolonialrule(Mamdani2001;Newbury2009;Prunier1995).RwandagainedindependencefromBelgiumin1962,followingaperiodofinternalHutu-Tutsisocialandpoliticalviolence,asaresultofwhichmanythatwereclassedasTutsifledthecountry.In1990,theexpatriateRwandanPatrioticFront(RPF)initiatedawarfortherighttoreturntoRwanda,endinginthe1993ArushaAccords.ThatceasefirewasbrokeninApril1994withthebeginningofacountrywidegenocide(officiallyreferredtoasthe1994 Genocide against the Tutsi) planned by political leaders and targeting Tutsi and moderate Hutu. Thegenocide,haltedbytheRPFonehundreddayslater,decimatedtheranksofRwanda’seducatedleaders—boththrough the death of victims and the imprisonment and exile of perpetrators—and severely damaged thecountry’sinstitutionalandphysicalinfrastructure,inadditiontocausingseriousregionaldestabilization.Rwanda’sgovernmentsince1994In1994,atransitionalgovernmenttookpower,initiallyledbyPresidentPasteurBizimungu,thenbyPresidentPaulKagamesince2000.Underthe2003Rwandanconstitution,thePresidentwastoholdofficeforuptotwotermsofsevenyears;followinga2015publicreferendumandrevisedConstitutionamendingthetermsofofficeforPresident,Senators,andChiefJustice,PresidentKagamehasjustwonathirdterminAugustof2017.Thecountryhas achieved very impressive recovery and furtherdevelopment in thepost-genocide years, thoughscholarshiponthecountryisextremelypolarized,withwidespreadpraiseontheonehand(see,forexample,CrisafulliandRedmond2012;Kayizzi-Mugerwa2000;UnsworthandUvin2002;Kinzer2008;vanHoyweghen2000)counteredbyclaimsofauthoritarianismandhumanrightsissuesontheother(see,forexample,Campioni

2Imihigoisthepluralofumuhigo,howeverthepluralformimihigoiscurrentlyalsousedtorefertoasingleperformancecontract,whichcontainsasetofobjectives.

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andNoack2012;Friedman2012;Jones,deOliveira,andVerhoeven2013;Reyntjens2013;StrausandWaldorf2011). President Paul Kagame has consistently argued that Rwandan public opinion and the country’sdevelopmentachievementsprovethatthecurrentpoliticalsystemeffectivelyservestheRwandanpeople(BBC2012).The Rwandan government is amulti-party system, though parties are specifically forbidden from spreadingdivisionismor genocide ideology, and it is composedof executive, legislative, and judicial branches. For thelegislativebranch,Parliament(consistingoftwochambersfilledbyacombinationofdirectelectionwithcertainquotas, indirect election by special groups, and political appointment) is responsible for specific forms ofgovernmentoversightandforenactinglegislation.Fortheexecutivebranch,policiesaretypicallydevelopedbythelineMinistryconcerned,thensubmittedtotheCabinetandtheOfficeofthePresidentforapproval.Inthecaseoftheeducationsector,theMinistryofEducation(MINEDUC) istheprincipalactoralongwith itsagencies including the Rwanda Education Board (REB). The Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion(MIGEPROF),theMinistryofSportsandCulture(MINISPOC),theMinistryofYouthandICT(MYICT),theMinistryofPublicServiceandLabour(MIFOTRA),andtheMinistryofLocalGovernance(MINALOC)alsoplayarole insomeaspectsoftheeducationsystem.TheOfficeofthePrimeMinisteristaskedwithoverseeingexecutionoflaws,regulations,policiesandprograms.Following a decentralisation process from 2000-2015, Rwandan policies are now implemented through thefollowing administrative levels in descending order of hierarchy: Province (intara), District (akarere), Sector(umurenge),Cell (akagari),andVillage(umudugudu).3Since2006,theconceptofaccountabilityhasexplicitlyshapedthisdecentralisedsystemthroughtheuseofperformancecontracts(imihigo),discussedinfurtherdetailinSectionIIIbelow.Rwanda’seducationsystemFormaleducationinRwandahasbeenacontentiousissuesincecolonialtimes.4Christianmissionaryorders,inparticulartheCatholicWhiteFathers,broughtcatechismandbasicliteracyeducationtotheRwandanmassesalong with a certain amount of social upheaval as a result (Erny 2001; Jesse Jones 1923). Favouritism ineducationalaccessduringcolonialtimestowardsthoseclassedasTutsiwasamajorcauseofsocialunrestcitedinthemid-20thcenturyviolence,andaquotasystemintendedtoincreaseHutuparticipationineducationwasputinplaceafterindependence(Erny2003).Rwanda’seducationsystemwascrippledbythe1994Genocide,butthetransitionalgovernmentquicklymovedtore-enrolstudentsandreplacethelosthumanresources.Severalimportantpolicychangeswerequicklymade,includingtheeliminationofquotas,andtheinstitutionofacentralizednationalexaminationsystemthatdidnotidentifystudentsby“ethnic”category(Honeyman2016).Rwandahasbeenimplementingstrategicplansintheeducationsectorsince1996.In2000,Rwandahadanetenrolmentrateinprimaryeducationofjust72.9%,attheofficialstartingageof7(MINEDUC2015a).Overthefifteen years of Education for All and the Millennium Development Goals, Rwanda achieved primary net3Rwandahasatotalpopulationofalmost11millionpeople,dividedamong5Provinces:Northern,Southern,Eastern,Western,andthemunicipalityofKigali.These5provincesaredividedintoatotalof30Districts,with3forthemunicipalityofKigaliand6-8foreachoftheotherProvinces.Districtsarefurthersubdividedintoanaverageof14Sectorseach,foratotalof416Sectorsinthecountry.EachSectorissubdividedintoanaverageof5Cells,foratotalof2,148Cellsinthecountry.Finally,eachCellissubdividedintoanaverageof7Villages,for a total of 14,837Villages in the country. EachVillage has an averagepopulationof about 741 individuals, or 161households atRwanda’soverallaverageof4.6peopleperhousehold(NISR2015).

4NotethatRwandahaditsowneducationalstructuresandprocessespriortocolonization,chieflythe“itorero”(Codere1973).

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enrolmentof96.9%(MINEDUC2015a),althoughsignificantchallengesremainintermsofrepetitionanddrop-outasstudentsprogressthroughthesystem(ASI2016).Thelargestjumpinenrolmentoccurredin2003,withtheadditionofanextra100,000studentsinjustoneyear,whenprimaryschoolfeeswereabolishedandreplacedwithapublicly-fundedcapitationgrantsystem.Helpingtoabsorbtheextranumbers,communitycontributionsto school construction increased thenumberofprimary schoolsby27%over theperiod from2000 to2013(MINEDUC2015a).Accesstosecondaryeducationhasalso increased,withtheextensionofsomelocalprimaryschoolsto“NineYearsBasicEducation”institutionsbeginningin2008(21%ofallprimaryschools)andsometo“TwelveYearsBasicEducation”institutions(17%ofallprimaryschools),andfurthereffortstoincreasetheavailabilityofplacesintheuppersecondarytechnicalandacademicstreams.Table1outlinesthemajorcurrenteducationsectorstatisticsinRwanda.Table 1: Education Sector Statistics in Rwanda (MINEDUC 2016)

Level GER NER #Enrolled #Institutions5 #StaffPre-primary 20.2% 14.2% 183,658 2,618 5,386Primary(g.1-6) 135.3% 96.9% 2,450,705 2,752 42,005Lowersecondary(g.7-9) 45.9% 22.3% 336,442 1,359 23,873Uppersecondary(g.10-12) 33.2% 20.9% 140,038TVET(secondarylevel) N/A N/A 88,393 370 5,685Tertiary(allsubjects) N/A N/A 86,315 44 6,431

OthermajordevelopmentsintheeducationsystemduringtheEFAperiodincludetheabruptswitchin2008fromFrenchtoEnglishasthemediumofinstructionbeginninginupperprimary,andthe2014-15nationalcurriculumrevisionofallprimaryandsecondaryschoolsubjectsintoanewcompetency-basedframework,withsignificantparticipationofbothteachersanddevelopmentpartnersintherevisionprocess.DespiteRwanda’sundeniableprogressinaccesstoeducation,andhighpoliticalwilltoimprovetheeducationsystem,therearesignsofseriousongoingproblemsinthequalityofeducation(Williams2016).Thelatestdraftofthe2014LearningAchievementinRwandanSchoolsIIstudyshowedtheaveragestudentachievingonlyabout45%ofgradelevelexpectationsinliteracy(measuredinKinyarwandainPrimary2andEnglishinPrimary5),andaveragenumeracyscoresofonly33%and38%forPrimary2andPrimary5studentsrespectively(REB2016b:viii).Other recent learningassessmentstudiesshowsimilarly low levelsof learningachievement, thoughthemethodologies and findings have varied considerably across studies (EDC2016; Friedlander andGoldenberg2016;Moultonetal.2016).Rwandadoesnotcurrentlyparticipateinanyregionalorinternationalassessments,making itdifficult tobenchmark learningachievementatdifferent levelsof theeducation system.However,there is a recognition that quality needs to improve across the board: Rwanda’s current Education SectorStrategicPlancitesimprovingthequalityofeducationasoneofthreemajorstrategicgoals(MINEDUC2010),andvariouseducationqualityissuesareregularlyraisedatthebi-annualJointReviewoftheEducationSectormeetings.ThefollowingsectionsdiscusshowaccountabilitystructuresandpracticesfunctionintheRwandaneducationsystemtoensurecertainlevelsofeducationaleffectivenessandpushtowardsimprovement,aswellaspointingoutareaswhereaccountabilityisstillweak.SectionIIIintroducesthe“Imihigo”orperformancecontracts,and5These includepublicschools, religious-operatedschools (Catholic,Protestant,Adventistand Islamic) thatreceivesomegovernmentsupport,parents’associationschools,andprivateschools.Fullypublicschoolsrepresentabout46%ofthetotalatthepre-primarylevel,26%attheprimarylevel,and30%atthesecondarylevel.CatholicandProtestantgovernment-aidedschoolsareanimportantpartofthesystem,makingup64%ofprimaryschoolsand59%ofsecondaryschools).

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discusses the cross-cutting role they play in accountability in Rwanda. In the research on governance,accountabilitystructureshaveoftenbeenclassifiedaseithervertical(betweenagovernmentandcitizens)orhorizontal(amonggovernmentinstitutionsoramongactorsnotinvolvedinahierarchicalrelationship)(MigliorisiandWescott2011).Toanalyseaccountability in thecontextof theRwandaneducationsector, it isuseful toexpand the definition to bring into consideration the various levels of institutional hierarchy that mediatebetween the government and citizens, and to differentiate the top-down aspects of vertical accountability(SectionIV)fromthebottom-upaspects(SectionV).Horizontalaccountabilityisalsoarelevantconceptamonggovernmentstructuresandbetweengovernmentanddevelopmentpartners(SectionVI).Thisreviewfocusesonaccountabilitystructuresandpracticesinthegeneralpre-primary,primary,andsecondarylevelsofRwanda’seducationsystem.

III. The role of the “Imihigo”, or performance contracts TheconceptofaccountabilityinRwandahasbecomesynonymouswiththeactofmakingpledgesandfulfillingthem(guhiganoguhigura)undertheImihigoorperformancecontractsystem.Theterms“guhiga”and“imihigo”were historically used in Rwanda in relation to a public pledge of bravery (Ingelaere 2011; Scher 2010;Rwandapedia2016).Beginningin2006inthecontextofthesecondphaseofRwanda’sdecentralisationprocess,thetermwasadoptedtoapplytocontemporaryresults-basedmanagement:planningobjectives,settingtargetsandindicators,andreportingonachievementattheendofasetperiod(IEG2015).ThecontemporaryImihigosystemwasfirstintroducedas“aseriesofperformancemanagementcontractssignedbetweenthePresidentoftheRepublicandtheDistrictMayorsonbehalfoftheirconstituents”; it isapledge“recorded publicly in a written contract that presents a set of development targets backed by specificperformance indicators over the period of one year” (MINALOC 2006: xiii-xiv). Since then, the Imihigo hasbecomeakeytoolofgovernanceinRwandaatalllevelsofadministration,fromthenationalleadershipinthevariousMinistries,totheexecutiveleadershipattheProvince,District,Sector,Cellandvillagelevels.Ministers,ProvincialMayors,andDistrictMayorssigntheirImihigodirectlywiththePresident,whileloweradministrativelevels sign Imihigo with their superiors (Rwandapedia 2016). Even families are supposed to sign an Imihigospecifying their own social and economic development goals for the year, though local leaders may notconsistentlyimplementthepractice.TheDistrictImihigoinparticularplayasignificantrolethroughtheirpivotaluseinthedecentralizedsystemforplanninginarangeofareasofsocialandeconomicdevelopment,includingeducation;arguably,theyalsoremainthemostpublicly-discussedaspectofaccountabilityinthecountry.From2006-2009,theDistrictImihigowereevaluatedprimarilyattheProvinciallevel,butstartingin2010/11thiswasconvertedintoacentralizedprocessto enhance the quality of the evaluations and to allow for more direct comparability among Districts’achievements(Rwandapedia2016;Scher2010).Amongotheraspectsoftheevaluation,DistrictsarerankedbytheirperformanceontheEconomic,Social,andGovernanceandJusticeindicatorsintheirplans(IPAR2015).DistrictMayorsandotherkeyofficialstakeseriouslytheacclaimthatcomesfromhighrankings,andthepublichumiliation—andpublicorprivatecensurefromnationalauthorities—thatoftenresultsfromlowperformance.Itisnotuncommonforleaderstoresigninthefaceofapoorevaluation.In2015,forexample,theMayorsoffourdistrictsalongwithsomekeystaffresignedfollowingtheImihigoevaluationprocess.TheformerMayorofRwamaganaDistrictexplained,inaninterviewwiththenewspaperTheNewTimes,“Mydistricthadnevermadeitbeyondthe22ndpositiondespitealltheeffortsIhadinvested.Ratherthanremaininthelastposition,Ioptedtostepasideandpavewayfornewblood”(Musoni2015).TheDistrict Imihigo are intended to reflect bothnational developmentpriorities andparticularDistrict-levelrealities.RecentresearchontheeducationcomponentoftheDistrictImihigo,however,hasdemonstratedthattheseobjectivesareoftensetwithlittleknowledgeoforrelevancetothenationaleducationsectorstrategies(CfBT2015;Honeyman2015).Atthesametime,theyarestronglybasedonoverarchingnationaldevelopment

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strategies,with less attention to the local consultationprocess fordetermining specific local priorities (IPAR2015).Thereisalsoincreasingrecognitionofthebroaderimplicationsofasystemthatplacespriorityonlyonobjectivesthatareeasilyquantifiableandeasilymeasured,despitethefactthatsomeofthemostimportantgoalsforeducationqualitymaynotmeetthosecriteria(Honeyman2015;CfBT2015;Williams2016).AstudyconductedontheeducationobjectivesofDistrictImihigodocumentsin2014demonstratedthelimitedrangeofindicatorsthatarebeingmeasuredintheseplans(Honeyman2015).Table2belowliststheeducation-relatedobjectivesfromthreeDistrictImihigo:Table 2: Example 2013/2014 Imihigo Objectives in Education from 3 Districts (Honeyman 2015: 27-28)

Output Indicator Baseline Target Cost Source of Funds

GIC

UMBI

Quality of 12YBE Strengthened

Number of new classrooms and toilets of 9 & 12YBE

412 classrooms and 1761 toilets of 9 & 12YBE constructed

94 Classrooms and 144 toilets of 9 & 12YBE constructed

387,058,065 MINEDUC

4 Classroooms in Nyankenke sector constructed

13,000,000 GoR/World Vision/ Community participation

ECD models strengthened

Number of ECD models constructed

109 operational ECDs

3 model ECDs constructed (in Miyove, Cyumba, Rwamiko Sectors)

83,000,000 EAR-AEE/ UNICEF/ District

Adult Literacy Strengthened

Number of trained illiterates

4,000 illiterates trained

3,000 illiterates women and men trained

5,500,000 GoR + District

NG

ORO

RERO

Quality of Education and

Skills Development strengthened

Number of new classrooms constructed

325 classrooms constructed in 9 & 12YBE

62 Classrooms constructed

147,619,227 MINEDUC + District

% of school dropout

- 0% of school dropout cases

- -

Number of ECD Centers equipped

1 (Rususa ECD in progress)

3 ECD (Muhororo ECD center rehabilitated and equipped, Rususa and Kabaya ECD equipped

22,282,700 MINEDUC + DISTRICT

RUH

ANG

O

Quality of 12YBE Strengthened

Number of classrooms constructed

8 classrooms and 24 toilets for 12YBE are constructed

4 classrooms and 12 toilets for 12YBE constructed

25,000,000 Sector

Number of schools visited

13 schools visited 20 schools visited 700,000 District

Illiteracy Rate Reduced

Number of people trained

2,411 illiterate people are trained

New 2012/2993 illiterate people trained

3,000,000 District

Early Childhood Development

(ECD) promoted

ECD operational 2 ECD operational 1 ECD operational in Buhoro

2,000,000 Sector, EAR church

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Althoughall threeof theDistricts featuredherehadobjectivesostensiblyrelatedto“qualityeducation”, thegreatestfocuswasontheconstructionofphysicalinfrastructure.ThereisasuggestionofthepotentialoftheImihigo todomoreto influenceeducationquality—inNgororero’s inclusionofanobjectiverelatedtoschooldropout, and Ruhango’s inclusion of school visits—but the setting of effective quality-relevant objectives isclearlystillanareathatneedswork.ThesamestudyremarksonthedifferencesbetweentheImihigoandtheActionPlansofthedecentralizedauthorities:

“Interestingly,theDistrict,Sector,andCellActionPlans,whicharticulatesecondarypolicyobjectivesandactivities,containagreatervarietyofeducationalobjectivesandsomethataremoreclearlyrelatedtoquality issues (suchas reducingclass sizeand teacherworkloads, increasingparents’participation ineducationmeetings,andmonitoringacquisitionofnumeracyandliteracy);howeversincenationalfundsare targeted towards achievement of the primary Imihigo goals, it is not clear towhat extent localgovernmentscanpursuethesesortsofsecondaryobjectives”(Honeyman2015:28).

Inadditiontotheissueoffunding,anotherreasonsomucheffortgoestowardsattainingtherelativelysmallnumber of Imihigo goals, over and beyond the more complex objectives that may be featured in othergovernmentplanningdocuments,istheverypublicnatureoftheannualImihigoevaluations.IfaDistrictactionplanobjectivesuchasincreasingparents’participationinschoolmeetingsisnotattained,itisunlikelythatmanypeoplewillknow;however,ifaDistrictImihigoobjectivesuchasbuildingacertainnumberofprimaryclassroomsisnotattained,itislikelythattheDistrictMayormaybepubliclyshamedandcalledtoaccountforthefailure.Notsurprisingly,inacontextoflimitedtimeandresources,theworkrequiredtoachievetheImihigoobjectiveswilllikelybeprioritizedoverothermorecomplexandlessconcretetasksthatwillnotbesopubliclyexposed.Inthis sense, the very effectiveness of the Imihigo approach as an accountability mechanism, can also be aweaknessiftheImihigoobjectivesdonotaccuratelyreflectthefullrangeofrealpriorityissuesinanareasuchaseducation.ThepressureexertedbytheImihigomayalsohavesomeunintendednegativeconsequences.TherehavebeensomeallegationsthatlocalofficialsmayresorttofalsifyingdatainordertoimprovetheirperformanceagainstImihigotargets(Chemouni2014),althoughthecentralizedevaluationsystemincludesanauditofDistrictdataandclaims(Scher2010;IPAR2015).Anotherconcernisthatlocal leadersmaytrytopreventsubordinatesormembers of the general population from speaking up during evaluations and other visits from higher-upauthorities,afactorthathasledtoatleastonerecentresignation(Musoni2015).Finally,localleaderssometimestransfer to the population the pressure they are under to meet Imihigo objectives, by pushing people toundertakeeffortsthatmaynotbewithintheircapacityoramongtheirtoppriorities.Forexample,therehavebeenwidespreadinstancesofstudentsbeingdismissedfromschoolfornotpayingtheirschoollunchfees,withschoolofficialscitingpressuretoachieveanImihigotargetof100%contributionstotheschoolfeedingprogram(Mugabo2015).Inthiscase,theMinistryofEducationissuedanorderforschoolstostopturningpupilsawayfornon-payment,andsomegovernmentsupport isavailable to themostvulnerablestudents—butthe issueremainsthatleadersneedtogainpopularcooperationbyonemeansoranotherinordertoachievemanyImihigoobjectives.Accordingtorecentanalyses(IPAR2015;Honeyman2015;Versailles2012),therearesomekeystrategiesthatcouldhelptheImihigocouldbecomemoreeffectivedriversforaccountabilityandqualityimprovementintheRwandaneducationsystem:

• EnsuringthatDistrictDirectorsofEducation,Districtexecutives,andProvince-levelofficialshaveabetterunderstandingoftheeducationalrealitiesonthegroundintheirjurisdictionsandabetterunderstandingofthereasonsbehindnationaleducationstrategies,tohelpthemsetmorecomprehensiveandstrategicallypositionedImihigoobjectives;

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• SeekinggreaterpublicparticipationinthesettingofpriorityeducationalissuesfortheImihigo,andbetterinformingthepublicaboutthereasonswhycertaintargetsmayeventuallyhavebeenrevisedorremoved;

• PrioritizingImihigoobjectivesthathavethegreatestpotentialtocreatepositiveexternalitiesor“spill-overeffects”intheeducationsector,suchasimprovementsinteachercapacityandschoolmanagement;

• EducatingDistrictofficialsonhowtosetrealistictargets,basedontheavailablefundingandonbetterbaselinedata;and

• Improvingreportingsystemstoverifyachievements.

ThewidespreaduseofperformancecontractsinRwandaalreadyrepresentsaveryinterestingexampleofhowaccountability can be infused throughout an administratively decentralised or deconcentrated system ofeducationalmanagement.With these improvements in the setting andevaluatingof Imihigo objectives, thesystem has real potential for contributing to important improvements in educational provision and qualitythroughoutRwanda.ThefollowingsectionsnowturntoadiscussionofotherspecificstructuresandpracticesthatcontributetoverticalandhorizontalaccountabilityinRwanda’seducationsystem.

IV. Top-down accountability structures and practices Vertical accountability refers to the relationship between a government’s different levels of authority andcitizens (Migliorisi andWescott 2011), and it occurs through both top-down and bottom-up processes. Thissectionaddressestop-downaccountability,definedhereasthelaws,structures,andpracticesbywhicheachleveloftheeducationsystemisheldresponsibleforitsactionsbyhigherlevelsinthehierarchy.RelevantpartiestothisaspectofverticalaccountabilityinRwanda’sgeneraleducationsystemincludeparents,localgovernment,teachers,headmasters,SectorEducationOfficersandSectorofficials,DistrictDirectorsofEducationandDistrictofficials,6departmentsoftheRwandaEducationBoard(REB)particularlytheEducationQualityandStandardsDepartment (EQSD), the teacher training institutions (TTCs and URCE), the Ministry of Local Government(MINALOC),andtheMinistryofPublicServiceandLabour(MIFOTRA).In addition to the Rwandan Constitution of 2003 Revised in 2015, which guarantees the right to education(Rwanda2015),anumberoflaws,ministerialorders,andpresidentialorderssetouttheprinciplesfortop-downaccountabilitywithintheRwandaneducationsystem(Rwanda2011,2012,2014,2016a,2016b,2016c,2016d,2016e,2016f).AnewPresidentialOrder,establishingSpecialStatutesgoverningteachers inNursery,PrimaryandSecondaryschools,hasalsojustbeenapprovedbyCabinetbuthasnotyetbeenpublished.7Thiscasestudyusesadraftofthosestatutesforanalysis(Draft2014),pendingpublicationoftheofficialversion.HoldingParentsAccountabletoGuaranteetheChild’sRighttoEducation:UndertheRwandanConstitutionof2003Revisedin2015,everyRwandanhastherighttoeducationand“primaryeducationiscompulsoryandfree6UndertheneweducationstructureattheDistrictlevel,DistrictDirectorsforEducationworkwithtwoeducationofficers:onefornursery,primary,andadulteducation,andanotherforsecondaryandvocationaleducation.TheseeducationofficialsworkundertheDistrictVice-MayorforSocialAffairs,whointurnissupervisedbytheDistrictMayor.AnothernewstructureattheDistrictlevelaretheDistrictMasterTrainers(DMAST)whoaretoworkwithSchoolSubjectLeaderstoimplementanewsystemofcontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentforteachers.

7 According to the Office of the Prime Minister’s Statement on Cabinet Decisions of 29/03/2016, published athttp://primature.gov.rw/index.php?id=27&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1424&cHash=11820dd798ced47ac6734c8458c071a3. Since thefinalstatuteshavenotbeenpublished,thiscasestudyusesadraftversion.

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inpublic schools” (Rwanda2015,Article20).Elsewhere, ithasbeenstated that secondaryeducation isnowcompulsoryaswell,extendingthesystemouttotwelveyearsofbasiceducationfromage7toage18(MINEDUC2016,2013).However, theredoesnotyetappear tobeofficial legislationgivingRwandancitizensa right totwelveyearsofeducation,northatrequirescompulsoryattendancetothatstage—onlyautomaticpromotionintolowersecondaryschoolissuggestedbycurrentlaw,alongwithassistancewithsecondaryschoolfeesforthedestitute(Rwanda2012,Articles36and41).ArecentMinisterialOrderstatesthatparentshavetheresponsibilityofsendingtheirchildrentoschooloncetheyhavereachedtheageofprimaryschoolentry(7years),andofnotpreventingtheirchildrenfromcontinuingtheir education—although it does not explicitly indicate themaximumage for obligatory school attendance(Rwanda2016a). The sameMinisterialOrder stipulates that parentswhodonotmeet theseobligations aresubjecttoreprimandbyvillage(umudugudu)authorities,byschoolauthorities,andincaseofcontinuedlapse,byCelllevelauthorities.TheOrderdoesnotspecifytheparticularsanctionstobeapplied.ThereisnotyetanyresearchavailableabouthowlocalauthoritiesareapplyingthisnewOrderinpractice.Inrecentyears,beforethisOrderwasissued,village-levelauthoritieshavebeenmostactiveinconductingpublic“sensitizations” about the importance of education, in settings such as the monthly community service(umuganda) and its associated public meeting, and through the monthly parents’ evening gatherings(umugoroba w’ababyeyi).8 According to interviews conducted for a separate study (Honeyman 2015), localofficialsappeartobemoreconfidentabouttheirabilitytoensurethatparentsenroltheirchildreninschool,than to enforce regular attendance. One District Director of Education remarked, “What is difficult for themoment is childrendroppingoutof school. Thereare somany reasons that causechildren todropout, likepoverty,parentskeepingtheirchildrenathometotakecareoftheiryoungersiblings…It’sreallynoteasytosucceedatkeepingallchildreninschool.Outof100studentsregistered,wewouldlikeatleast95tofinishtheirstudies,butwehaveneveraccomplishedthis.”9HoldingTeachersandHeadmastersAccountable:TeachersinRwandaareundertheimmediatesupervisionofschoolheadmasters,whoareunderthesupervisionofSectorEducationOfficers(SEOs)andDistrictDirectorsofEducation (DDEs, formerly District EducationOfficers or DEOs).10 All of these are positions of public serviceemploymentundertheMinistryofPublicServiceandLabour(MIFOTRA),andtheyareformallyundertheremitoftheMinistryofLocalGovernment(MINALOC).Notably,theselocaleducatorsandeducationofficialsarenotsupervisedbytheMinistryofEducation(MINEDUC)or its implementingagencytheRwandaEducationBoard(REB)—a fact that sometimes causes challenges for accountability. Although the Rwanda Education Board’sEducationQualityandStandardsDepartment(REB-EQSD),theformerinspectorate,11playsaroleinensuringthatlow-performingteachers,headmasters,orschoolsareheldtoaccount,inpracticetherearesomedifficultiesinaccomplishingthisresponsibility.REB-EQSDinspectsasampleofschoolsaroundthecountryeachyear,includingsomepedagogicalobservationsandopportunities to evaluate headmasters’ performance. Inmanyways, inspection visits fromEQSDplay asupportive role as inspectors help to inform schools about new curricula, legislation, and policy; lead or

8Theseareimplementedwithvaryingdegreesofregularityinlocalitiesaroundthecountry(Honeyman2015).

9FromaninterviewwithaDistrictDirectorofEducation(locationwithheldforconfidentiality),March8,2014.

10Forgovernment-aidedreligiousschools,theschoolownerrepresentsanintermediaryleveltobeinvolvedbeforecontactingtheSEO.

11NotethatarestructuringofMINEDUCandREBhasbeenproposed,andonepossibilitybeingconsideredisthattheEducationQualityandStandardsDepartmentshouldbecomeanindependentinspectionagencyinitsownright.

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participatingintrainings;andgiveadviceabouthowtoimproveaspectsofschoolmanagement,pedagogy,andinfrastructure(REB2016a).EQSDalsohastheroleofreportingpoor-performingteachersorheadmasterstotheDistrictlevel;headmastersandSEOscanalsoreportproblemteachersindependentlytotheDistrictlevel,whileSEOsandDDEscanalsoreportlow-performingheadmasters.Followingareportofproblemswithaparticularteacherorheadmaster,theDistrictMayoristheresponsibleauthorityforrequiringsuspensionsofteachersorheadmasters.In practice, however, the procedures are not as streamlined as they might be—as the following exampleillustrates:

“[A]HeadTeacher12wasreportedbyboththeSEOconcernedandbyanEQS inspectorforverypoorschoolmanagement.WithoutconsultingEQSorotheragenciesatREB,theDEO13oftheDistrictfirsttriedtomovetheHeadTeachertoanotherschooltoseeiftherewouldbesomeimprovement.Whenthatfailed,theDEOsuspendedtheHeadTeacher.YetatthispointMIFOTRAintervened,sinceHeadTeachersare public employees, and reinstated the Head Teacherwhile investigationswere being conducted.When the investigation confirmed incompetence and wrongdoing, the Head Teacher was againsuspended,onlytobereinstatedagainaftertheperiodofsuspensionallowedunderthepubliclabourlawshadpassed.ThisHeadTeacherisnowmanagingthesameschoolasbefore,withoutanyparticularplanonthepartofREB,theDEO,ortheSEOastohowtoimprovehiscapacities.Ontheotherside,HeadTeachersalsomentionedduringthisresearchthatitcanbedifficultforthemtotakeactionregardingpoorly performing teachers, given that it is not always easy for a Head Teacher to prove teacherincompetence. Some caseswere cited inwhich teachers refused outright to change their practices,sayingtheyhadneveryetbeensanctionedbytheDistrict”(Honeyman2015:60).

Some of the difficulties in holding teachers and headmasters accountablemay be addressed by the recentMinisterialOrdersettingoutacodeofconductforteachersandheadmasters(Rwanda2016d),andbythenewteacherstatutes(Draft2014).Thelatterverydetaileddocumentlaysoutaclearchainofaccountability,definesacceptableperformanceandconduct,setsoutspecific reasons forsanctions,anddeterminesthecompetentauthoritiesandmeansforimposingsanctions.If these Draft statutes are approved and implemented in their current form, the chain of accountability isintendedtofunctionasfollows:Atthebeginningofeachacademicyear,teachersandheadmastersaretosignaperformance contract (imihigo) “based on the teacher’s standards, the school improvement plan goals, andlearning goals” (Draft 2014, Article 97). During the academic year, the headmaster is to conduct classroomobservations of teachers, while the SEOs and DDEs are to conduct visits to evaluate the performance ofheadmasters.Attheconclusionoftheyear,theheadmastercompletesaperformanceappraisalofteachers,theSEOcompletesaperformanceappraisalofheadmasters,andtheseareeachreviewedbythenexthigherlevelinthehierarchy.Onthebasisoftheappraisal,teachersareassignedtooneoffourcategoriesofperformance,thelastofwhichisgroundsforimmediatedismissal.Promotionsarealsotiedtoperformanceappraisalresults.Inaddition to the general performance appraisal, the teacher statutes stipulate specific infractions and theproceduresandpenaltiesapplicabletoeach(Draft2014).IftheseprovisionsareretainedinthefinalTeacherStatutes,theylayapromisingframeworkforimprovedaccountabilityofteachersandheadmastersthroughouttheRwandaneducationsystem.Currentchallengesinensuringthatschoolsareawareofofficialdocumentsandplans,andthesocialchallengesthatheadmastersfaceinreportingonteacherperformance,wouldalsohavetoberesolvedinordertoensureimplementationiftheseStatutesareapproved(CfBT2015;Honeyman2015).12Ministerial Order No. 002/2016 of 08/01/2016 confirms that the correct title for this position is “Headmaster” (Rwanda 2016b);previouslyanumberofdifferenttitleswereusedinterchangeably,including“HeadTeacher”asinthispassage.

13FormerlyDistrictEducationOfficer,nowDistrictDirectorofEducation.

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HoldingSEOsandDDEsaccountable:TheeffectivenessoftheteacherandheadmasteraccountabilitysystemlargelydependsonthedegreetowhichSEOsandDDEsperformtheirfunctions.Again,recentresearchsuggestssomedifficultiesinthisregard,linkedtotheirstructureofsupervision,andtothelowprioritygiventoeducationinSectorandDistrictplans(Honeyman2015;CfBT2015).SEOs are supervisedby the Sector Executive Secretary,whileDDEs are supervisedby theDistrictMayor.Asmentionedearlier,theyworkaspublicservantsundertheremitoftheMinistryofLocalGovernment(MINALOC),whichhasnoeducationspecialistsitself,andthereisnodirectreportinglineorperformancecontractlinkingthemtotheMinistryofEducation(MINEDUC)oritsagencytheRwandaEducationBoard(REB).REB’sEducationQualityandStandardsDepartment(REB-EQSD)doesplayaroleinreportingnon-performingeducationofficers—eitherREB-EQSDorDDEscanreportSEOstotheSectorExecutive,andREB-EQSDmaytellaDistrictMayorthataDDEneedstobereplaced.14However,REB-EQSDinspectorshavelimitedinfluenceovertheday-to-dayworkofSEOsandDDEs,andrecentresearchsuggeststhatSEOsinparticularmaynotbegiventhetimeorbudgetnecessarytoaccomplishfunctionssuchasschoolvisits,asSectorExecutivesmayredirectthemtootheractivitiesconsideredofhigherpriority(CfBT2015;Honeyman2015).Generally speaking, education has not been given a top priority among the many areas in which localgovernmentsareexpectedtowork,withtheexceptionofschoolconstructiontargets.ArecentnationalstudyshowedthateducationwasnotprioritizedwithinDistrictDevelopmentPlansortheDistrictImihigo,findingthatnoDistrict Development Plan included educationwithin its six priority sectors, and that theDistrict Imihigotypicallygaveeducation justoneortwoobjectivesoutofatotalof70-90 identifiedforallsectorsofactivitycombined(CfBT2015:16)Noneofthe20Sectorsvisitedforthesamestudyhaddevelopededucationplans,exceptforschedulingsomeschoolvisits.Researchersremarkedthat“DEOsandSEOscarryoutschoolmonitoringvisitsespeciallyatthestartoftheschoolyear,butagainitappearsfromtheirreportsandfeedbackfromthestudythattheseareprimarilytochecktheinformationprovidedbytheschoolonnumbersofstudentsandstaff,andnottoassesstheschool’sperformance”(CfBT2015:19).TherearesomerecentinitiativesintendedtoimprovealignmentoftheaccountabilitystructureforSEOsandDDEswitheducationsectorpriorities.MINEDUChasbeenworkingmorecloselywithDDEsrecentlytohelpthemdevelop their educationplans and set education-related Imihigo objectives. SEOsare alsobeing trainedandguidedtosomeextentinissuesofeducationqualitybyREB-EQS.AndbothSEOsandDDEsareincludedinanewDecentralizedEducationPlanningandMonitoringcapacitystrengtheningplandevelopedunderMINEDUCwithDFIDsupport,which recommendsbetterdefinitionsof rolesandresponsibilitiesaswellasdifferent typesoftrainings (CfBT 2015)—although the plan has yet to be implemented. Additionally, a new law clarifies theoperationofSectorandDistrictEducationCouncilstohelpguideandoverseetheworkoftheSEOsandDDEs(Rwanda 2016e). However, accountability for these local education officials continues to depend to a greatextentonSectorExecutives’andDistrictMayors’understandingoftheresponsibilitiesofthesepositionsandontheirunderstandingoflocaleducationneeds.Holdingteachertraininginstitutionsaccountable:Teachersclearlyneedtobeheldaccountableforeffectiveteaching; but likewise, teacher training institutions need to be held accountable for effectively preparingteacherstoserveinthefield.TwolevelsofteachertraininginstitutionsexistinRwanda:uppersecondaryschool-levelTeacherTrainingColleges(TTCs)thatprepareteachersforpre-primaryandprimaryschool;anduniversity-levelinstitutionspreparingteachersforsecondaryschools.Thelatterincludelargecohortsofteachercandidatesat thetwocampusesof theUniversityofRwanda,CollegeofEducation(URCE),aswellassmallercohortsat

14FromaninterviewwithaREB-EQSDInspector,March4,2014.

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severalprivateinstitutions(TaskForce2015).Inadditiontotrainingsecondaryschoolteachercandidates,URCEoverseestheTTCs.There have been challenges with connecting teacher education to the broader education sector plans andpolicies, particularly sincemanagementof theTTCswasmoved fromdirectMINEDUC supervision toURCE’sremit(Honeyman2015).Tosomeextent,REBhasbeguntobridgethisgapaspartofrecentworktorevisetheteacher training curriculum to match the new national competency-based curriculum. And the TeacherProfessional Development Technical Working Group, one of theWorking Groups formed as a coordinatingmechanism in theeducationsector,hasalsomadeprogressby formingapre-service teachereducation taskforcethatincludesparticipationfromURCE.However,someaspectsofaccountabilitycouldstillbereinforced.In particular, while SEOs, DDEs, REB departments, and MINEDUC collected data about teacher and schoolperformance,thereisasofyetnosystematicprocessforanalysingtheimplicationsofthisdataforpoliciesandpracticesthatmayneedtobechangedorimprovedinteachertraininginstitutions.Holding the Ministry of Education and the Rwanda Education Board accountable: MINEDUC and itsimplementingagencyREBholdthefinalresponsibilityforeducationalaccessandqualityinRwanda,andtheyareoverseenbytheOfficeofthePrimeMinisterandtheOfficeofthePresident.MINEDUCreportsregularlyagainst the targets set in the Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP) and the country’s current overarchingEconomicDevelopmentandPovertyReductionStrategy(EDPRSII).Reportsarediscussedamongabroadrangeofsectoractorsinthebi-annualJointReviewsoftheEducationSector(JRES),andaresubmittedforoversighttotheMinistryofFinanceandEconomicPlanning(MINECOFIN).15Theheadsofgovernmentagencies,includingMINEDUC,alsosignannualperformancecontracts(Imihigo),whicharecountersignedbythePresident.Inanannualleadershipretreat(Umwiherero),theleadershipofRwanda’smajor institutionspresenton theirachievementsandarecalled toaccount for implementation failures.Onereportoftheeventsnoted,

“Poorperformersarereprimanded,sometimesshamed.Goodperformersarerecognized.[…]Thereisfranktalk among officials. A district mayor will complain directly to any government agency blocking hisdevelopmentagenda.Thenthemayorwillalsocomplainagainstaminister.Thentheministerwilldefendhimself.Agencyheadswillhaveopportunitytotellofftheirminister.Thisisachanceforeveryonetoexplaindirectlytogovernmentsuchthattheycouldescapepersonalliability.Theretreatsetsasceneforeveryleadertobeheldaccountable”(Gahiji2015a).

Althoughtheredoesnotappeartobeanywrittenpolicyastohowpoorperformancewillbesanctioned,theretreatsareoftenfollowedbychangesinleadershipofunder-performinggovernmentagencies,andsometimesbyresignations;additionally,chargesofcorruptionoftenleadtopublicdenouncementandincarceration.Inbrief,onecould say thatRwandahasa relatively strong legalandpolicy framework for top-downverticalaccountability.Thereisevidenceofrealconsequencesforineffectiveperformance,suchasforcedresignation,thoughnoformalstatisticsappeartoexistontheapplicationofsuchprofessionalsanctions.Thegreatestgapscanbefoundintheoperationofaccountabilitystructuresatthelevelofschoolsandlocalgovernment.Theseissueshavebeengainingincreasedrecognitionandsomeinitiativeshavebeenproposedtoaddressthem.

V. Bottom-up accountability structures and practices Verticalaccountabilityisnotonlyamatterofthoseathigherlevelsofauthorityholdingsubordinatestoaccount;ideallythereshouldalsobebottom-upaccountabilitystructuresandpracticesbywhichthegeneralpopulation

15SeefurtherdiscussionoftheJRESinSectionVI,onhorizontalaccountabilitystructures.

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canhold toaccount those inauthority.Onemechanismfor this is throughdemocraticdebateandelections;however, at local levels in Rwanda some important positions are appointed,while theremaynot be strongcontests for each elected post (Ingelaere 2011). There are, however, other bottom-up accountabilitymechanismsemployedinRwandainrelationtotheeducationsector,asdescribedbelow.TheSchoolGeneralAssembly,GeneralAssemblyCommittee,andAuditCommittee:EveryschoolistoestablishaGeneralAssemblycomposedoftheheadmaster(anon-votingmember),membersoftheschooladministrativestaff, all parentsof students in the school, all teachersof the school, andonemaleandone femaleelectedstudent representative (Rwanda 2012). The General Assembly is to elect a General Assembly Committeecomposedoftheheadmaster(anon-votingmember),twoparentrepresentatives,twoteacherrepresentatives,andthetwostudentselectedtotheGeneralAssembly(Rwanda2016c).16Similarly,theGeneralAssemblyelectstwoparentrepresentativesandateacherrepresentativefortheSchoolAuditCommittee.Thesearethebodiesintended to ensure public oversight of school management and educational quality at the local level; notsurprisingly theyoperatewithdifferingdegreesofeffectiveness indifferentschoolsaroundthecountry,andsomereportssuggestanoverallleveloflowparentalengagement(Asaba2015).InterviewsconductedforthiscasestudysuggestedthattheelectedleadersofschoolGeneralAssembliesareoftennotdeeplyawareofschoolmanagementandperformanceissues,thattheyareoftenreluctanttoenterintoconflictwithheadteachersonissuessuchasmanagementof thecapitationgrants,andthat theyoftendonot reportcasesof teacherandheadmaster absenteeism.17 There is currently a national USAID-sponsored program underway (School-Community Partnerships for Education, SCOPE, also called Mureke Dusome) working with REB to improveGeneralAssemblyCommittees’understandingofschoolmanagementissuesandstrengthentheirabilitytoholdschoolleadersaccountablefortheirperformance.ExaminationsandAssessments:Rwandaconductsannualnationalexaminationsattheendofprimaryschool,lower secondary, andupper secondary. TheRwandanmediahave consistently reportedaggregate resultsofthesenationalexaminations,includingreportingongenderdifferencesandflagginginstancesofcheatingandcorruption (see,e.g.Mushimijimana2016);however, there isnosufficientlydetailedpublicanalysisof theseresultstoholdaccountableparticularschool,Sector,orDistrictleadershipintheeducationsector.Infact,thepublication of school-level data is specifically avoided in order to guard against practices such as excludingweakerstudentsfromparticipatinginexaminations,inordertoboostschoolscores.18Inorderfordataonlearningoutcomestobeusedfornationalpublicaccountability,itisimportanttobeabletocompareresultsfromyeartoyear,whichthenationalexaminationsarenotdesignedtodoonareliablebasis.Rwandaisnotyetaparticipantinanyregionalorinternationalassessmentregime,andthereissofarnocitizen-ledassessmentinitiativealongthelinesofUwezoinneighbouringUgandaandKenya.However,tworoundsofthe“LearningAssessmentinRwandanSchools”(LARS)studyhavesofarbeenconducted.Thoughthesearenotyetrigorouslydesignedforyear-to-yearcomparability,andtheresultshavenotyetbeenwidelydiscussed inpublic, there is a potential for this instrument to become an important source of public information abouteducationqualityinRwanda,particularlyiftherecommendationsfromLARSIIareadoptedforfutureroundsoftheassessment(REB2016b).

16 These are sometimes referred to in Rwanda as the Parent Teacher Assembly or Association, and the Parent Teacher Committee,respectively;however,thelegally-recognizedtermsareSchoolGeneralAssemblyandSchoolGeneralAssemblyCommittee.

17Informationcollectedfromdevelopmentpartnerkeyinformants,December2016.

18Informationcollectedfromdevelopmentpartnerkeyinformants,December2016.

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Publicparticipation indiscussionsaboutsocialaffairsatvillage,Cell,Sector,andDistrict levels:Thevillage(umudugudu)isthefirstlevelofformaladministrationinRwanda,typicallyencompassing100-300households.Village leadersareelected,and theyorganiseamorningofpublic service (umuganda)eachmonth,which istypicallyfollowedbyacommunitymeeting.Thiscommunitymeetingisoftenaplacefortop-down“sensitisation”onsocialissuesincludingoccasionallyeducation(asisthemonthlyparents’evening,umugorobaw’ababyeyi);dependingonthevillageleadershipitmayalsobeaplaceforthegeneralpopulationtoraisetheirownissuesfordiscussion.AttheCellandSectorlevels,theExecutiveSecretaryisappointedbutthepopulationelectsaCouncilwhosemeetingsonlocalaffairsareheldinpublic(Rwanda2013),alsopotentiallyasettingforholdingtoaccountthe localeducationsystem—thoughinpractice,education istypicallynotahighpriority issue.AttheDistrictlevel, theMayor and ViceMayors (including the ViceMayor of Social Affairs, who is most concerned witheducationissues)arechosenbyanelectedCouncilasatthelowerlevels.Inadditiontotheaboveformalstructures,eachadministrativelevelisintendedtohavearegulardayinwhichtheexecutiveleadershipreceivesmembersofthegeneralpopulation,hearscomplaintsorproblemstheymaybefacing,andresolvestheirissues(kwakiranogukemuraibibazoby’abaturage).19Onoccasion,thePresidentoftheRepublichasattendedthesehearingsinvariedlocationsaroundthecountry,aneventthatalwaysattractsnationalradioandtelevisioncoverageandagreatdealofpublicinterest,sincelocalleadersareoftencritiquedby members of the population and called to account by the President as a result. Similarly, the annualperformancecontract(imihigo)evaluationsattractapublicaudience,asdiscussedinSectionIII.Finally,eachDistrictholdsanannualOpenDayorganizedbytheDistrictJointActionforDevelopmentForum(JADF)andexhibitingprojectsbyresidents,localleaders’initiatives,andthecontributionsmadebydevelopmentpartners operating in theDistrict. Stakeholders interviewed for this case study reported that there is publicparticipationintheseevents,thoughgenerallyonlybetter-educatedmembersofthepopulationusetheoccasiontoaskquestionsaboutwhatwasaccomplishedandwhatdidnotsucceed.20Onceagain,whileeducationissuesoftenplayaroleattheseDistrictevents,theyaretypicallynotahighpriorityconcern.TheCitizenReportCardInitiative:Withinitialeffortsin2006and2010,thenfollowingannuallyfrom2012,theRwandaGovernanceBoardhasconductedanannualCitizenReportCardstudyusingquestionnaires,interviews,andfocusgroupdiscussionstogaugepublicopiniononeachsectorofgovernmentserviceprovision(RGB2016;Haba2006).Theeducationsectorhasbeenfeaturedineveryoneofthesestudies,investigatingpublicopiniononissuessuchasthequalityofeducation,theprovisionofschoollunch,physicalinfrastructure,availabilityofwaterandelectricityatschool,cleanlinessinschools,theaccessibilityofschoolbuildingsintermsofdistancefromtheirhome,andtheavailabilityof laboratory, library,andpre-primaryfacilities(Shyaka,Usengumukiza,andNshutiraguma2015).Althoughyear-to-yearcomparabilityisnotemphasized,thenationally-representativesampleallowscomparison fromDistrict toDistrict.Resultsarediscussed in themedia,butdonotappear tofeaturestronglyineducationsectorreviews.21CommunityScoreCardandCorruptionTrackingInitiatives:IndependentlyoftheRwandaGovernanceBoard’sCitizen Report Card initiative, a number of Rwandan civil society organizations and development partnerscollaborate in thePublic Policy Information,Monitoring andAdvocacy (PPIMA)project,which implements acommunityscorecardmethodologytosupportcitizensinengagingwithlocalandnationalgovernmentonissues

19 Key informants also mentioned a regular national radio call-in program on education issues, but I have been unable to finddocumentationwithspecificinformation.

20Informationcollectedfromcivilsocietykeyinformants,November2016.

21Informationcollectedfromdevelopmentpartnerkeyinformants,December2016.

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ofconcern.Educationqualityhasemergedasoneissueofpublicconcerninthesediscussions, leadingtothehostingofaCivilSocietyPublicPolicyDialoguein2012onissuesfacingtheTwelveYearsBasicEducationPolicy(RCSP2012).TheorganizationTransparency InternationalRwandahas also conducted community score card initiatives inconjunctionwithPublicExpenditureTrackingSurveys(PETS)andQuantitativeServiceDeliverySurveys(QSDS)ineducation(TIR2013a,2012,2013b). ItshouldbenotedthatMINEDUCandREBalsoconductofficialauditingvisitstoasampleofschoolseachyear.The National Dialogue: At the national level, the government holds the annual National Dialogue(Umushyikirano)where“…thePresident,alongwithnationalleadersandcitizensdebateissuesrelatingtothestateofthenation,thestateoflocalgovernment,andnationalunity”(Rwanda2016g).Aroundonethousandpeoplehaveparticipatedeachyear,inadditiontothosewhosubmitquestionsandcommentsviae-mail,socialmedia,andmobiletextmessaging;in2015gatheringsofyouthindifferentpartsofthecountryalsoparticipatedviavideolink.Mediareportsnotedthatwhilethemajorityofpubliccommentswerelaudatory,thereweresomecriticismsraised,includingsomerelatedspecificallytoeducation(Kwibuka2015).Insummary, it isclear that therearemultiplechannels for theRwandanpublic tohold leaders toaccount—although some, such as the school General Assembly, require significant strengthening to be functional.Educationisnotalwaysahighpriorityissueinthesepublicsettings,butitdoesmakeanappearance,andthereisthepotentialthataprogressivelymoreeducatedpopulacewillmakeincreasinglyinsightfulobservationsandremarksaboutthestateoftheeducationsystemthroughoutthecountry.Anumberofresearchershavearguedthat,despitethesemechanisms,thespaceinRwandaforpubliccritiqueofleadershipislimited(Ingelaere2011;Chemouni2014;Purdeková2011).Whileitistruethatpublicpraiseismorefrequentduringtheseeventsthanpubliccritique,nonethelessitmustberecognizedthatsomepeopledotakeadvantageofthesespacestocalltheirleaderstoaccountforcorruptionorpoorperformance,andthattheircritiquesoftenproducesomeformofaction.

VI. Horizontal accountability structures and practices There are also some structures and practices in the Rwandan education system that encourage horizontalaccountability, that is, accountability among institutions and actors that are not involved in a hierarchicalrelationship(MigliorisiandWescott2011).Horizontal accountability structures in formal education institutions: Rwandan education law and policyprovidesforseveralpotentialspacesofhorizontalaccountabilitywithintheeducationsystem(Rwanda2016c,2016e).TheStudents’CouncilandtheTeachers’Council,madeupofallstudentsandallteacherswithinaschool,respectively, are potentially spaces for peer to peer accountability, but this review has not identified anydocumentation on whether they perform this function in practice. Spaces for continuing professionaldevelopmentmayalsoserveasaformofpeer-to-peeraccountabilityattheschoollevel.InRwanda,aSchool-Based Mentor program was implemented to provide on-site guidance and assistance to teachers inimplementinglearner-centeredpedagogyandtheswitchtoEnglishasthelanguageofinstruction.Receptionofthe mentors reportedly varied considerably, affecting their ability to achieve the program’s goals (see, forexample,Buhungiro2015).Anewstructureforcontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentintroducedalongsidethenewnational competency-based curriculum involves a cohort ofDistrictMaster Trainers and School SubjectLeaders—butagain,theimpactofthesestructuresonhorizontalaccountabilityissofarunknown.

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Atahigherlevelofadministrationwithintheeducationsystem,boththeSectorandDistrictlevelshaveEducationCouncilsintendedtoadviseoneducationalissueswithintheirjurisdictions(seeTable3).TheseCouncilscertainlyhave thepotential to serveashorizontalaccountability structures if, forexample, theymake itapracticeofanalyzingdataonlocalschoolperformanceandofferingcounselsforimprovement.However,similarlytotheabove, this review has not identified any research or evaluations regarding whether they fulfill suchaccountabilityfunctionsinpractice.Table 3: Membership of Sector and District Education Councils (Rwanda 2012)

CouncilLevel MembershipSector • ExecutiveSecretaryoftheSector

• ChairpersonofeachSchoolGeneralAssemblyCommittee• Headmastersofeachschool• Oneteacherrepresentativefromeachlevelofschooling• Schoolowners• TheSectorEducationOfficer• TheExecutiveSecretariesoftheCellsintheSector• TheCoordinatorsoftheNationalYouthCouncil,theNationalWomen’sCouncil,

andtheNationalCouncilofPersonswithDisabilitiesattheSectorLevelDistrict • DistrictMayorandViceMayorinchargeofsocialaffairs

• DistrictDirectorofEducationandEducationOfficers• ArepresentativeofeachSector’snurseryschools• Headmastersofallprimary,secondaryandspecialisedschoolsintheDistrict• RepresentativesofSchoolGeneralAssembliesfromeachlevelofeducationin

eachSector• TeacherrepresentativesfromeachlevelofeducationineachSector• SchoolownersintheDistrict• AllSectorEducationOfficers• TheCoordinatorsoftheNationalYouthCouncil,theNationalWomen’sCouncil,

andtheNationalCouncilofPersonswithDisabilitiesattheDistrictLevelTheroleofeducationsectorpartnersandstakeholders:At thenational,District,andsometimesmore locallevels, other stakeholders in the education sector play an important role in horizontal accountability. TheRwandanEducationNGOCoordinationPlatform(RENCP)isahighly-organizedstructure,independentfromthegovernment,thatcoordinatesinternationalandlocalnon-governmentaleffortsintheeducationsector.Withamembershipofmorethan80organizations,RENCPholdsquarterlyGeneralAssemblymeetingstoensurethatallmembersareinformedaboutimportantdevelopmentsintheeducationsector,andtogivemembersaspaceforupdatingeachotherabouttheirowninitiativesandconcerns.AllmembersarealsorequiredtoparticipateinatleastoneofRENCP’sfiveworkinggroups,whichmeetmoreregularlytofocusonspecificeducationalissues,in addition to the Education Investment Task Force that was recently formed to lead RENCP research andadvocacyregarding theoverall financing for theeducationsectorandbudgetprioritization.RENCPmembershaveactiveprojectsandprogramsattheschoolandlocallevelsallaroundthecountry,givingthemanimportanton-the-groundperspectivetoroundoutthenationaleducationaldatacollectedthroughgovernmentstructures.RENCPrepresentativescontributetothenationalEducationSectorTechnicalWorkingGroups,undersupervisionoftheMinistryofEducation(seebelow).AndRENCPsendsrepresentativestomajoreducationsectormeetings,suchastheJointReviewoftheEducationSector,coordinatingbeforehandamongstthemselvesontheissuestheywishtoraiseduringthemeeting.

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The Joint Review of the Education Sector (JRES) is itself an important accountability structure that hassimultaneously top-down, bottom-up, and horizontal flows of information and evaluation. These bi-annualmeetingsincludeapproximately200attendees,includinghigh-levelMinistryofEducationandRwandaEducationBoard leadership, keydevelopmentpartnerorganizations, allDistrictDirectorsof Education, representativesfromteachertraininginstitutions,andcivilsocietyrepresentationallocatedfromamongRENCP’smembers.TheJRESisplannedinconjunctionwiththeMinistryofFinanceandEconomicPlanning(MINECOFIN),anditischairedbyMINEDUCwithDFIDandUNICEFcurrentlyservingasco-chairs.Followingspecificinvitedpresentationsfromgovernmentandcivilsociety,includinganoverviewofprogresssincetheprecedingJRES,thereisanopenforumfor questions that is actively used by participants to address specific concerns. Themeeting concludeswithformal recommendations, which help to shapeMinistry actions over the coming sixmonths andwhich arereportedonagainatthefollowingmeeting.WhileeducationofficialsdonotalwaysrespondtoallcommentsraisedattheJRES,keystakeholdersconsultedforthiscasestudyconsidertheJREStobeapromisingspaceforaccountabilityandopendialogueregardinghowtomakeprogressinRwanda’seducationsector.22TheUNAgencies,particularlyUNICEFandUNESCO,andbi-lateraldonorsandaidagencies,particularlyDFID,USAID,BTCandVVOB,alsoplayaroleinhorizontalaccountabilityalongsideRwandangovernmentactors,asco-chairs and members of education sector TechnicalWorking Groups (TWGs). These TWGs shape policy andstrategy in the areas of planning and management, curriculum and assessment, teacher professionaldevelopment, andearly childhoodeducation (see Figure1).AlongwithRENCPmemberorganizations, thesedevelopmentpartnersalsoundertakeresearchandpolicyanalysisstudiesthatbecomeinfluentialingovernmentdiscussionsoftheissuesandprioritiesintheeducationsector.

22Informationcollectedfromdevelopmentpartnerkeyinformants,December2016.

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Figure 1: Education Sector Coordination Structure (Cunningham and Yisa 2013)23

Explanation of acronyms: RENCP = Rwanda Education NGOs Coordination Platform; TVET - Technical and Vocational Education and Training; HE - Higher Education; TWG = Technical Working Group; SBM = School-Based Mentor

Another important player in the education sector is the National Teachers Union (Syndicat National desEnseignants au Rwanda, SNER). Founded in 1996 and with a currentmembership of approximately 50,000teachers,theUnionisbecomingamoreprominentvoiceinissuesrelatedtopublicprimaryandsecondaryschoolteachers (Honeyman 2015). In particular, in the past few years the Union has successfully lobbied for thedevelopment of special Teacher Statutes, including a clearer definition of the standards for teachers andheadmasters, specific procedures for appraisal, promotions, and sanctions, and various improvements inteachers’conditions(Draft2014).Finally,forDistrict,Province,andnationalleaders,theannualNationalLeadershipRetreat,theImihigoreview,andtheUmushyikirano,alldescribedelsewhereinthiscasestudy,canalsobeconsideredimportantstructuresforhorizontalaccountabilitysinceofficialsmustdiscusstheirachievementsandfailingsinfrontoftheirpeers.Insummary,thereareanumberofstructuresthatcouldpotentiallycontributetohorizontalaccountabilityintheRwandaneducationsystem,althoughsomearemoreactualizedthanothers.Attheschoolandlocallevels,more could probably be done to reinforce peer-to-peer learning and accountability. At the national level,however,thereisalreadyastrongfoundationforjointdiscussionandevaluationamonggovernmentactors,localcivil society, and international development partners alike. This dynamic has arguably been an importantcontributortoRwanda’sachievementsintheeducationsectoroverthepastfiveyearsormore.

23Sincethisorganigramwasdeveloped,EducationPlanningandManagementhasbecomeitsownStrategyGroupdirectlyundertheEducationSectorWorkingGroup.

21

VII. Policy recommendations Onthebasisofthisanalysisofthetop-down,bottom-up,andhorizontalaccountabilitypoliciesandstructuresinRwanda’s education sector, five particular strategies could help to improve these mechanisms in view ofcontributingtoincreasinglyinclusiveandequitablequalityeducationinRwanda:1. Continueimprovingeffortstoprovidespaceforgenuinepublicparticipationinholdingeducationsector

staffandleaderstoaccount.Educatethepublicabouttheireducationrightsandaboutthecharacteristicsofgoodqualityeducation,sothattheycanofferaninformedopinionaboutthestrengthsandweaknessesofcurrenteducationalprovision.

2. ImplementtherecommendationsincludedinrecentresearchontheImihigosystem,includingensuringthatlocaleducationofficialsandexecutiveleadershaveabetterunderstandingoftheeducationalrealitiesonthegroundintheirjurisdictionsandabetterunderstandingofthereasonsbehindnationaleducationstrategies;seekinggreaterpublicparticipationinthesettingofpriorityeducationalissuesfortheImihigo;prioritizingImihigoobjectivesthathavethegreatestpotentialtocreatepositiveexternalitiesintheeducationsector,suchasimprovementsinteachercapacityandschoolmanagement;educatingDistrictofficialsonhowtosetrealistictargets;andimprovingreportingsystemstoverifyachievements.

3. ClosetheaccountabilityloopfromSEOsandDDEsbacktoMINEDUC,throughacollaborationwithMINALOCtoensurethattheperformanceofthesepublicservantsisbeingevaluatedbythosewhoactuallyhaveexpertiseintheeducationsector.

4. Ensureuniversalimplementationoftheprovisionsintheproposedteacherstatutes,especiallytheperformancereviewsystem.ProvideguidancetoheadmastersandSEOs(andsufficientresourcestoSEOs)onhowtocarryoutthespecifiedclassroomobservationsandschoolvisitsonwhichtheappraisalsmustbebased;establishmechanismstoverifythatthesearecompleted.

5. Improvetheavailabilityanduseoflearningassessmentdata.DeveloptheLARSassessmentintoatoolwithaccurateyear-to-yearcomparability,tobeappliedateachleveloftheeducationsysteminordertoanalyzepatternsandtrendsineducationalquality(seeREB2016bformoredetailedrecommendations).Additionally,collectandanalyzeinformationonthelearningachievementsofout-of-schoolyouthandthegeneralRwandanpopulationthroughhouseholdsurveys.Moreeffectivelyusethenationalexaminations,learningassessment,andhouseholdsurveydatatoanalyzeandaddresspolicysuccessesandweaknesses.

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