ACADEMIC WRITING – TÀI LIỆU ÔN THITÔ MINH THANH – CHU THỊ LÊ HOÀNGTỐT NGHIỆP ĐẠI HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH NGỮ VĂN ANHTUYỂN SINH SAU ĐẠI HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH NHÀ XUẤT BẢN ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH - 2009

MỤC LỤCACADEMIC WRITING – TÀI LIỆU ÔN THI..................................................................1

SECTION 1:SENTENCE COMPONENTS.................................................................2Prepositions - Prepositional phrases................................................................2PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES...............................................................7

LỜI NÓI ĐẦUThực tế không phải là sách dạy tiếng của tác giả người nước ngoài nào

cũng Đáp ứng đúng và đủ nội dung ôn tập thi tốt nghiệp đại học chuyên ngành Ngữ văn Anh và thi tuyển sinh sau đại học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) theo quy định của Trường đại học Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn - Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh.

Tài liệu này ra đời nhằm (1) đáp ứng nhu cầu ôn tập thi tốt nghiệp đại học của sinh viên hệ tại chức và hệ chính quy bằng 1 và bằng 2 theo chuyên ngành ngữ văn Anh và (2) giúp các anh chị cựu sinh viên ôn tập tuyển sinh sau đại học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh.

Ngoài ra, tài liệu này cũng có thể nằm trong thư mục sách tham khảo giúp (1) học viên cao học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh và (2) các thầy cô theo: khóa Bồi dưỡng giáo viên tại Trường Đại học Khoa học Xã và Nhân văn đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh học thành công môn Writing PG trong chương trình chính khóa của cả hai hệ đào tạo sau đại học này.

Để giúp các đối tượng dự thi làm quen và chuẩn bị tốt kỳ thi của mình, tài liệu này được trình bày thành bốn phần:

1) Phần ôn tập các thành phần câu ( components) thường dùng trong văn viết tiếng Anh trang trọng;

2) Phần ôn tập cấu trúc cơ bản của một đoạn văn (a paragraph);3) Phần ôn tập cấu trúc cơ bản của một bài luận văn (an essay);

4) Phần giải một số đề thi dựa trên các đề thi đã thực tế được dùng trong các kỳ thi gần đây.

Hy vọng rằng bốn phần trình bày này cùng với khá nhiều bài tập đa dạng về độ khó và phong phú về chủng loại có gợi ý hoặc có lời giải đính kèm để

minh họa cho phần lý thuyết được trình bày sẽ giúp các đối tượng dự thi tự luyện tốt hơn dù có điều kiện hay không thể trực tiếp theo học các lớp luyện thi chính thức.

Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, ngày 10 tháng 1 năm 2005.

Tô Minh Thanh và Chu Thị Lê Hoàng 

SECTION 1:SENTENCE COMPONENTSTHE PHRASE'A phrase is a group of words used as a single part of speech and not containing a verb and its subject.’ [Warriner, 1958: 59] These groups of words may be used not only as verbs but also as adjectives, adverbs and nouns.Prepositions - Prepositional phrases

1. Prepositions:1.1. Definition: A preposition is a word that shows the relation between

a noun or a pronoun and other words in a sentence. I walked to the house/ around the house/ through the house the book by him/ for him/ about him.

In the above examples, prepositions make great differences in meaning when they link the house with walked, and him with the book.

1.2. Characteristics:

1.2.1. English prepositions may be in different forms.

1.2.1.1. one – word prepositions: aboardaboutaboveacrossafteragainstalongamongaroundatbeforebehind

belowbeneathbesidebesidesbetweenbeyondbutbydownduringforfrom

ininsideintolikeofoffexceptonoutsideoversincethrough

throughouttotowardunderunderneathuntilupuponwithwithinwithout

- I am tired of them - George sat between the two deans . - He objected to the las t paragraph. - The car stopped at the station .- The lad stood on a barrel .

- The car coasted into the garag e with lights on. - The girl was sitting against th e wall. - These roses are for you .

1.2.1.2. -ing prepositions:In addition to the prepositions already mentioned, there is in English a

group of -ing preposition which have a verb as a stem. Here are some of the most common: barring, concerning, regarding, considering, following, including, pending, during, etc.:- He was vague concern ing the details .

- Assum ing the accuracy of the report , action must be taken at once.- We WILL DELAY the papers, pend ing the of arrival of the contract .

Distinguish the -ing preposition from THE -ING VERB.- ing prep 1. Barr ing accidents the picnic will begin at eleven.- ing prep 2. There will be a smoker follow ing the dining car - ING VERB 3. She IS only FOLLOWING her orders after all.- ing prep 4. May I have a conference regard ing my examination! - ING VERB 5. He WAS REGARDING the newcomer with curiosity.- ING VERB 6. CONSIDER ING the time , we HAD BETTER STOP now.- ing prep 7. Consider ing your loss , the bill WILL NOT BE SENT.- ING VERB 8. I AM INCLUDING damage to my window on the bill.- ing prep 9. The entire squad, includ ing the water boy WILL MAKE the trip.- ing prep 10. This IS the letter concern ing their complaint .

1.2.1.3. compound prepositions:The final group is composed of compound prepositions. These are

relatively numerous and various types. Often it is difficult to say whether a word group should be considered a preposition or not. Here is a short list of two types.

Two-word prepositions Prepositions with Nountogether with contrary toahead ofdue to

apart fromup toout of

away from

up atas for

inside ofaside from

as concerns because ofowing to

instead of

on account ofin spite of

with rega toin advance ofin addition toon behal ofin place ofin I ieu of

By way ofIn comparison with

In reference toWith respect to

In event ofFor the sake of

In case ofBy means of

Recognize the compound preposition in the following sentences:

1. We arrived ahead of time .2. The game was cancelled on account of rain. 3. The oldest daughter is up at the c am p .4. Contrary to our expectations , the movie was a delightful spoof.5. The hoard had a meeting with reference to the new building 6. I want to thank you on behaif _ of these refugee 7 .They served rice in lieu of potatoes . 8. I can answer all the questions except for the last 9. In spite of her protestations , Harriet was persuaded to join the guild. 10. The foreman received a letter with respect to alleged violations .

1.2.2. As far as their meaning is concerned, English prepositions are of two main kinds:

1.2.2.1. Prepositions that have specific meanings, namely the meanings of the relations that they represent or refer to. Below are a number of their common meanings:

a. Space may be subdivided into:+ Location: in the kitchen, under the ground, behind the wall + Direction: towards the town, from Leeds to Manchester

b. Time may be subdivided into:+ Point of time: before the wedding, at nine o'clock

+ Extent of time: for several days, since January

c. Topic: (chilling stories) about ghosts

d. Purpose: (a key) for the opening of the safe e. Similarity: (a boy) like his father

f. Instrument: with an axe

g. Accompaniment: with a bowler hat

1.2.2.2. Prepositions used without any specific meaning, when they are attached to particular VERBS, adjectives or nouns.

- They BLAMED the mess on Jim .- They BLAMED Jim for the mess .- I am interested in your_offer .- She is proud of her children .- He’s anxious about/for her_safetỵ.

- There is great anxiety about his future - We have a lot of sympathy for you. - During the occupation, we had to live in total ubmission to the invaders. In all these cases the preposition has a purely syntactic relational function

in relating a VERB, adjective or noun to a following object or complement. The preposition is predictable (i.e. it cannot be replaced by any other preposition), and so lacking in specific meaning.

2. Prepositional Phrases: Do not confuse prepositions with adverbs. Prepositions, which introduce

prepositional phrases, are always followed by a nominal.Compare:Adverb: She looked up. Preposition: She looked up the stairs Adverb: They went inside. Preposition: They went inside the house Distinguish prepositions from adverbs.1. The swimmer waited below

2. The swimmer waited below the dam3. She liked to sit near

4. She sat near the window.5. the paint bucket fell off

6. The paint bucket fell off the porch 7. I haven’t seen him since

8. I haven’t seen him since yesterday 9. The refreshments came after

10. The refreshments came after the program 2.1. Definition: A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with a

preposition and ending with nominal. The nominal which ends the prepositional phrase is the complement of the preposition that begins the phrase.- He answered the question with (grea t) care [prep + noun (phrase)]- I am interested in swimming . [prep + gerund]/ in learning a foreign language [prep + gerund phrase]- Do it fo r me . [prep + pronoun]- One can see the airport from upstairs .[prep + adverb]2.2. Use:

2.2.1. A preposition phrase can be used as an adjectival to modify a noun or a pronoun.EX: - the lady in the green dress - two identical girls with long blond hair - some of the most common meth ods - one of tine two possibly solutions

2.2.2. A preposition phrase can be used as an adverbial to modify:2.2.2.1. A VERB (when this prepositional phrase tells when, where,how,

how etc. the action of the verb takes place):- He LIVES in the suburbs .( Where does he live?)- The train ARRIVED at two o 'clock . ( did the train arrive?)- The reproduction TAKES PLACE b y bu dding (How does the reproduction take place?)- He MISSED the target by a foot . ( How far did he miss the target?)2.2.2.2. AN ADJECTIVE.- These shoes ARE too small for comfort .- If you ARE susceptible to colds , vitamin c helps you resist them.- She IS very clever at dealing with strangers .

2.2.2.3. ANOTHER ADVERB.- Never in mililion years WILL he ADMIT defeat.- Later in the afternoon ,the sun WAS NOT so bright, and the sky WAS NOT SO blue.

2.2.2.4. A WHOLE CLAUSE OR SENTENCE:- According to me , you'RE quite right.- In fact the contract IS invalid.

2.2.3. A preposition phrase can be used as an adverbial after the verb BE. It is called the subjective complement in the sentence:- The books ARE under the desk-lamp .- She IS in the kitchen preparing dinner.- Jack WAS on top of the car .- HAVE you ever BEEN to Cairo EXERCISE 1: Underline the prepositional phrases in the given paragraph.

Vitamins are necessary for good health. Vitamin A promotes the

growth of young animals and is essential to the proper development of their eyes. If you CANNOT SEE in the dard, perhaps you should drink more milk, which is rich in vitamins. Yellow vegetables like carrots also contain vitamin A. If you have trouble with digestion or if your appetite IS below normal, you may need vitamin B. Among the food containing this vitamin are eggs, green vegetables, and meals. According to my druggist; liver, which contains vitamin B, IS a safeguard against anaemia. For an adequate supply of this vitamin, eat plenty of tomatoes. If you are susceptible to colds, vitamin C may help you resist them. In the spring or during the summer, you CAN GET vitamin D by a trip to a sunny beach. Vitamin D, derived from sunshine and found In fish-liver oils, PREVENTS rickets. When you look at a menu, DECIDE upon a well-balanced meal fortified with vitamins.PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

1. Definition:1.1. A participle is a word formed from a verb and used as an adjective or

an adverb.Participles may occur in different forms:

Active PassivePresent Participle Writing Being writtenPast Participle WrittenPerfect Participle Having written Having been written

1.2. A participial phrase consists of a participle together with its modifier ( s) and/or its object (s):

Tới đây- The man stand ing (active present participle) near the front door (adjunct of place) is Mr. Snow.of their eyes. If you CANNOT SEE in the perhaps you should drink more milk, which is rich in vitamins. Yellow vegetables like carrots also contain vitamin A. If you have trouble with digestion or if your appetite IS below normal, you may need vitamin B. Among the food containing this vitamin are eggs, green vegetables, and meals. According to my druggist, liver, which contains vitamin B, IS asafeguard against anaemia. For an adequate supply of this eat plenty of tomatoes. If you are susceptible to , vitamin c may help you resist them. In the spring or during the summer, you CAN GET vitamin D by ứ trip to a sunny beach. Vitamin D, derived fromsunshine and found in fish-liver oils,PREVENTS rickets. When you lookat a menu, DECIDE upon a well-balanced fortified with vitamins.PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES1. Definition:

1.1. A participle is a word formed from a verb and used as an adjective or an adverb.Participles may occur in different forms: 1.2. A participial phrase consists of a participle together with its modifieris) and/or Itsobieciis):- The man standing near the is Mr. Snow.t Jactive present participle adjunct of place- Having translated the, text with great I copied it down.T7 ' Iactive perfect participle do adjunct of manner 2. Usage:2.1. A present or past participle can be used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun,or to subjective complement in asentence, following A LINKING VERB.ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES a liv/>7ỹthing a burn/>7ỹ house a approach/Ạỹstranger the \eering manager the preced/>7ỹ statement melt/>7ỹsnow taWing leaves the leapÁr^/dropp/Ạỹđicks- Thẹ cup GOT broken.- Some plants are erect, others ARE tracing or2.2. We use a present participle after VERBS OF PERCEPTION to show something in occurrence:- DO you HEAR her s\r\qingfl- We SAW the enemy approach/>7ỹ.-1 FEEL my heart beating.2.3. We also use a present participle to show an action happening at the same time with the action illustrated by THE PREDICATIVE VERB in the sentence:- The children RAN crying in the street.- Step by step, they FOLLOWED danc/>7<7.- Be/>K7 described os an example of gymnosperms. the pines ARE abundant plants, particularly in colder regions of the world.In these cases, 'when’and may be added before thepresent participle: Wherjspeak/nợ about the new project,the lecturer SHOWED a map.- Whffe working a\ the. farm,the students HELPED the farmers.

2.4. To express an action which has already finished before the one illustrated by THE PREDICATIVE VERB in the sentence, we use either a past or a perfect participle.- Translat ecjinto many_ languages,this book BECAME well-known all over the world.- Hav/>7<7 finish ecjmy work,I SAT down to rest.- Hav/>7<7 been cqrefu[Ịỵ_repai rthe elevator RAN well.2.5. A participial phrase may be a modifier of a noun or a pronoun:- The stem ly/>7<7 between two nodes IS an inter-node.- Frank, tack I go' hard on the fifty-yard line, WAS seriously INJURED.- He JUMPED over the rope extended acrossIn most cases, participial phrases are more related to THE PREDICATIVE VERB of the sentences in which they occur, expressing , time, manner, condition ox means.- Being a careless fellow,he FORGOT all about it.(CAUSE: Why did he forget all about it?)- Hav/Wff had my breakfast,I WENT to school.(TIME: When did you go to school?)- He STOOD on the veranda, listen/>7<7 to the wind.(MANNER: How did he stand on the veranda?)- Joking morning_ exercises every day*you CAN IMPROVE your health.(CONDITION: Under what condition can I improve my health?)- Runn/>7<7 q!Lthe way, I CAUGHT the express.(MEANS: How/Bywhat means did you catch the express?) EXERCISE 2: Number from 1 to 10 on your paper. Make a list of the participles in the following sentences. After the participle, write the (group) word modified. Be prepared to tell whether each is a present or a past participle.1. The radio announcer spoke sadly to the listening audience.2. His trained voice held them in its spell.3. T have a distressing news to relate,’ he told them.4. ‘Mudville has lost the game; the defeatedieom is in deep disgrace.’5. Pausing briefly, he went on.6. ‘Overconfident and swaggering,our proud players made one mistake after another.’

7. They swung their bats so recklessly that the opposing pitcher easily struck them out.’8. ‘ Angered,\the few men who tried to reach base never succeeded.’9. Therefore, our fanned victory celebration will not take place.’10. ‘And now,’ he concluded, ‘an excit word from our sponsor.’GERUNDS - GERUND PHRASES 1. Gerunds:1.1. Definition: A gerund is a word formed from a verb and used as a noun.1.2. Usage: Like a noun, a gerund can be:a. The subject.Studying certainly KEEPS low grades away. Thesweei singing of birds DELIGHTS US.The loud knockingof the door FRIGHTENED him.b. The subject ivecomplement.Seeing IS believ/>7ỹ.His favourite pastime IS swimm/>7ỹ.Jack ENJOYS hunt/>7ỹ.You MUST CONTINUE work/>7ỹ. d. The complement of a preposition:That tool IS USED for drilling./ARE computers capableot Tnink/>7<7?Ill his youth, Henry V W/AS givedrink/Ạỹand gambl/>7^.1.3. Notes:a. Gerunds always end in - ing:hut not all words ending in -ing are gerunds: they may he present participles or a part of A PREDICATIVE VERB. For instance, there are three words ending in -ing in the following sentence, hut only one of them, is a gerund:Watch/>7<7 the judges in the balcony, Gwen WAS TRYING to win the contest with her loud singing.h. A gerund can also he used as an adjective to modify a noun. But it should he carefully distinguished from a participle:ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES I i V ingorganisms the sleeping guarda drinking horseThe combination of gerund and head noun is also referred to as acompound noun (ComN, for short). Sleeping car for example.

should he dominated in ComN as in (2):NP

V-Ger headNI I(2) the sleeping carc. A gerund can he a part noun and part verb.The noun feature is clearly illustrated in the two following cases: • A gerund can be used with a posses- You MAY RELY ON my coming.- We DON'T LIKE your qoing away.- Our working on a collective farm in summer HELPS US in studying many subjects.• A gerund may be modified by acase-.- The problem IS the stud regularly.- 1 INSIST ON my brother's coming in time.The verb feature is shown in the two following cases:• A gerund may have a direct object.-1 LIKE reading books.-My friend IS veryquickm• A gerund may be modified by an- 1 LIKE walk ingslowly.- We CONTINUE doing morning regularly.2. Gerund Phrases2.1. Definition: A gerund phrase is a phrase containing a gerund.2.2.Usage: Like a gerund, a gerund phrase can be used as:a. The subject.- Learn/>7ff rules without examplesis useless.- LiV ing far.from home IS NOT always easy.b. The sub iect ivecomplement

- His bad habit IS teWina lies.- The basic job of computers IS process formac. The direct object-- I ENJOY listen/Wffto Ịheụv- It BEGAN rain/>7<7 early m the morning. d. The complement oi a preposition:- The farmers -ARE sure of harvest/no pood- I -AM devoted to brinq//7<7 up my children.- The idea of breed ing cattle in this region IS progressive.- He DEVISED a mechanical way of multiply//7ffand dividing.- The answer IS OBTAINEDby examin/>7<7 the characteristics of various -This equipment WAS USED many without repaired.- The abacus CAN BE UNDERSTOOD without know/>7<7 how toe. The appositive.- My favourite exercise,play/>7q tennis,IS very beneficial to my health.EXERCISE 3: After you have listed each gerund in the sentences below, w rile how each is used: subject (S), direct object (dO), subject/Ve implement(sC), complement of a preposition (pC).Many students ENJOY play/>7 g basketball. (play/WydO of The first requirement of the game IS fast think/>7<7.(think/W^sC ofRhythm IS NEEDED for skilful dribbl//7<7- (dribbl/>7<VpC of ‘for’)- Smooth iump/>7<7often HELPS in scoring.(jump/i^S of ‘hepis’) {scoring/pC of- ■ Precisetim//7ff IS one of the most important abilitiesof a good basketball player. (tim/W^S ofINFINITIVES - INFINITIVE PHRASES1. Definition:1.1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of “to” followed by a verb. Infinitives may occur in different forms: 1.2. An infinitive phrase is a phrase beginning with an infinitive.to study a foreign language I

active present infinitive noun phrase/dOto go to the movies with some It Iactive present infinitive pp/adjunct of placepp/adjunct of accompanime to be in good spiritst active present infinitive PP/complementto have been built for a lonq+ Ipassive perfect infinitive pp/adjunct of time2. Usage: Infinitives or infinitive phrases may be used as nouns,adjectives or qdverbs_.2.1. As a noun, an infinitive (phrase) can be:a. The subject.- To err IS human, to forgive IS divine.- To travel to Italy by boat WILL BE interesting.b. The real subject.- It WILL BE interesting to travel to Italy byc. The sub ject ive complement (idler A LINKING VERB):- To question IS to learn.- He SEEMED to be angry.- They APPEAR to be in pood spirits.- The house SEEMED to have been built ford. Th edirect object.- They soon AGREED to follow.- I WANT to master English c. The complement of a preposition:- Betty WAS about to faint/to fall down the stairs. 1 2 As tin adjective, an infinitive (phrase) can moil'I'v a noun.- This IS one way to go.- We NEEDED a guide to lead through the- This IS a pleasant win drink in hot weather.

z:As an adverb, an infinitive (phrase) can modify: a An adjective:- My dot! IS too oldtojegrn.-M i s s J a n e w A s pleased to receive- They WERE loath to leave this district.b. A VERB- She PUT the cake in the oven to bake.- Sara HAS GONE to invite her auntInfinitive phrases are also commonly found in the expressions: TOO + adjectiveI + 1 for (pro)noun| + infinitive phrase adjective + ENOUGH ITOO difficult[for us/the students] to translate withouteasy ENOUGHEXERCISE 4: In the space beside each sentence, identify the italicized word as a participle (P), an infinitive (/), or a gerund (G)._p_ 1. Carmen PREFERRED the reclining chair lor his bad back._G_ 2. Doctors BELIEVE that walking IS one of the most beneficial forms. _/_ 3. The quiet night and bright campfire INSPIRE US to tell ghost stories. _G_ 4. It ISN’T flying that MAKES Elsa anxious but the airline food. _p_ 5. Scratching\\sback against a tree, the bear LOOKED deceptively harmless._/_ 6. To make.the room more cheerful, Alice PAINTED the dark cabinets yellow._G_ 7. Observinggorillas’ mating behaviour IS part of that zookeeper’sjob._/_ 8. During the movie, Bert CONTINUED crunch loudly on his popcorn._p_ 9. My brother’s receding hairline MAKES him LOOKoXácv than he really is._p_ 10. In the drainage ditch, the boys FOUND a wooden cratedozens of spiders.EXERCISE 5: Identify the italicized wo in the following paragraph asa participle (P), an infinitive (/), or a gerund (G).(1) Having Hephzibah Schleirbech for a name, I HAVE CONE through life as a kind of handicapped person.(2) Knowing that my name is unusual, I AM patient with strangers. (3) After all, orSpelling Hephzibah Schleirbech IS NOT easy. (4) One day ,excited about a new family car, TRIED to me about it by making a long-distance telephone call. (5) Not remembering my number, she SPELLED my name over

and over again for the operator. (6) Exhausted by efforts to understand.\ the operator remarked, ‘It seems to me the number would be easier to remember than the name.’ (7) When I AM calling \he dentist, I sometimes get a quick appointment by myname to Mary Smith or Jane Jones. (8) Occasionally, however, I FORCET to answer to Mary or Jane. (9) When this happens, the embarrassed dentist looks at me strangely. (10) He seems to I’m a criminalusing an alias. (11)1 must find another way to change my name. (12) My one desire is to marry‘à man named John Henry. I HE CLAUSE4 A group of words containing a verb and its subject and used as a part of a sentence is called a clause.’ [Warriner, 1958: 71]DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MAIN AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES‘A main (or independent) clause expresses a complete thought _nd can stand by itself as a sentence.’ [Warriner, 1958: 72]SENTENCES: - My neighbours HAVE SOLO their home.- They WILL MOVE to Denver next week.When combined into one long sentence, these main clauses "ccomc parts of the sentence:MAIN CLAUSES: My neighbours HAVE SOLD their home, they WILL MOVE to Denver next week.4 A subordinate (or dependent) clause does not express a complete 'nought and can’t stand alone.’ [Warriner, 1958: 72] A subordinate clause depends on a main clause to make the meaning complete. SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: Ifshe BAKES a cake... [What then?]Subordinate Main ClauseSENTENCE: If she BAKES a cake, we CAN HAVE a party.' BORDINATE ADJECTIVE CLAUSESAn Adjective Clause is a group of words (containing A FINITE EBB) doing the work of an adjective. It is usually introduced by a Relative Pronoun or a Relative Adverb. That is why it is also called aRelative Clause. Compare:- He ate the biggest apple. (- He ate the apple on the green, plate.(- He ate the apple which he FOUND.- He is a clever boy. ( )He is a boy with a love of sport. ( >

-He is a boy who SHOULD DO gregt_ things^some daỵ.{Adjective 1. The Relative Pronoun agrees in Gender. Number, and Person with its antecedent, but does not agree in Case. That is, is subject or object of its own clause. ,- I saw the man who DID it.- The mail whom you MET was here yesterday.- There is the man whose book you FOUND.- The house which you ASKED for is over there.- That is the house the top of which CAN BE SEEN over the trees.2. The clause joined to a previous clause by a Relative Pronoun or a Relative Adverb may be restrictive or non-restrictive.2.1. A Restrictive Clause restricts the meaning of the noun qualifies:- The boy who SITS next to me came late this morning.- The village which you CAN SEE over there is very old.2.2. A Non-restrictive Clause does not restrict the meaning of the nounit qualifies, but only adds some description to the meaning:- My father, who IS an old sailor',often tells me stories about the sea.- The boy next to me, who IS very clever, has a brother in another class.3. 7775/may be used about either persons or things but can only be usedin Restrictive Clauses. The usage of as follows:3.1. Use that only in Restrictive Clauses. For example, do not sayThe island of Hong Kong, that WAS a British colony, lies off the coast of China.’ Use which.3.2. Do not use that too near another ‘that’. For example, do not say T think that that man //75/ asked YOU the question is a politician.’ Use who. 3.3. Do not use that after a preposition.For example, do not say ‘I saw the house in that he used to live.’ Say either: ‘I saw the house in he used to live.’or: "I saw the house that he used to live in.’ - The Relative Pronoun when objective can be omitted:- Last niíĩhl I heard that piece of music, > LIKE so much .- He is the most interesting man IVE ever MET.\ERC1SE 6: Supply the correct relative pronoun where necessary,

explaining why you use each one or why you do not put one in.The house over there is the one I like best.I I am sure that he is the youngest president we have everhad.The mail came over in the Queen Mary was delivered inLondon yesterday.I never again met the man gave US so much help in Paris.The tennis racquet, I bought last week, has got one of itsstrings broken.The biggest crowd I ever saw was at the Coronation of KingGeorge VI.The picture fetched the highest price was painted by afamous artists.He was the man painted the picture in the new city hall.The men he interviewed seemed to have little knowledge of the work he wanted them to do.10. He said that he wanted to buy that car he had tried out theday before.11. He spent a great deal of time in his garden was four milesoutside the town.12. All over the country the ground a few days before had beenbare was now bright with flowers. 13. The hills lie to the north are volcanic while those in the southare limestone.14. Those proposals you are putting up, are little different fromthe ones we turned down last year.15. He never developed patience _____ is necessary in dealing withpeople are slow to understand something.16. He came of a family prided itself on its age and position.17. Those wanted to come had to fill in a card they hadto have signed by a Justice of the Peace.18. Those to invitations were sent were asked to be in their

places by 7 o’clock so as to make sure that all would be ready by 8 was the time _ the procession was due to pass.19. According to all I have heard, the concert is beingheld on Monday should be the best has ever been here.20. The ship is due to sail tomorrow has the most valuable cargoon board has ever been sent from this port.EXERCISE 7: Fill in each blank with a relative pronoun. And rewrite thegiven sentences by moving the preposition to the position before therelative pronoun. For example,-1 think I know the man whom spoke to.-1 think I know the man _ to _ you spoke.1. He is the officer everyone relies on.2. The subject Professor Moore wrote about is interesting.3. The speaker _____ we listened to mentioned that matter.4. The woman you are talking about is here now.5. The apartment we live in is on the twelfth floor.6. The paper you wrapped the with was very pretty.7. The man Alice spoke about teaches English here.8. The person Mr. Green to answer his questions.9. The house he was going to in had been bought for himby an agent.10.1 disagree with the fact your argument based on.SUBORDINATE NOUN CLAUSESA Noun Clause is a group of words (containing /4 FINITE VERB) doing the work of a noun. It is usually introduced by <3 Conjunctionof which the most common is .Noun Clauses may be used as the of a verb, usually of theverb ‘to be.’ Usually, too, it follows the verb and the pronoun ‘it’ is used as a dummy subject:- It is clear that he IS wrong.- It is a strange thing that he always COMES late.- It is unknown whether/if it IS CAUSED by rain or wind.- It is one of the first axioms of Euclidthat the shortest distance between two points IS a straight When the Noun Clause comes first, there is no need for the dummy 'Ubject:

- What 's DONE IS DONE.- What you HAVE iustSAID IS quite true.- Where he SOES IS no business of yours.- When I GO DEPENDS on when the train leaves.- That the problems ARE immense IS obvious.- That rain MA y FALL in deserts IS true.- That Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable.- That a depression OCCURRED WAS attributable partly to psychological factors.- That he FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody.- That Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED.- That a tenth p/anet MAY EXIST IS SUGGESTED by discrepancies in the motions of Uranus and Neptune.- That the computer revolution IS infancyfrequently ESCAPES c mment.2. Noun Clauses may be used as the Indirect Object (iO, for short) of A DI-TRANSITIVE VERB:- LEND whoever CALLS the bicycle pump in the shed.- SAVE whoever COMES the trouble of ringing.- GIVE whatever you THINK best priority.- She GAVE whomever she MET a warm greeting.- Jack MADE whoever CAME there the same offer.3. Noun Clauses may form the ồirect Objects (do, for short) of the verbs of SAYING, THINKING, KNOWING, OBSERVING, and DOING (which are in fact MONO-TRANSITIVE VERBS). They answer the question ‘What?’- He SAID that he WAS FEELING tired. ( What did he say?)- She THOUGHT that the train ARRIVED at ( What did she think?)- I UNDERSTAND that nothing IS GOING TO BE DONE.( What did you understand?)Other words might introduce N Clauses are who, whywhen, how, what.; whether, and if.- I DID NOT KNOW who he WAS.- He DID NOT SEE where she HAD GONE.- DO you UNDERSTAND DO

- They DO NOT REALIZE how we DO- HAVE you DONE what I TOLD you to do!- I DON’T KNOW if he HAS DONE yet.Instead of the single conjunctions who. , how, when, etc. wemay use conjunctive adverbial phrases formed with prepositions, whichwill often express our meaning more clearly and exactly: - HAVE you FOUND out at what time the train- They DID NOT KNOW for how many_ hou he HAD BEEN there.- He DID NOT KNOW in what district the house COULD- He KNEW quite well on what business the policeman HAD- He soon DISCOVEREDwhich of the hoys ip Class 5HAD BROKEN The window.- 1 HAD HEARD how often he HAD DONE it,but\HAD FORGOTTEN exactly how WAS.Advise. ask, remind. show,reach, and are some common DI¬TRANSITIVE VERBS which lake a do subordinate Noun Clause alter n i() pronoun or noun phrase:- The teacher ASSURED US that we ARE m no danger.- I BET you that no one WILL ACCEPT the offer.- She finally CONVINCED the jury WAS TELLING the- The police NOTIFIED mv friend that car HAD BEEN FOUND.- They PERSUADED me that the plan WAS, feasible.- REMIND your father that we HAVE tonight.- Experience HAS TAUGHT them a copy IS essentia!- No one HAS ever TOLD me that I A beautiful.- WILL you please TELL me whether- CAN you TELL me howl CAN s WITCH- PEL ASK someone whom we CAN GIVE to.- No one CAN ADVISE you what you SHOULD DO.- I TOED him in what restaurant I WOULD- He REFUSED TO TELL anyone on whose account he HAD COME totown.

The do subordinate Noun Clause may also follow its ỈO prepositional phrase which is usually introduced by to’:- He CONFESSED to me that he WAS extremely alarmed.-1 POINTED OUT to John that few people WOULD AGREE.-She SIGNALED to US that she WOULD KEEP quiet.-We CAN’T PROVE to the commission that effects ARE NOT harmf.- The employers ANNOUNCED to journaliststhe dispute HAD BEEN SETTLED.- The consultant RECOMMENDED to the employersthat new salary scales SHOULD BE INTRODUCED.- The garage EXPLAINED to customersthat the spare parts HAD NOT BEEN DELIVERD.The do subordinate Noun Clause may be moved to the position after its compleiTTent,which is in form of an adjective (phrase); itsoriginal position is taken up by the meaningless pronoun- I FIND it strange that he REFUSES to come.- 1 CONSIDER it unlikely that the money WILL BE REFUNDED.4. Noun Clouses may form a complement of a preposition:- CAN you SEE from where you sit?- You MUST DO the best with what you HAVE.- We’D LIKE WORK with whom we CONSIDER the best.- The parly WILL HAVE TO DRAW from whatever sources CAN -1 strongly OBJECT to what you HAVE just SAID.- It all DEPENDS on where you GO.- We HAVE RECEIVED no news of when the boat LEAVES.- He HAS no idea of how it WOULD BE DONE.5. Noun Clauses may be used as an app of a noun phrase the head of which is an abstract noun such as ; belief, rumour story, news,etc. Noun Clauses normally specifies of the head noun.- There EXISTS the belief that his comp a profit.- Everybody KNOWSthe rumour that Ed's wife FALLS love with his brother.- The news that the enemy WERE near WAS untrue.

- The story that Eleanor HAD MET with the senator IS NOT unknown.- The fact that rain MAY FALL in deserts IS widely known/IS true.- The fact that the problems ARE immense IS obvious.- The fact that Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable.- The fact that a depression OCCURREDWAS attributable partly to psychological factors.- The fact that he FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody.- The fact that Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED.- The fact that a tenth planet MAY EXIST IS SUGGESTEDby discrepancies in the motions of Uranus and Neptune.- The fact that the computer revolution IS infancyfrequently ESCAPES comment.6. Noun Clauses may be the subject ive after A LINKING VERB:- That WAS what I THOUGHT too.- She BECAME what she HAD HOPED.- She HAS BECOME what she always WANTED TO BE.- This IS how you SHOULD DO- Ken’s belief IS that things CAN'T GET any worse.- My question IS whether (or not) you WILL PAY for such a loss. 7. Noun Clauses maybe the object complement after a do pronounor noun phrase:- DYE your hair what colour you L- YOU’VE MADE me what I AM.- We HAVE MADE the club what today.EXERCISE 8: Identify all the Noun Claus the following paragraph.What roles do the Noun Clauses play in the sentences involved?The sight that met our gaze was certainly not a little amusing. Peter sat on the ground gazing into the cat’s face with his nose about four inches from it. Turning his head a little to one side he spoke to thecat, telling (it that)he loved it but the cat said nothing. Peter therefore demanded sharply if it heard him. Again he told it loved andhe asked if it didn't love him. This time the cat gave a faint mew. Peter was better pleased: he called it a jolly old rascal and asked why did not speak to him at once. Then, putting forward his mouth, he kissed the cat on the nose! He

paused for a moment and then told it again he loved it because he had to take care of it, and looked after it, and think about it, and see that it didn't die. As he said this the cat interrupted, mewing two or three times.SUBORDINATE ADVERB CLAUSESAn Adverb Clause is a group of words (containing a finite verb) doing the work of an adverb. It is introduced by aConjunction. Compare:- He came yesterday.-He came on the ỉưh of August.- He came when I ASKED him.(Adverb of Place) - Take it to Mr. Smith's house.- Take it wherever you LIKE.- He acted strangely.- He acted in a peculiar- He acted as if he WERE afraid.There are times when the Adverb Clause may come before THE ERB it qualifies; there are other times when the Adverb Clause can nly come after.Adverb Clauses can be sub-categorized according to the meanings:ney express:1. Adverbials of Time have four subcategories within them:1.1. Adverbia/s of Point of Time telljylace,answering the question ‘ or what- I'LL DO when I HA VE time.- As soon as everyone WAS ready, I GAVE a signal.- As I WAS GOINS down the road, I MET your friend Tom.1.2. Adverbia/s of Duration or Extent in Time describelong an event lasts,answering the question- The two drivers MUST STAY the police GET there.- I’VE BEEN WORKING heresince I TED from my university.- AỊI the tjmeI WAS there, I DID NOT SEE a sign of him.- While I WAS SITING there, he CAME up to me.

1.3. Adverbia/s of Frequency describe eventoccurs, answering the question 'How oftenT or 'How many timesT- He CALLED on me I ARRIVED.- My dog COMES whenever I CA 1.4. Adverbials of Temporal Relationship convey the temporal relationship between two events or states, answering the question-1 HOPED to pay him a visit before I WENT away. -I’LL READ you my letterafter I'VE FINISHED and I SEND away.- Almost everyone HAD LEFT for home by the we ARRIVED.2. Adverbials of Place (also called spaed) answer the questions‘ Where?’or ‘How farT- He always HIDES where I CAN never REACH.- r LL JOG as farasI CAN.- GO as near as you LIKE to him: he does not bite.- They GO wherever they ARE TOLD.3. Adverbials of Manner describe the which somethingdone,answering the question ‘ Hor ‘By what wayT- You OUGHT TO WRITE as I DO.- When my father IS away, I WILL DO as I- The dog LOOKS asjfhe WANTED something to eat.- He BEHAVES asjf he IS COINS TO BE ATTACKED.4. Adverbials of Comparison compare of stateaction relative to another,answering the question- He DOES it as well as I DO.- He DOES NOT DO it so well as you DO.- He DOES it better than I DO.- It IS as good as I THOUGHT.- He DID as much as he COULD.- There ARE NOT so many people here as I EXPECTED. - Our coach LEFT earlier than it SHOULD HA- The road SEEMS longer than I THOUGHT.5. Adverbia/s of Cause and Adverbia/s of Reason answer the

question ‘WhyT Traditionally, has been associated witha relatively objective statement while reason has implied a more subjective assessment:- The old man WALKED slowly his legs ARE bad.- I’VE BEEN WAITING hereas I KNOW you'll certainly come and pick me up.In the majority of cases, however, it is difficult to judge the level: objectivity and thus to discern between cause and reason, as with the llowing examples:- The plan FELL down because it PROVED to be expensive.6. Adverbials of Contingency, like adverbials of Cause, also answer the question "Why’.However, it is necessary to n te that adverbials of Cause ‘give as a reason of something which is happening, has happened, or will happen’ while adverbials of Contingency ‘give as a reason something which might have happened, or which may happen’ [Campbell, 1962. 59]. The first is certain, the second is only possible or probable.- They DECIDED to retreat at oncefor fear (thatyiest they SHOULD BE CUT from the main force.- You HAD BETTER NOT SKI ẬT7 the weather IS really bad.7. Adverbials of Purpose answer the question ‘ What forT orwhatpurposeT Notice that 'iorder that’ is more forceful than'so that.’- She always WALKS to school/>7 order that she MAY GET plenty of exercise. -1 DO it like this so that it MIGHT better.- I HAVE WRITTEN it very clearly they CAN READ- He always LEFT the house at eight//7 orderthathe MIGHT NOT by any chance LOSE the ti8. Adverbials of Result never consist of ‘may’ or ‘might.’- He DRANK so much that he' SOOT sto- My father SMOKED so heavily he GOT lung cancer.- He JUMPED so high that he easily CROSSED the barrier.- He WAS so stupid that he COULDN'T PASS his examination.- He SHOWED such stupiditythat the examiner REFUSED to pass

- That IS so common an occurrence no one NOTICED- The third couple DANCED so beautifullythat all the examiners A WARDED them the maximal pi- Such WAS his cleverness! that he PASSED every examination ea9. Adverbials of Concession expressthe proposition of the rest of the clause or, in the caseadverbials realized as clauses, propositionmain clause.- Although it 'sGETTING late, I think we ought to finish our less- However much she DOES, she never seems to have finished.- He WON’T MANAGE it however hard he TRIES.- They KEPT on swimming (even the weather WAS b- He’S COMING today/>7 spite ofthe fact_ that I distinctly TOLD him I didn't want - I THINK it is a good planexcepl that MISSED OUT to London.- Exceplfor the fact that the singing WAS very bad,it WAS a good concert.10. Adverbia/s of Condition express the conditionsthe Iirpggsitipnof the main clause, including both positive and negative conditions. They usually answer the question ‘what condition (s)T- These people CANNOT OPERATE they RECEIVE support.- We CAN PLAY as long as it DOESN'T RAIN.- Supposing the boat CAPSISED, what WOULD you DO?- I’LL HELP you on condition that you DO your lesson.- You MAY LEAVE right nowprovided^ that you WORK overtime tomorrow.- And if you WERE in the mood, we COULD at least GO.- If only he HADN'T MADE that mwe SHOULD all BE happy now.

- Now that summer IS here, we CAN GO boating.XERCISE 9: Identify all the Adverb C in the following sentences. What roles do the Adverb Clauses tp\w)j in the sentences involved? When it CREW dark.; I made my way along the road.2 Since you TOLD me that, I have been unable to think of anything else.Be sure to stay here until I COME.- You may take the book tonight you RETURNtomorrow.Till I WAS 15 years old, I had never seen a railway train.I gave it to him on condllịoỊi thaf he DID NOT MAKE a mess of7. He was quiet as long as I WAS there, but I WENT away hestarted making noise.8. I haven’t seen him since I CAME back.9. You had better take someone with you 7/7 way.10.1 sat waiting till everything WA5 ready.11. He put on many clothes so that he MIGHT BE warm.12. He put on so many clothes that he WAS warm.13. He was such a popular person that IS always BEING ASKED out.14. Unless he DOES his work, he should not be paid.15.1 took a good meal before I WENTfor fear (/hat) I SHOULD NOT BE able to get any food there16. Had_I_reajjzed_ that,I would not have said anything.17. Since there WAS no one there, I went away as soon I COULD.18. While I WAS WAITING for him, I asked a passer-byat what the train LEF119. If you THINK so, you should go bef he COMES.20. Though I DON'T LIKE the plan, I am helping as much I CAN.21. After I HAD dinner, I went to sleepalthough I I ought to keep awake.22. You may go and play with him when he COMESon condition that you DO your home lessons tomorrow23. Except that there IS NOT much to do, I think that it would make a excellent place for holiday.

24. Don’t come unless you HEAR from me.25. While I WAS quietly sitting reading, he came rushing into my roomas if he HAD some very important news to tell mt26. If you PRACTICE, you will be able to play tennis much better IC/ All the time I WAS there, he never came to see mehe HAD PROMISED to do so.' //7 case there IS any trouble aboutyou had better telephone them that you are coming. . Although thunder and lightning ARE PRODUCEDlightning waves travel faster than sound waves DO,so we see the lightning we HEAR the thunder.. When I first STARTED to play I though that it was so difficultthat I SHOULD never BE able to ; but, nowthatlHA VE HAD more practice,I can play much better I EXPECTED.NTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE‘Classified according to structure, there are four kinds of ntences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.’(1) A simple sentence has one main clause and no subordinate clauses. AMPLE At the end of the day, we GATHERED around the campf ireto fe//qhost stories.(2) A compound sentence has > two or more main clauses but no subordinate clauses.AMPLE Clyde WANTS to become a lawyer,and Lucy IS STUDYING to be a welfare worker.(3) A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.. AMPLE If you WASH the sweater, it WILL STRETCH.(4) A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.AMPLE Since I HAD SEEN him the before, I KNEW he WASunhappy, but I DID NOT GUESS that he WOULD GIVE UP s[Warriner. 195S: 81-82] EXERCISE 10: Classify the following sentences according to their structure.1. One day last week while I WAS RIDING a bus , I noticed

two career girls.2. Not far from me, they were standing in the crowded aisle.3. Fortunately I was comfortably seated, andl enjoyed listening to their conversation.4. One of the girls looked as though she WERE about sixteen years old.5. Her companion, about two years older, quietly fretted as she TRIED to keep her balance on the swaying , and she was obviously bored with the long speeches of her younger friend, who CHA TIERED enthusiastically about 'making good the big '6. This ambitious girl talked about her job at a shoe factory, and shediscussed the personality of her boss.7. Clinging to a narrow strap with one hand and clutching the back of my seat with the other, the older girl remained silent.8. ‘I’m going to work hard,’ the first girl continued, I CANDESERVE a promotion, for all that I WANT in IS to get ’9. Her weary companion finally spoke.10. ‘All that I WANT is to get a seat.’CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONSThere are four main kinds of Co-ordinate Conjunctions:1. The AND type1.1. And or its substitute is used to add something of the same kindto what we have already said. The word, phrase, clause which follows and or its substitute \s what we might expect.- He was tired and hungry.- He was both tired and hungry.- He was pot only tired butalso hungry.- He was tired as wellas hungry. - He was tired andalsohungry.- He was tired and hungry, too.- The concert was very poor in the middle, but there were interesting items both at the beginn the end.- Surely the question can be easily settled when theemployers and the workmen want an early agreement.- Some boy had only an apple, but he had an orange.

- Julius Caesar was n ot_ only a great genera! a wiselegislator.1.2. What’ more (also called what is more), moreover, andfurthermore are used to add an extra fact after two or morehave already been given. Very often it is the most important fact acting as the climax:- I don't think the man is suitable for a gardener: he is ;stupid, and unreliable; what's more,he knows nothing aboutgardens.- He has been judged guilty of murder to death',what’s more,all his land has been taken by the government.1.3. The parts joined by and or its substitutes must balance each other:- The guy WAS not_only stupid but also cowa- Not only \N AS the guy stupid buthWAS cowardly.- That instrument IS expensive and practically u- That instrument IS not only expensive practicallyuseless.- Not only IS that instrument expensiveit IS also useless.The BUT type2.1. But or its substitute is used to add something different from what we have already said. The word, phrase, clause which follows but or its substitute'^not what we might expect.Compare:- He is stupid and lazy.- He is stupid but persevering.- He works hard and gains all the prizes.- He never works but gains all the prizes.- He works hard but never manages to gain a prize.2.2. It is not always possible to put all or any of the following co¬ordinates instead of but.- History tells the story of man’s life through the ages,many people dislike it.

- This one costs $10, while the one over there costs only $4.- William is in the top classwhereas John, who is a year older, is only in class 5.- The sun is shining, and there are very few clouds;nevertheless,I am sure that it is going to rain.- I told them thatldidn’t want them to send those parcels;however,I now think they had better do so.- There are many people who say that it is more sensible to buy what one wishes and pay for it afterwards by instalment;for all that,I prefer to wait and pay for things I buy them.- The beauty of writing lies not in how many words we know, but In the way we choose the words we use and how we organize them. 13. The OR type3.1. Or and its substitutes give two statements of equal value tochoose from: if one is true the other is not.- If you want, you caneither\NAIK to the next town and TAKE the train from there or HIRE a car here and (90 the way by road.- The climate of Britain is neither too hot too cold in winter.- He never works steadily:either he WORKS extremely hard or he DOES nothing.- He has no accomplishments: he can TALK,(not)PLAY the piano, (not)TELL funny stories, PLAY at cards.- You MUST LEAVE at once, otherwise yow WILL MISS the train.-You had better COME yourself or els SEND a friend: it is not enough to send a letter.3.2. The parts joined by either...ơrand must balanceeach other:- He WAS either a rogue ora fool.- Either \\e WAS a rogue or\\e WAS a fool.- I HAVE food neither for m for my horse.- I HAVE food for neither myself n

- The SO typeSo and its substitutes are used to add something which follows as aconsequence for the previous part:- He was born in Athens, so he speaks Greek like a native.- Singapore lies very near to the equator;consequently,the weather is very hot all the year round. - He has done very good work for societ);he deserves great praivc.- There is no demand in Shanghai for this make of car;accordingly,I am not able to give you any order.EXERCISE 11: SENTENCE TRANSFORMATIONRewrite each of the following sentences in such a way that it means almost the same as the original sentence:Bachelors PREFER red-hairedGirls with red hair ARE PREFERRED BY unmarried men.A. GERUNDS vs. INFINITIVES1. Sitting in one place for so long is very uncomfortable.It is very uncomfortable to sit in one so2. It will be a lot of fun to go to that party next week.Going to that party next week will be a3. Understanding that fellow was very difficult for me.It was very difficult for me to understand that4. lYusually takes me forty minutes toschool by bus.Getting to school by bus usually takes me forty5. Flying to Caracas, Venezuela took US only eight hours.It took us only eiíỊÌĩt hours to fly to CarB. SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION6. He will never admit defeat.Never 'will he admit defeat.7. We had hard/ybovuw our work when it began to rain.Hardly had we begun our work when began8. She had scarcely entered the room when the phone rang.Scarcely had she entered the room when the phone rang.

9. An individual rarely finds himself sought by both partiesas their presidential candidate, as did General EisenhowerRarely does an individual find himself soug by bothas their presidential as He had no sooner arrived thanhe was asked to leave again.No sooner had he arrived than he wasỈ He doesn't like Beethoven, either.Neither does he like Beethoven.- Hughes owned Las Vegas hotels and á movie studio as well.Not only did Hughes own Las Vegas h hut he also aThe destruction was so great that the South took decades to recover.So <’reat was the destruction that the took- Most snakes will attack human beings only they are in danger.1 )nly when in danger will most snakes humanc. REPORTED SPEECH:STATEMENTS' You must study hard for the test,’ the teacher informed US.The teacher informed US that we had study hard for theMr. Anderson said, T have been smoking too much recently.’Mr. Anderson said that he had been smoking tooWH-QUES TIONSHow soon can you pay back the monev?’ Mr. Jones said to me.Mr. Jones asked me how_ soon I could pay theV 'What does the word outfit mean?’ the student said to the teacher.The student asked the teacher what the wordYES-NO QUESTIONSHave you seen that movie yet?’ Roger asked US.Roger asked USif/whether {or not)we had seenDo you understand this lesson?’ I said to her.I asked her if/whether(or not) she understoodCOMMANDS21. ‘Show me your driver’s license,’ the policeman ordered.

The policeman ordered me to show22. The clerk said to US, ‘Don’t come back before one o’clock.’The clerk told US not to come hackD. CLAUSES vs. PHRASES23. Being a careless fellow, he forgot all about it.Since he was Cl careless fellow, he24. Having had my breakfast, I went to school.After I had_ had my breakfast, 1 went25. He stood in the veranda, listening to the wind.He stood in the veranda as if he to26. Taking morning exercises every day, you can improve your health.If you take morning exercises every you your27. Runningi\Wthe way to the station, 1 caught the express.I caught the express by runn inji a the way the28. After trying twice, Ivan broke the record when he tried the third time.Ivan broke the record at the third29. They had a wonderful holiday even the weather was bad.Despite/In spite of the bad weather,they had a They had a wonderful holiday, despite badThey had a wonderful holiday in spite of30. Considering you r condition, we won’t press charges.Under the circumstances, we won’t press31. He never seemed to have finished anything though he tried hard.However hard he tried, he never32. 1 was sick with the flu, but \ still had to study for the test.Although 1 was sick with the flu,I had the33. The hair dryer was not working right, I returned it to the store.Because the hair dryer was not working IDan set the table, andhis wife finished cooking dinner.As soon as his wife finished cooking Dan set the table.35. I watered my drooping African violets, and they perked right up.No sooner had I watered my drooping African

than they perked36. The little boy kept pushing the down button,butÚ\Q elevator didn’t come any more quickly. Although the little hoy kept pushing the downthe any moreThe elevator failed to give a quick answ regardless ofthe little boy’s effort to keep pushing the down button.7. I never really knew what pain is,and then\ had four impacted wisdom teeth pulled at once.I didn’t really know what pain isuntil I had four at'. Fred didn’t do that unless he had your permission.If Fred didn’t have your permission, doIf he does/ĩ^do his work, he should not be paid.Unless he does his work, lie should n he- 1 Unless you hurry, we won’t be able to catch the train.We can only catch the train if you huWere he here, I would/should ask him.If lje_were here,/ would/shouldask-1 If 1 had realized that, I would/should not have said anything.Had / realized that,I would/sliouldnot have- shouldhe see me,I will/shall be punished.If sees me, / will/shall he punished.44. I did it like that to improve her looks.I did it like that so that/ln order that she better.45. They always walk to school in order they may get plenty of exerciThey always walk to school to get46. He was so stupid that the examiner refused to pass him.He showed such stupidity that the e refused to pass47. He is such a popular person that he is always being asked out.He is so popular that he is always b asked48. I was too tired to walk any further.

I was so tired that I couldn’t walk any further.49. The nearest service station is 50 miles away.It is 50 miles to the nearest service450. i*saw Ted at the party.It was Ted that I saw at the party.5 1. Picasso painted Guernica, not Dali.It was Picasso who painted Guernica,52. That Sharon s car broke down was unfortunate.It was unfortunate that Sharon’s car broke down.53. My son will be 14 next week.It’s my son’s 14'h birthday next week.54. It is almost unnecessary for me to say that I was upset.I need hardly say that I was upset.55. He hardly ever goes to bed before midnight.He very seldom íỊoes to bed before56. It is why you want to leave for Africa that I can't understand.What can’t understand is why you want to57. IYis Alice’s job to look after new staff.Alice is responsible for looking after new staff.5 s It looks as if we’ll have good weather for our trip.We’re likely to have good weather for our tripIt won't make any difference even they offer him more money. Offering him more money won’t make any difference.This booki which had been translated into many languages,became well-known all over the world. Having been translated into many lanthis hook over There's no need for you to get so upset.You don7 need to get so upset.2.The last time 1 was in Hanoi was last December.I haven’t been to Hanoi since last D\ This text is too difficult for US to translate Without a dictionary.This text is not easy enough for US to translate a dictionary.

4. The fridge was so heavy that wo couldn’t move it.The fridge was too heavy for US to move.5. Henry regrettedbuyinq the second-hand car.Henry wished he had not_bought theHe didn’t know where John was, and I didn’t either.Neither of US knew where John was.They are both worth reading.Both of them are worth reading.Y 1 expect (that) she missed the train.She must have missed the train.. Did he give you any reason for his behaviour?Did he explain why he behaved like ?. I haven’t heard from Susan recently.Susan hasn’t written to me recently.71. When he was ten, he could ride a bicycle.At ten, he could ride a bicycle.E. ACTIVE vs. PASSIVE72. You should open the wine about three hours before you use it.The wine should be opened about three hours before is73. People thought that some homesteaders]^already settled in Montana, Some homesteaders were thought t74. This Speed limit IS TO he introduced gradually.The authorities ARE TO introduce this speed75. The damaged ship was being towed into harbour when the towline brokeThey were towing the damaged ship int when the brok76. Someone will HAVE TO be found to take her place.We will/shall HAYE IQ ŨUỂsomeone to her77. No one has changed the curtain for three weeks.The curtain has not been changed for78. The doctor should have signed my insu form. My insurance form should have been signed by the doctor.F. RELATIVE CLAUSES79. Those boys walking together are brothers.

Those boys who are walking together are80. The speaker we listened to mentioned that matter.The speaker to whom we listened mentio that81. The paper you wrapped the gifts wi was very pretty. The paper wftji which you wrapped the gifts was82. The apartment ijn which we live is on the second floor.The apartment where.we live is o the84.1 fail to remember the day on which he was sent to the front.1 fail to remember the day when he was sent to the front.* - you look for the time when the procession due to pasd 1 1 you look for the time during which the procession due to pass'!•ft- - _ e you found out when the train leaved!- - e you found out at_ what_ time the train leaved!e soon discover wjwhad broken the window.She soon discover whfchjof the boys in Class_ 5had broken the window.w - knew quite well why the train leavedIHa\ e you found out on what_ business the police had come.*§ don’t know where the house could be found.don’t know />7 what disjrictthe house could be found.• They did not know how long he had been there.Tr.ey did not know for how_many hours he had been there! SECTION 2: PARAGRAPH WRITINGQuestion 1. What is a paragraph?According to Oshima and Hogue [1991:16], a paragraph is ‘a basicunit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea.’A paragraph should include a clearly stated topic sentence, which embodies a topic and a controlling idea.A paragraph should be unified have unity, it discusses only one topic. A paragraph should be coherent/have coherence so that the reader can follow its points of discussion fairly easily.A paragraph may have a concluding sentence in which the topic,the controlling idea and/or the main points of discussion within the paragraph are restated.

PRACTICE 1: Identify the topic and the controlling idea Paragraph 1Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. (1) These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach velocities of seventy miles per hour or more. (2) Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfalls that accompanythem can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy that is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by humankind throughout the world one year. Paragraph 2(1) In 1944 the United State signed a treaty with Mexico guaranteeing that country 1.5 million acre-feet of Colorado River water a year. But the big division of Colorado’s precious water had occurred in 1922 under the Colorado River ; signed by theseven states along the river and the federal government. (2) What makes the agreement shaky is that (2.1) it is based on an overly optimistic estimate of the river’s average flow. About 15 million acre-feet of water were originally apportioned to the states; actually, the average annual supply is only 13.8 million. (2.2) 7/7 the did not takeinto account Mexico’s right to any Colorado River water at all, so the 1.5 million acre-feet later guaranteed to Mexico widen the gap between demand and supply. The Colorado is, in short, overbooked.Paragraph 3(1) Albert Einstein, one of the world’s geniuses, failed his university entrance examinations on his first attempt. (2) Faulkner, one ofAmerica’s noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his English courses. (3) Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during elementary school. These few examples show that "ailure in school does not always predict failure inParagraph 4Marie is as beautiful as any (1) Her thick,wavy, long black hair gracefully falls down to her shoulders and surrounds her exquisite, diamond-shaped face. (2) A golden suntan usually highlights her smooth, clear complexion. (3) Her slightly arched chestnut brown eyebrows draw attention to her deep blue eyes, which remind me of a lake on a stormy day. Her eyes are large, but not too large, with thick eyelashes. (4) Her nose is straight and neither loo long nor too short. A small black mole on the left side of her mouth adds to her beauty. (5) And her mouth! It is a small mouth that looks delicateand feminine. (6) Her ups are rather thin, but not too thin; her light lipstick adds another touch of feminine beauty. When she smiles, which is often, her well-formed and even, white teeth brighten up her whole face. There is nothing but extraordinary in the face of Marie.

Question 2. How can we avoid the lack of unity in a paragraph?To avoid a lack-of-unity paragraph, make sure that each sentence of the paragraph relates to its topic and develops its controlling idea. ‘If a sentence does not relate to or develop that idea, it is irrelevant and should be omitted.’ [Smalley and Ruetten, 1986: 17]PRACTICE 2:Make a paragraph unified.Read the following paragraphs. Underline the topic sentence for each paragraph and cross out any sentence that does not belong in the paragraph. There may be one or more irrelevant sentences.Another problem facing a number of elderly people ison reduced income. Upon retiring,old people may receive the pensionirom their company or Social Security from the government. The amount of their monthly checks is often half the amount of the checks they received when they were employed. retirees find thatihey can no longer continue the life style that they had become accustomed to, even if that life style was a modest one. Many find,paying their monthly^ bills,that there is no money left for a movie or adinner out. Of course, sometimes they can’t go out because of their health. Maybe they have arthritis or rheumatism and it is oainful for them to move around. This can also change their lifestyle. Some older people, however,discover that the small amount ofmoney they receive will not even cover their monthly bills. They realize vith horror that electricity, a telephone, and nourishing food are luxuries hey can no longer afford. They resort to shivering in the dark, eating cat food in order to make two ends meeParagraph 6In our prison today, some people are falsely accused of crimes. A solution to certain kinds of crime, restitution, is becoming more popular and rightly so. It works like this. If someone is convicted of defacing or destroying property, he or she is required repaint or restore the property rather than simply sit in jail a certain length of time. //7 another^example, a person disabling a wage earnerwould be made partially responsible for that wage dependents until the wage earner has recovered. way 0Ídealing with this criminal is to make him or her pay a //7 otheiwords, restitution requires the criminal to restore the damage to theperson who has been hurt. The criminal contribute something tc society rather than simply sit in jail, being clothed and fed with the tax dollars of law-abiding citizens. Perhaps through contributing to society by restitution instead of being

dependent on society by sitting in jail. criminals will he more likely to bec useful, working members ojsociety after they have paid for their crime.Paragraph 7Despite their reputation, some workers in American factories take pride in helping their companies. good is the14,000 employees of Locheed-Geogia Company who submit ideas to management to help reduce production costs. In one year, these ideas, ranging from a new way to recharge a dead battery to a more efficient way to paint airplane wings, saved the company $57.5 million. Since 1979, employee suggestions have resulted in savings of over $190 million. While we might think that workers submit ideas in order to Deceive large rewards, this is not the case. According to President Alex Lorch, the financial benefit is minimum. The employee frith the best idea each year receives only $100. The employees, Lorch says, submit ideas because they are motivated a desire to do a goodvb. Japanese workers, on the other_hand,are generally considered he best example of workers who are loyal to their company.‘Sometimes the cure for a dis-unified paragraph is not as simple as leleting or moving material. Writers often wander into uncharted territory because they cannot think of enough evidence to support a topic sentence, feeling that it is too soon to break into a new paragraph, they move on to lew ideas for which they have not prepared the reader. When this happens, Be writer is faced with a choice: Either find more evidence to support the Ipic sentence or adjust the topic sentence to mesh with the evidence that is [-liable.’ [Hacker, 1999: 25]geesHon 3. How can we avoid the lack of coherence in a paragraph?‘There are four ways to achieve coherence, the first two waysiolve repeating key nouns and using pronouns which refer back to ynouns. The third way is to use transitional signals to show how one a. is related to the next. The fourth way to achieve coherence is to -enge your sentences in logical order. Three of the common ‘logical krs’ ... are chronological order, logical division and order of portance.’ [Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 39]PRACTICE 3: Repeat the key noun.3.1. In the following paragraph, the key noun is never repeated. Replace the pronoun it with the key noun English wherever you think doing so would make the paragraph more coherent.Paragraph 8English has almost become an international language. Except for Chinese, more people speak it (=>English) than any other language. Spanish is the official language of more countries in the world, but more countries have it (=>English)

as their official or unofficial second language. More than seventy percent of the world’s mail is written in it (=>English). In international business, it (^English) is used more than any other language, and it is the language of airlines pilots and airtraffic controllers all over the world. although French used tobe the language of diploma, it (=>English) has displaced throughout the world. Therefore,unless you plan to spend your life alone on adesert island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, it (=>English) a useful language to know.3.2. In the following passage about dolphins, replace some of the pronouns with appropriate singular or plural nouns.Paragraph 9Interest in dolphins has increased in the past few years. They (=>Dolphins) are interesting because they display almost human behaviour at times.(1) For example,they (=>dolphins) help each otherwhen they are in trouble. If one is sick, sends out a message, others inthe area swim to help it{=>the sick dolphin). stay with it for days orweeks— until //-recovers or dies. (2) They (=>Dolphins) have also helpedtrapped or lost whales navigate their way safely out to the open sea. They (=>Dolphins) are so intelligent and helpful in fact, that the Wavy is training them to become underwater bomb disposal experts.PRACTICE 4: Use consistent pronouns.In the following paragraph, the pronouns are not consistent.Correct them to make this paragraph more coherent.Paragraph 10An Olympic athlete must be s physically and mentally. (1) First of ạ!Ị if you hope F=>he or she hopes) to compete in an Olympicsport, you (=>he or she) must be physically strong. Furthermore, anaspiring Olympian must train rigorously for many years. For the most demanding sports, they train ( =>heor she trains) several hours a day, five or six days a week, for ten or more years. In addition to being physicallystrong, (2) he or she must also be m tough. (2.1) This meanshave to F=>he or she has to) be totally dedicated to your or her)sport, often giving up a normal school, family, and social life. (2.2) Being mentally strong also means that he or she must be able to withstand theintense pressure of international competition with its attendant media

coverage. (2.3) Finally, not everyone can win a medal, so they (:=>he or she) must possess the mner strength to live with defeat.PRACTICE 5: Use transitions (also called transitional signals).5.1. Underline the transitions in the following paragraphs:Paragraph 11Another difference among the world's seas and oceans is thatthe salinity varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Seain Northern Europe is only one fourth as salipe as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are two reasons for this. (1)/(1.1) First of all, in warmclimate zones, water evaporates rapidly, therefore, the concentrationof salt is greater. (1.2) Second, the surrounding land is dry and,consequently, does not contribute much fresh' water to dilute the saltysea water. (2)/(2.1) In cold climate zones, on the other hand, waterevaporates slowly. (2.2) Furthermore, the runoff created by meltingsnow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.Paragraph 12The two most impressivethinqs about him were his mouth andthe pockets of his jackets. (1) By looking at his mouth, one could tellwhether he was plotting evil or had recently accomplished it. If he was bent upon malevolence, his lips were all puckered up, like those of a billiard player about to make a difficult shot. After the deed was ,the pucker was replaced by a delicate, unearthly smile. How a teacher who knew anything about boys could miss the fact that both expressions are masks of Satan I’m sure I don’t know. Wallace’s pockets were lessinteresting than his mouth, perhaps, but more spectacular a way.12) The side pockets of his jacket bulged out over his pudgy haunches like burrow hampers. They were filled with tools—screwdrivers, pliers, files, wrenches, wire cutters, nail sets, and I don’t know what else. Inaddition to all this, one pocket always contained a rolled-up copy ofDopular Mechanics, while from the top of other protruded ScientificAmerican or some other such magazine. His breast pocket contained, besides a large collection of fountain pens and mechanical pencils, a picket fence of drill bits, gimlets, kitchen knives, and other pointed instruments. When he walked, he clinked and jangled and pealed.5.2. Step 1: Underline all the transitions in the following paragraphs. Step 2: Punctuate the transitions if necessary.

Paragraph 13The ‘women's lib' movement toward greater equality for women has produced some permanent changes the vocabulary English.(1) The first change is that new words have been added. (1.1) Thewords feminists, sexist,and male for example becamecommon during the past ten years or so. (1.2) new word is thetitle Ms.,which is often used in place of both Miss and (2) Asecond change is that sexist titles of many job occupations have beenneutralized. (2.1) A chairman is now a businessman is a 'businessperson,’ and a salesman is a .’ (2.2) Moreover amailman is now a 'mail carrier’and an stewardess is now a [flightattendant.’ (2.3) Finally attempts to give equal treatment to masculineand feminine pronouns in English have led to the research for a new pronoun form to replace he (as he/sheor s/he) when referring to neutralnouns such as the student.In conclusion some of the new words such asMs. are quite useful; you can use Ms. to address a woman when you don’t know if she is married. On the other hand the lack of a clearneutral pronoun can lead to awkward sentence construction.Paragraph 14 & 15Genetic research has produced both exciting frightening possibilities. Scientists are now able to create new forms of life in the laboratory due to the development of gene splicing. (1) On the one hand the ability +0 create life in the laboratory could greatly mankind. (1.1) For example because insulin (=> medical treatment) is very expensive to obtain from natural sources, scientists have developeda method to manufacture it inexpensively in the laboratory. (1.2) Anotherbeneficial application of gene splicing is in agriculture. Scientists foresee the day when new plants will be developed using nitrogen from the air instead of from fertilizer therefore food production could beincreased. (1.3) In addition entirely new plants could be developed to feed the world’s hungry people.Not everyone is excited about gene splicing however. (2) Some people feel that it could have terrib consequences. A laboratory accident/Ỡ/" example might cause an epidemic of an unknown diseasethat could wipe out humanity. As a result of this controversy, thegovernment has made rules to control genetic experiments. many

people feel that these rules are not strict enough even though the scientific community may feel that they are too strict.5.3. Step Ị: Fill in each blank with an appropriate transition from the following list. Use each only once: but, such as, conclusion, for instance, last but not least, for example, in addition, and however. Step 2: Use correct punctuation.Paragraph 16For many years, Japanese consumers have been accepting foreign goods, mainly because they are very selective and will>nly purchase high-quality products. Later (1) theconsumer market has been changing. According to a recent article inThe Wall Street Journal, kokusaika, which is defined as‘internationalization,’ is influencing young Japanese consumers, who are very eager to purchase and enjoy products from countries around the world. The greater access into the Japanese market has been by the food industry. Traditionally, the protein staple in Japan has been fishproducts, (2) in the last decade or so, the Japanesehave been consuming more beef. In fact, annual per capita consumptionis expected to be about 7 kilos by the mid-1990s. (3) they have acquired a taste for imported beverages, both of the non¬alcohol or low alcohol varieties, like beer drinks and “light” wines imported from England, Germany, Switzerland, the United States, andAustralia. (4) young people, especially women whoare aware of the importance of health and fitness, are eating Western-style breakfast. (5) they enjoy fruit, milk, and bran-type cereals imported from the United States.Not only Western countries but also Asian nations (6) South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Thailand have been benefiting from the changing diet of the Japanese consumers.(7) Japan is importing eels (fish) from Taiwan,asparagus (vegetable) from Thailand, and mangoes (fruit) from the Philippines.(8) the Japanese trend toward internationalizationshould become even greater as we approach the twenty-first century. It will increase international trade, which will definitely be advantageous to many countries of the world. (2) : but (5): For exa(8): In(3) : In addition,(6): such as

5.4. Add ừansịtịonsto the following paragraph wherever they are appropriate.7Paragraph 17Dr. Adams, the old grey-haired history teacher I had last semester, is a perfect example of an absent-minded Heentirely forgot to call the roll or tell US which books to buy on the first day of class. On the day of our midterm exam, Dr. Adams arrived but had forgotten to make up the test. He could never remember where he put his wire-rimmed bifocals. He would often stop in the middle of his lecture and look all over the desk top for them. A student in the front row always had to remind him that they were in the left-hand pocket of his baggy sweater. I will never forget the brilliant lecture he gave on the Ming Dynasty in China on the day that wewere supposed to study the America Civil war.ANSWER:Dr. Adams, the old grey-haired history teacher 1' had last semester, is a perfect example of an absent-minded professor. (1)example, he entirely forgot to call the roll or tell US which books to buy on the first day of class. (2) Or, on the day of our midterm exam, Dr. Adams arrived but had forgotten to make up the test. (3) //7 he could never rememberIwhere he put his wire-rimmed bifocals. (4) he would often stop student in the front row always had to remind him that they were in the left-hand pocket of his baggy sweater. (6) Last but not I will never forget thebrilliant lecture he gave on the Ming Dynasty in China on the day that we were supposed to study the American Civil war.PRACTICE 6: Arrange your sentences in some kind of order.Read the following paragraphs and decide which kind of order is used in each: comparison and contrast, chronological order, order of importance, order of familiarity, logical division of ideas, etc.Paragraph 18: chronological orderIn the relatively short span of forty-five years, there has been an incredible evolution in the size and capacities of computers.Today, computers smaller than the tip of your fingernail have the same capabilities as the room-sized machines of forty-five years ago. (1) the first computers were developed around 1945. They were so large thatthey required special air-conditioned rooms. (2) About twenty years later, in the 1960s, desk-sized computers were developed. This represented a .gigantic advance. (3) Before the end of that same decade, however,a third generation of computers, which used simple

integrated circuits and which were even smaller and faster, had appeared. (4) In 1971, the first microprocessor, less than one square centimetre in size, was developed. (5) Today, electronic engineersfiO predict that even smaller and more sophisticated computers will be on the market before the twenty-first century.Paragraph 19:order of importanceWorld population is increasing an In fact,according to the United Nations, by the year 2060, the Earth will have 10 billion people. Governments, particularly governments of developing countries, will face four major challenges to provide for their expanding populations. (1) The first challenge will be to provide an adequatefood supply. Hungry, undernourished people lack the energy, the time and the will to improve their lives. (2) A challenge isadequate housing.The population needs access to affordable housing tokeep people off the streets. (3) Anothe challenge is to provideSince rural areas provide only limited job opportunities, many people migrate to the cities in hopes of finding employment. If employment is not available, these people quickly become burdens on urban society. (4) The final and most important challenge is to provide for thepeople. As the population increases, more schools will have to be built, and good teachers and administrators will have to be trained to operate these schools. Not only do young children need an education, but adults also need training in various skills and trades that will translate into jobs to benefit themselves and their countries. //7 , thechallenges of rapid population growth must be met by education, for without education, there can be no progress.Paragraph 20: logical division of ideasLiving aboard a space station in orbit around the earth for months at a time poses problems astronauts' well as for their minds. (1) One major problem is maintaining astronauts1physical health. (1.1) Medical treatment may be days or even weeks away as there may not be a doctor on board, illness such as appendicitis or ulcers, routinely treated on Earth could be fatal in space because of the delay in getting to a doctor. Furthermore, (1.2) surgery may beimpossible because blood would float around inside the operating room. Another (1.3) health problem is the potential for bone deterioration. Ina weightless environment, the body produces less calcium. Astronauts would have to exercise at least three hours a day to prevent bone loss. (2) A second major problem is maintaininc astronauts' mental health.

(2.1) Being confined for long periods of time in dark and hostile space will undoubtedly produce anxiety. (2.2) Loneliness and boredom are other psychological concerns. (2.3) Finally, how will astronauts “let offsteam” when interpersonal conflicts develop? It is clear that space- station duly will require astronauts who i.rc only physically but also mentally strong. Paragraph 21:order of familiarityWhen surnames began appearing in Europe 800 years ago, aperson’s identity and occupation were often intertwined. A surnamewas a direct link between who a person was and what the person did.(1) Taylor is the Old English spelling of tailor, and Clark is derived from clerk, an occupation of considerable status during the Middle Ages because it required literacy. (2) The names Walker, Wright, Carter, Stewart, and Turner indicate occupations. A walker was someone who cleaned cloth; a wrightwas a carpenter or metalworker; a carter was someone who drove a cart; steward was a person in charge of a farm or estate; and a turner worked a lathe. (3) One of the few occupational surnames reflecting the work of women is Webster, which refers to a female weaver.PRACTICE 7: study the following paragraph, in which one or more sentences are out of order. Revise the paragraph for greater coherence by arranging the sentences logical order.Paragraph 22\ 1-2-3-6-7-4-5(1) Although riding a bike is economical, it can be hazardous.(2) Fog example, when I worked in downtown Detroit, I used to ride mybike to work everyday through rush hour traffic. (3) This meant that the drivers were either not yet quite awake or angry after a hard Ja\ s work. (4) Once I was nearly hit by a driver making a risht-hand turn. (5) After that incident, I parked my bike at home and took the bus towork. (6) Some of these angry drivers even tried to crowd me off the road. (7) Others (i.e. Other angry drivers) came close behind me and laid on their horns.PRACTICE 8: study the two following paragraphs, which lack both unity and coherence. Rearrange the sentences for coherence and leave out any sentences that do not belong.Paragraph 23: 1 —2—4—3—5 (Omit 6-7.)(1) Watching television is one of the activities I like to do myspare time (i.e. Saturday and Sundaỳ). (2) I enjoy watching cartoon onSaturday morning and sports programs on Sunday afternoon. (3) Iwatch television during the week (i.e. from Monday to Friday) after Ihave finished all my school work. (4) At night, I especially like to watch movies and situation comedies. (5) If I have lot of homework, I try to arrange my

schedule so that I can watch at least one of my favourite shows. (6) Watching television is not the only activity I do. (7) One of my otherfavourite activities is making paper flowers.Paragraph 24: 1-2-9-3-4-10 (Omit 5-Ó-7-8.)(1) Your dollars seems to stretch a bit further Frank's Grocerythan at & and w. (2) Whenever somebody I know goes to Frank’s, theycome out with more groceries in hand. (3) Eggs on sale at Frank’s aregenerally priced at fifty-nine cents a dozen, while on sale at G andw cost sixty-nine cents. (4) Meat on sale at Frank’s is generally about ten cents less a pound than meat on sale at G and w. (5) Frank’s doesn’t advertise its sales much, however. (6) The workers post the newspaper listing the sales in front of Frank’s, but G and w is better about advertising its sale items. (7) They put them on the radio and n the newspaper. (8) They also post sale signs right over the sale*ems in the store. (9) Last week, example, Frank’s had sugar onsale lor $1.59 for a five-pound bag, G and w also had on sale but cost $1.89 for the same amount. (10) /4/7/>7 all, Frank's grocery is moreeconomical thanG and w.Question 4. What is the role of specific details a paragraphSpecific details would help support controlling Take the "ollowing paragraph as a typical example:Paragraph 25Owing a car can be expensive. (1) you have the purchaseof the car itself. If you get the cheapest new car in the showroom, you will end up paying about $10,000. Before you can drive the car home, you have to finance high interest rates and pay a monthly note of around $250. Buying the car, however, is just the beginning of your expenses.2) Next,you have to buy gasoline at over a dollar a gallon. If you drivean average of 100 miles a week and get 35 miles per gallon, you will end up spending $6 to $10 a week on 2as. That is about $40 a month. (3)Add to that the expenses you have for maintenance, such as tune-upsand lubrications, and you have another $ 35 per month. All of these add up to about $350 a month - a big chunk of anyone’s !“It is not usually sufficient just to name an example', often it is necessary to explain the exampleio show how //relates to and supports the generalization.” [Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 106] It would be insufficient to support the topic sentence of the following paragraph: “Tornadoes can bedevastating.” by simply stating, “Take, the tornado that

hit Wichita Falls, Texas, in 1979.” That does not really show that the tornado was devastating. It is necessary to add an explanation of that example: “ This tornado destroyed an entire block of homes anddamaged many other houses and places of business. thetornado caused the death of over twenty people.” The paragraph might conclude by discussing one or two more examples:Paragraph 26Tornadoes can be devastating. (1) Take, thetornado that hit Wichita Falls, Texas, 1979. This tornado destroyed an entire block of homes and damaged many other houses and places of business. //7 addition.the tornado caused the death of over twentypeople. (2) More recently, in1982, at least twenty-five tornadoes hit Arkansas, Texas. Mississippi, and Florida, killing 26 people, injuringover 300, and causing more than $50 million in property damage. (3) 1984, the town of Barneveld, Wisconsin, was leveled by a tornado that killed 7 and injured about 200. Even if not all tornadoes cause suchtdevastation, if they touch down in populated areas, you can expectconsiderable damage.The explanation of an example does not have to be lengthy. Consider another example:Topic sentence: My brother is lazy.Support: He quit his summer job because he did not want to get up early each morning.Three or four additional examples can be used to show that the bother is lazy:(1) Every time he mows the lawn, he does not bother to mow by the fence because it is a difficult spot to mow.(2) Whenever it is his turn to take out the trash, he pretends he is sick so my other brother has to do it.3) He refuses to walk to school, claiming that it makes him too tired to work well, even though he has plenty of energy to play ball after school.it is not always necessary to give several examples to support the controlling idea; sometimes one example that is explained in greater detail will suffice to support the controlling idea. This kind of extended example is useful, not so much for ‘proving’ the statement in the generalization but for illustrating it; therefore, this kind of example is called an illustration.’ [Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 108-109]Paragraph 27

Wherever there are great forests, modern methods of insect control threaten the fishes inhabiting the streams the shelter of thetrees. One of the best known examples of fish destruction theUnited States took place in 1955, as a result of spraying in and near Yellowstone National Park. By the fall of that year, so many dead fish had been found in the Yellowstone River that sportsmen and Montana fish-and-game administrators became alarmed. About 90 miles of the river were affected. In one 300-yard length of shoreline, 600 dead fish were counted, including brown trout, whitefish, and suckers. Stream insects, the natural food of trout, had disappeared.Question 5. Don’t you know how to make an outline of a paragraph? Compare and contrast the two following outlines of the given paragraphs. In what ways are they different from and similar to each other?OUTLINE 1I. TOPIC SENTENCE: Smoking cigarettes can be expensivethe topic the controlling ideaII. SUPPORT:Support Ị: The price of cigarettes: $ 1.50 per day, $ 547.50 per year. Transition. But the price of cigarettes is not the only expensecigarette smokersSupport 2: The hidden/additional expense paid to clean clothing, stuffed furniture and carpet more frequently.III. CONCLUDING SENTENCE: Although it is difficult to estimate the cost of this additional expense, one can see that this hidden expense does contribute to making smoking an expensive habit.the restated topic the restated controlling ideaParagraph 28Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit. (1) Considering that the average price per pack of cigarettes is seventy-five cents, peoplewho smoke two packs of cigarettes a day spend $1.50 per day on their habit. At the end of one year these smokers have spent at least $547.50.But the price of cigarettes is not the only expense cigarette smokersincur. (2)Since cigarette smoke has an offensive odour that permeatesclothing, stuffed furniture, and carpet; smokers often find that these items must be cleaned more frequently than non-smokers do. Although it is difficult to estimate the cost of this expense, one can seethat this hidden expense does contribute to making smoking an expensive habit.OUTLINE 2I. TOPIC SENTENCE:

Smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your health. the topic the controlling ideaII. SUPPORT:Support 1: Smoking cigarettes can cause CANCER.Transitiorr. Aside from the most serious and dreaded disease, cancer,Support 2: Smoking cigarettes also can aggravate or promote OTHER HEALTH PROBLEMS.- It increases the discomfort for people with asthma, and emphysema.- It gives a 'smoker's cough’.- It contributes to bronchitis.Transitiorr. Finally,- Cigarette smokers are more susceptible to common colds and flu.III. CONCLUDING SENTENCE: Whether you get an insignificant cold or the major killer, cancer, smoking cigarettes is hazardous. Is it worth it?the restated topic the restated controlling ideaParagraph 29Smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your health. (1) Several years ago, a United States government study was released that linked the intake of tar and nicotine, found in cigarettes, with the development of CANCER in laboratory animals. The evidence was so overwhelming that the United States government required cigarette manufacturers to put a warning on the outside of each package of cigarettes, which says, ‘Warning: the Surgeon General has determined that cigarette smoking is hazardous to vour health.’ Aside from the anddisease, CANCER, (2) cigarette smoking can aggravate or promoteOTHER HEALTH PROBLEMS. For example, smoking can increase the discomfort for people with asthma and emphysema. It can give one a ‘smoker's cough' and contribute to bronchitis. recent studieshave shown that cigarette smokers are more susceptible to common colds and flu. Whether you get an insignificant cold or the major killer, cancer, smoking cigarettes is hazardous. Is it worth it?Question 6. 1477/should you learn to outline a paragraph!‘Learning to outline will improve your writing for three reasons.A. It will help you organize your ideas.B. It will help you write more quickly. c.It will help you improve your grammar.Improved organization, speed, and grammar make learning to outline well worth the effort.” [Oshima and Hogue. 1991: 34] Paragraph 30Although Grants Pass, Oregon, is a fairly small town, it offers

much to amuse summer visitors.(1) Water sports are by far the mainattraction. (1.1) Visitors can go rafting down the Rogue River. They cango swimming in the Applegate River. Fishing in the area is a popularactivity. (1.2) Lots of people go hunting for wild berries that grow alongthe roadsides. (1.3) Campers will find lovely campgrounds that areclean. (2)/(2.1) There are several nice hotels. (2.2) Tourists can browsethrough a number of interesting shops in town, such as antique stores. ♦One store to visit is the shop thai sells items made from Oregon’s beautiful myrtle-wood. (2.3) One fun activity is shopping at the open market where local folks sell produce in their gardens. (2.4) Grants Pass has a lot of places to eat, ranging from a low-calorie dessert place to lovely restaurants. Some of these restaurants offer good food and gorgeous views. As you can see Grants Pass offers a lot to do summer. If you want to give your family a nice, wholesome , tryvisiting this charming town.OUTLINEI. TOPIC SENTENCE: Grants Pass, Oregon (the topic),offers much to amuse sum ( controllingII. SUPPORT:Support 1: Out-of-town tourists can1.1. enjoy water sports: - go rafting- go swimming- go fishingAlso 1.2. go hunting for wild berriesIn addition, 1.3. go camping: “camper”, “campground”Support 2: In-town tourists can2.1. stay in a nice hotel and relax2.2. browse through interesting shopsanother (fun activity)2.3. go shopping at the open marketAnd finally,2.4. eat in a lot of places, from a low calories dessert place to a lovely restaurant offering good food and gorgeous viewIII. CONCLUDING SENTENCES:

Grants Pass (the 1st restated topic) offers a lot to do in the summer ( 1st restated controlling idea). If you want to give your family a nice, wholesome vacation ( the2nd restated controlling idea), try visiting this charming town(the 2nd restated topic).Paragraph 31(1) It started out as a nice enough day. The weather was unusually warm for the third week in November, so 1 was in a good mood when my mother dropped me off at school. Everything went as usual that morning-, the classes were boring and nothing exciting was happening. (2) At noon, I went to the cafeteria for lunch. While 1 was standing in line with my friends, I noticed some of the other students were excited about something. Then a girl in line asked me if I had heard that someone had shot the president. I was surprised at this news; however, I figured that it was probably just a minor wound. Suddenly, a voice came over the loud speaker announcing the president was dead. There was a hush in the cafeteria. Students stopped eating. No one was moving; it was as if we were all frozen.3) That afternoon the teachers did not conduct the classes à* usual; infact, most of the teachers allowed the students to express their feelings about what had happened. Even my old stodgy English teacher did not conduct class as usual. She did not give US the exam that she had planned for that day.4) After school I went home. Fortunately, no one was home, for I wanted to be alone. Finally, after three hours of containing my emotions, I began to cry. 1 was still crying when my mother arrived home. She came into my room, put her arms around me, and said, ‘This is a sad day for our country.’ Yes, November 22, 1963, was a sad day, a tragic day that was beginning of a long difficult period in AmericanOUTLINEI. TOPIC SENTENCE:November 22, 1963 (the topic),was a sad day, a tragic day that was the beginningof a long difficult period in Americ ( controllingII. SUPPORT:Support 1: In the mornmq/nn the way to school and later class 1.1.1 was in good mood.1.2. Everything went as usual.Support 2: At no on/in the cafeteria2.1. Some students were excited about something.2.2. A girl in line asked if 1 knew that someone had shot the president.2.3. The president’s death was announced.

2.4. There was a hush in the cafeteria. Students stopped eating.No one was moving; it seemed as if we were all frozen.Support 3: In the ai\ernoon/in class again3.1. The teachers did not conduct the class as usual; most of them allowed the students to express their feelings about what had happened.3.2. My old stodgy English teacher.did not give US the exam that she had planned for that day.Support 4: Af ter c\ass/back home and at home4.1. At home alone. I started to cry.4.2. My mother arrived home, came into my room and said:Paragraph 32Our backyard is dominated by a huge old oak tree. The base of the trunk measures approximately ten feet around. The thick muscular trunk rises solidly for about eight feet and then separates into four main branches. From these, the lower -branches spread out horizontally over the ground, reaching into the neighbors’ yards. The main branches continue to rise, up and up, where they compete with each other for air and sunlight. From these heights, the neighborhood cardinals and blue jays sing to each other, keeping a sharp eye out for cats. As the birds sway in the wind, they look as if they are riding a ship across a gently swelling ocean. From these heights, too, it is easy to seea variety of shrubs and sweet-smelling flowers lining the two long sides of our rectangular yard, the small walkway along the back of the house, the back fence that runs along the alley.OUTLINETOPIC SENTENCE: Our backyard (the topic)is dominated by a huge old oak tree ( controlling idea).II. SUPPORT:1. the base of the trunk of the oak tree A2. the thick muscular trunk of the oak tree3. the four main branches of the oak tree4. the lower braches of the oak tree A *5. from these heights: birds vs. cats6. from these heights, too: shrubs vs. flowers7. the two sides of the yard, the walkway, the back fence ịQuestion 7.Where should we put the topic sentence of a paragraph?'The topic sentence may be the first or last sentence in a paragraph. The topic sentence may also be the first sentence

of the paragraph—’sandwich-style'. A ‘sandwich-style’ is especially helpful to your reader if the paragraph is very long. The second topic sentence in the 'sandwich-style' paragraph also serves as a concluding sentence.’ [Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 20]3RACTICE 10: Identify the topic sentence and the concluding sentencein the following sandwich-style' paragraphs.Paragraph 33Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning. (1) the words ‘stingy’ and ‘frugal’ both mean ‘careful with money’. However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation. (2) Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny; and aggressive but not pushy Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonyms at all.Paragraph 34Gold, a precious metal, is prized for important(1) First ofc?//, gold has a lustrous beauty that resistant tocorrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewellery, coins, and ornamentalpurposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. Fop example,a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished todayas the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. (2)important characteristic of gold is usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields tor protection outside the spaceship. //7 conclusion,gold is treasured not only for i+salso for its utility.PRACTICE 11: Look for a ’sandwich-s+yle' paragraph. Copy its topicsentence and its concluding sentence down. What is restated in the concluding sentence?PRACTICE 12: Write the topic sentence for the following paragraphs: Paragraph 35( 1) For example,my father has simply not been able to understand whySteve can sit for hours, his eyes closed, listening through headphones to hard rock music. And Steve has stalked out of the room whenever my father has turned on the radio to one of his favourite melodious love songs. (2) Also,since that day Steve became a teenager, he and myIther have had continual squabble about the chores. Last year, when my father asked Steve to mow the lawn or clean up the garage, Steve Jsually did the

chores without complaining. Now at the mere mention of -he word “lawn”, Steve disappears. (3) for the last six months,Sieve refused to eat anything but natural grains and raw honey for vcakfasl while my father scowled uncomprehendingly, eating ditional bacon and eggs. Indeed, almost every word or action that 'IS passed between Steve and my father lately has widened the gap ~ understanding between them.fjtswER: A definite generation gap between my fatherand my younger brother, Steve, brother’s birthday. (1) The first factor is overpopulation. Overpopulation puts too much demand on the amount of land available for growing food. (2) The secondfactor is unwise use of the land. The cutting down of trees forfirewood\ overgrazing (too many animals eating grass on too little land), and insufficient crop rotation are examples of unwise land use practices. (3) The third factor that has led to an increase in the size ofmany deserts around the world is continued drought.ANSWER: The three following factors have combined to cause desertsto expand ill size in many areas deserts of the world.PRACTICE 13: Write the concluding sentence for the following paragraphs: Paragraph 3 7Another reason students panic during exams that theysuddenly become aware that they have not learned anything semester.These students spend the semester going to classes, taking notes, and reading the assigned chapters without ever spending time to review their notes 01- make sure that they understand the material. As a they do not learnthe material during the term. When the final exam period approaches, they find themselves overwhelmed with pages of notes they scarcely recognize and chapters in the book that they do not remember reading. ANSWER: Since they are faced with the task weeks ofMaterial in a few hours, is it any wonder that panic?Paragraph 38You can reduce gas consumption your car by careful driving and good maintenance. (1) Don’t speed. Gas consumption is about 10 percent higher at 60 miles per hour than at 50 miles per hour and even greater at higher speeds. Avoid fast stops and starts because they wear your tires out in addition to using a lot of gas. (2) Check your tire pressure often because under-inflated tires reduce gas mileage considerably. Get your car tuned up regularly because an inefficiently operating engine results in inefficient fuel consumption. ANSWER: Driving carefully and giving your car good maintenance,you can minimize the money paid for gasoline.

PRACTICE 14: Analyze the following paragraphs.Paragraph 39Another reason why I like the beach is solitary atmosphere.1) At the beach I have no witness but the beach, and I can speak and think with pleasure. No one can interrupt me and the beach will always be there to listen to everything I want to say. (2) //7 it is a quiet place to 20to meditate. Meditation requires solitude. Many times when I am confused about something I go to the beach by myself, and I find that this is the best place to resolve my conflicts, solve problems and to think.Paragraph 40After more than twenty years on television, are few honours that Sesame street has not won. The awards are deserved, for Sesame Street is one of the few shows on television which treat children with respect. (1) Most children’s programs consist of cheaply made cartoons that are based on the adventures of a superhero or a video- game character. Unfortunate^.children’s TV’s programs are generallyso poor because quality kid’s shows do not make the profits which the networks demand. Both the superhero story and the video-game are easy to slap together. (2) By contrast,(2.1) the producers of SesameStreet spend enormous amounts of time and money researching how children learn. (2.2) Another reason for the low profit is the nature of theaudience. Because children have little money to spend on sponsor’s products, each of the networks charges bottom rates for advertising during children’s programs. (2.3) Sesame a non-profil show, doesnot even accept ads. (2.4) And income from the sale Sesame streetproducts is used to do even better job of producing the show.Paragraph 41Years ago, I lived in an old apartment house where I got Htt/e peace and quiet. (1) Fop one thing,I could hear the constant fights thatwent on in the adjoining apartment. The husband yelled about killing hiswife, and she screamed right back about leaving him arrested. (2) [n addition, the people in the apartment above me had four noisy kids.Sometimes it seemed as if football games were going on upstairs. The noise reached a high point when I got home from work, which also happened to be the time the kids returned from school. (3) If the kids andneighbours were not disturbing me, / always had one other person todependo/7-the superintendent, who visited my apartment whenever hefelt like it. He always had an excuse, such as checking the water pipes or caulking the windows. But each time he came, I suspected he just wanted to get

away from his noisy family, wtbch occupied the basement apartment. I moved out of the apartment as soon as I could affordParagraph 42If you do your assignments on time, you may not understand my friend Albert. Albert is the world’s worst procrastinator. Procrastinators are people who always put things off. They have problems with deadlines of all kinds. (1) Albert was a procrastinator at the age of six. The boy next door had a few friends over for lunch one day. Albert’s parents were upset when they learned Albert got there three hours late. They did the neighbours a favour by taking Albert home at once. (2) Today, Albert still does everything at the last minuteor even later. He has plans to join Procrastinators Anonymous-—when he gets around to it.Paragraph 43As a kid, I never really enjoyed the public (1) First there were all sorts of rules that prevented me from having asmuch fun in the water as possible. (1.1) was that children under theage of fourteen had to be accompanied by an adult. I didn’t like having to beg a parent or a neighbour to take me swimming every time I wanted to go. (1.2) Another^ rule was that girls were not allowed in thewater without bathing caps. The required bathing cap was so tight that it caused a heavy press mark on my forehead. it often gave me aheadache. (2) Second,I wasn’t a very good swimmer then. (2.1) Most ofthe time I found myself hanging on to the side of the pool. Andwhenever I attempted a graceful dive, I ended up doing a belly flop. (2.2) Finally,many of the kids teased me. Some of them liked splashingwater into my face, which forced me to swallow chlorine and a dead bugor two. Even worse was the boy who sneaked up behind me all summerilong to dump ice cubes in the back of my swimsuit.Paragraph 44A final examination in a course the initiativeto do his or her best work through the course. (1) Students who are onlytaking notes and attending classes in order to pass a few short tests will not put forth their best effort. F some of my friends indrama, in which there is no final examination, take poor notes, which they throw awav after each short test. (2) skipping classes also becomes popular. Imagine the incredible change a final examination would produce. Students would have to take good and attend all classes

in order to be prepared for the final examination.Paragraph 45My cousin Joel completed a course in home repair and offered one day to fix several things in my He repaired a screen door that squeaked, a dining room chair that wobbled a bit, and a faulty electrical outlet. That night when I opened the screen door, it loosened from its hinges. When I seated myself in the chair Joel had fixed, one of its legs cracked off. Remembering that Joel had also fooled around with the electrical outlet, I quickly called an electrician and asked him to stop by the next day. Then I prayed the house would not bum down before he arrived.Paragraph 46My little sister wants to be a country singer when she grows up.She constantly hums and sings around the house. Sometimes she makes quite a racket. (1) When she listens to music on the radio,she sings very loudly in order to hear herself over the radio. (2) Andwhen she takes a shower, her voice rings through the whole house,because she thinks nobody can hear her from there.PRACTICE 15: Choose one of the suggested topics below and write a paragraph of fifteen sentences in length:- one problem in your city or country, e.g, one type of pollution;- one way technology has changed our lives;- one important quality of a doctor, teacher, architect, engineer, etc.

SECTION 3: ESSAY WRITINGQuestion lWhat is an essay?‘An essay is a non-fiction composition about a limited topic. Itanalyzes or interprets information in a personal way. This does not mean that an essay is about the writer. It could be, but usually it is not. Rather, the sense of personal involvement comes from the writer’s thoughts, insights, and values being used in an analysis or interpretation of a topic.’ [Dawe and Dornan, 1987: 139]An essay can also be considered as a piece of writing several paragraphs long. It develops one centra! written about one topic that is too long and too complex to discuss in one paragraph. Therefore, the topic must be divided into several main points, each being discussed in a paragraph. Separate paragraphs must be tied together by means of an introduction and a conclusion.Houghton [1984] characterized the formal academic essay as ‘a kind of game in which the writer, according to the extent to which he or she is familiar with the

rules and is able to use them, seeks to satisfy the demands of the reader/marker. ’ [As quoted in Hamp-Lyons, 1988: 35]Therefore, the role of the EAP (English for Academic Purposes) writing teacher is to prepare students to play this game and win.Question 2. How many main parts does an essay have? What are they?An essay has three main parts:• An introduction which usually consists of one paragraph (sometimes twoor more) and which introduces the topic and the centra! idea ofthe essay.• A body of two or more developmental paragraphs. These paragraphsdevelop various aspects of the topic (in the form of various ■Sơốtopics) and the central idea.• A conclusion, which is frequently expressed in form of concludingparagraph, one that concludes the thought developed in the essay.Question 3. What is an introductory paragraph? How many parts does ithave? What role does it play in the whole essay?As mentioned above, an introductory paragraph is the firstparagraph in an essay. It introduces the topic and the central idea being discussed in the essay. It consists of two parts:• A few general statements the purpose of which is to attract the reader’sattention and to give background information on the topic.• A thesis statement that names the topic and the central idea of theessay and may also state the specific subtopics and/or the method of organization of the entire paper, that is, it indicates generally how the topic is going to be developed.‘To sum up, an introductory paragraph is like a funnel: very wide at the top, increasingly narrow in the middle and very small at the neck or bottom.’ [Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 79]Question 4. How general should be the introductory paragraph?Don’t you agree with the following answer given by Smalley and Ruetten [1992: 143]: ‘One way to avoid too general or too far back is to have one key word in the first sentence reappear in the thesis statement, or if not the word itself, a synonym of the word or an idea.’*•PRACTICE 1: Study the three following introductory paragraphs. Underline the word that appears in the first sentence and is restated in the thesis statement.

Paragraph lAlmost everyone looks forward to the weekend. We often makeour plans for the two free days well in advance. Too often, however, the best of our outdoor plans for the weekend are ruined here in Miami when the weather clouds up and it rains from Friday evening untilSunday afternoon. Fortunately, however, the weekend can be saved with a little bit creativity. Three pleasant ways to spend time during a rainy weekend are to (1) write letters to old ; (2) read amystery novel, and (3) play cards.Paragraph 2When we were young, we believed that parents could do nowrong. Indeed, they seemed to US to be perfect human beings who knew all the answers to our problems and who could solve any problem that we had. However, as we grow older, we find that parents mistakes, too.Paragraph 3We live in an era where television is the national pastime. Sincethe invention of the television set, people have been spending more of their free time watching television than doing anything else. Many of the television addicts feel that this particular pastime is not a bad one; indeed, they argue that people can learn a great deal watching television. I am sure that if you look long and hard enough, you can probably find some programs that are educationally motivating. But for the most part, I say that watching telev a wasteQuestion 5. Where should we place the thesis statementin the introductory paragraph of an essay? Why?‘It is generally a good idea to place the thesis statement at or near the end of the introductory paragraph’ to make it interesting and/orinviting enough for the reader to continue reading [Smalley and Ruetten, 1992: 142]. You should, first of all, introduce the topic of the essay in a few general statements at the beginning of the introductory paragraph and then state your opinion about the topic later (of course in the thesis statement). Following such a way, you may entice the reader to continue after reading the first sentences. ‘Stating an opinion about something in the first sentence is not usually very exciting; in fact, if the reader disagrees with the opinion, it may very well discourage him or her from reading your essay.’ [Smalley and Ruetten, 1992:142]PRACTICE 2: Read the three following introductory , each ofwhich is in scrambled order. Rewrite each paragraph, beginning with the most general statement first. Then add each sentence in the correct order until the introduction becomes more specific. Write the thesis statement last.Paragraph 4:3-2-1-4

(1) The heavy traffic problem can be solved by transit systems from suburbs to the ciby public transportsystems within the cities,and by forming car pools. (2) Traffic congestionis caused by the thousands of cars that come into the city from the suburban areas as well as from the thousands of cars within the city limits. (3) One of the most serious problems facing most big cities is traffic congestion. (4) This mammoth problem be resolved before it gets worse.Paragraph 5:2-3-1-6-4-5(1) However, in others, the nuclear family is the norm, with only the parents and young children sharing the same house. (2) People indifferent cultures all over the world have different systems for family life. (3) In most cultures, people live in extended ; in whichseveral generations share the same house. (4) If this new system becomes widespread, it could have enormous effects on American society. (5) On the positive side, living together might reduce the divorce rate in the United States; on the negative side, it might lead to the eventual disintegration of the family altogether. (6) In the United States, some people are experiencing with still another system of family life: living together without marriage.Paragraph 6:2-3-1-4(1) Although scientists have experienced with different methods of prediction, from observing animal behaviour to measuring radio signals from quasars, they have not proven (2) Earthquakes arethe most destructive natural disasters known to man, in terms of millions of deaths and billions of dollars in property loss that they cause. (3) Despite these heavy losses, scientists are still unable to predict earthquakes. (4) This paper will review the history of the science of earthquake prediction, then discuss each of the methods in more detail, and finally present data indicating the success-failure ratios of each method.Question 6. What is a developmental paragraph?A developmental paragraph is one of the paragraphs in the body of an essay. Its function is to explain, illustrate, discuss or prove one aspect ofthe topic of the essay (that is, one subtopic). It should include clearly stated topic sentence. The topic sentence embodies a subtopic and Q controlling idea. The subtopic of a developmental paragraph is part ofthe topic of the entire essay. The controlling idea of a developmental paragraph echoes or relates to the central idea of the entire essay.A developmental paragraph should have unity, it discusses only one subtopic. To make a developmental paragraph , you shouldarrange its sentences logically and let one sentence flow to another smoothly through the use of transiti; those that provide the links between ideas. Repeating

key nouns and using appropriate pronouns, which refer back to key nouns, are two other ways to maintain the coherence of a developmental paragraph.A developmental paragraph may have a concluding sentence in which the subtopic, the controlling idea and even the main points of discussion within the developmental paragraph are restated.PRACTICE 3: Below are thesis statements with two supporting topic sentences for each. Study the thesis statements and their supporting topic sentences to determine the logic or principle behind the breakdown. Then fill in a topic sentence for each.1. Thesis statement: People gossip for many reasons.Supporting topic sentences:a. One reason people gossip is to amuse themselves.b. Another reason is to feel superior over others.c. ANSWER: still another reason is to satisfy their talkativeness.2. Thesis statement: Smoking cigarettes Supporting topic sentences:a. Heavy cigarette smoking can cause throat diseases.b. //7 addition,smoking can damage your lungs.c. ANSWER: Last_but not_least,smoking can harm your appetite.3. Thesis statement:Jogging isn’t the only way to improve your circulation. Supporting topic sentences:a. Many have found cycling an excellent aerobic exercise.b. Another way to improve your circulation is to swim.c. ANSWER: Doing morning exercises regularly con improve your circulation.4 Thesis statement: A foreign student enrolled at an Americanuniversity often finds that his or her life is n't such a happy one. Supporting topic sentences:a. Firstly, the complex registration procedure is frustrating.b. Secondly, it is difficult to make friends.1 . tc. ANSWER: It also takes him/her a lot of time and a great effort to get good marks.

Question 7. What are transitions between paragraphs (also called paragraph transitions) ?In what way do they differ from transitionswithin a paragraph?‘Transitional signals are important not only within paragraphs but alsoretween paragraphs. If you write two or more paragraphs, you need to show:he relationship between your first and second paragraph, between your second _nd third paragraph, and so on.’ [Oshima ana Hogue, 1991: 86](See Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 86-89. Also see Smallev and Ruetten, 1992: 164-169; 199-204; 229-230; 261-265; 300-304 and 340-341.)PRACTICE 4: Identify all the transitions between the developmental paragraphs in the detailed outline of the following essay.FLEXTIMEI. INTRODUCTION:One of the most important changes that management has made in industry in recent years is the scheduling of flexible work hours for their employees. Workers are given the option of choosing when they will work. This allows them more leisure time for family and fun. Flextime has obvious advantages for both the workers and management although it may not be practical in all types of businesses.II. BODY:• Supporting topic sentence 1:The first advantage is increased production per work hour.• Supporting topic sentence 2:A second advantage is that factory workers are happier.• Supporting topic sentence 3:In addition to increased output and worker ,factory managers report that absenteeism has declined.• Supporting topic sentence 4:Although flextime hag produced^ thesesome mdustries, it is not as advantageous types of businesses.III. CONCLUSION:7b summarize, flextime has resulted in increased production and happier workers who are less likely to miss work and it works well in manufacturing and retail industries. It works less in service industries such as the restaurant and health care industries.; i CTLCE4: Fill in the blanks with appropriate transitions andexpressions of cause and effect. Pay careful attention to the punctuation given.

CAUSES OF TEENAGE SMOKING A thirteen-year-old boy, standing in the doorway of his school,:fs on a cigarette. He holds it carefully, like an adult, yet in plain - w. He looks around to make sure that the other guys are watching. If u ask how long he has smoked, you will find that he started when he as eleven. By now, he is an addicted smoker. If you ask him why hemokes, he will probably say that he enjoys it. (1) ’ younder if that is really the reason. It seems to me that the causes for leenage smoking are more complex. More specifically, they have more 'D do with the ambiguous role of teenagers in society. Teenage smokingfc (2) by personal insecurity, a desire to bejdults, and peer pressure.The (3) cause of teenage smoking is the personalr security young people often feel. They are at a difficult age. Theyre no longer children, (4) the ways in which they havehaved in the past are inappropriate. On the other hand, they are notet adults; (5) , they do not know the ways of the adultorld. This conflict can (6) feelings of insecurity.) , if children want attention from their parents or a toyr sweet, they can cry to draw attention to their desires. For teenagers,(8) , crying will be labelled childish and they will betold to ‘act their age.’ Often, (9) the teenager does notknow how to act his or her age. (10) teenagers do notknow what to do, they often turn to smoking as a way to hide their nervousness and insecurities.As we have just seen, teenagers need to learn how to behave as adults. They of course realize this and spend time emulating adults.(11) they try to adopt more adult attitudes and manners.They pay attention to their dress and the opposite sex. One thing which young teenagers perceive as “very adult” is smoking cigarettes. Perhaps a boy sees his father and older brother smoke. He thinks of his father asa man and (12) he wants to be “a man” like his father.he starts to smoke, (13) beginning a habit that mostadults know is unhealthy.While it is true that teenagers are attempting to become adults, thiseffort is often not fully conscious. (14) they often see

the adults closest to them, their parents and teachers, as enemies.(15) , they turn to their peer group for support. Weare all familiar with the teenagers who want to look, act, and dress exactly like all of the other teenagers in their peer group. This peergroup can exert (16) pressure (17) often teenagers do things in groups that they would not normally do. One of these things is smoking cigarettes. Imagine a group of guys playing pool together after school. One says to the others, ‘I’m going to buy a pack of cigarettes. Do you want to smoke one with me?’ the peerpressure here is (18) great (19) most normal boys will succumb.We can see that personal insec; desire to be ,and peer pressure can cause many teenagers to start something which they may regret. It is really unfortunate that cigarette smoking, particularly when started at an early age, is so addictive.Question 8. What is a concluding paragraph?According to Oshima and Hogue [1991: 82], a concluding paragraph 'consists of:1. a summary of the main points, ora restatement of your thesis in different words, and2. your final comment on the subject, based on the information you have provided.’Here, Oshima and Hogue insist on your introducing any concluding paragraph with a transition signal. Smalley and Ruetten [1992: 151], on the other hand, emphasize that ‘a conclusion should not... up a new topic. ’PRACTICE 6: Thesis statements, their supporting topic sentences, and conclusions follow. Study each conclusion to determine if it logically concludes. If the conclusion is not appropriate, write the reason it is not good in the space provided. If the conclusion is appropriate, simply write logical in blank. 1. ; Thesis statement: Watching television a waste ofSupporting topic sentences'.(a) It is a valuable educational tooI.(b) It provides entertainment to cheer US up.(c) It provides something our family can have in common to discuss.Conclusion:

Critics of television will continue to put down the “boob tube”. But, because of its educational valueentertainment , andpro vision of things we can discuss together, our family is going to continue watching television for a long time, and so should others. Indeed, watching television is a good way to spend one’s2. Thesis statement:In order to make a good impression at a job interview, should prepare well for the interview.Supporting topic sentences:(a) The first thing you should áo is plan your auwers to the possible questions the interviewer might ask.(b) Then you should carefully plan and prepare what are going to wear.(c) Finally, you should make sure you arrive on time.Conclusion:As you can see, it is necessary to be prepared for the jobinterview. Having the gnswers ready, andbeing on time can all help to make a good impression on the interviewer. If you follow these steps, you will find yourself sitting behind the desk at the coveted job in no time at all.3. Thesis statement: My reasons for coming to state Universitycentre round the services it provides at a reasonable price.Supporting topic sentences:(a) State university offers a superior program in my major.(b) //7 addition,the university has high quality academe resources.(c) State also offers quality student services.(d) The recreational activities make state even better.(e) Last but not least,the tuition fees at state are quite reasonable.Conclusion:The challenge of a diversified^ qnd_excellentacgdemic_ resources, the student services,the recreational activities. and the low tuition are the reasons I decided to come to state University. I really think I made a wise decision. If you are looking for a quality education at a reasonable price, then consider state as a place to enrol.4.

Thesis statement: Communicating in a foreign languagecan create some embarrassing misunderstandings. Supporting topic sentences'.(a) Mispronouncing words can lead to real embarrassment.(b) Misunderstanding what someone said to you can create amusing problems.(c) Misusing vocabulary words can really make you blush.Conclusion:Everyone who speaks a foreign language is bound to have misunderstanding from time to time. What you need to do is go to the laboratory as often as you can to improve your language skills. The people there are very nice and they will help you with your grammar your grammar and pronunciation.Question 9. What do you know about essay outlining? Consider the following outlines of a number of essays given by Smalley and Ruetten [1992]. Do you agree with or object to these outlines? Don’t you have any other suggestions? Can you name the type of essays that each of the outlined essays belongs to?THE LASER: THE SOLUTION TO MANY PROBLEMSI. INTRODUCTION:The laser (the topic) has a variety of applications ( central idea),making it one of the most important inventions in the last quarter of century for improving our quality of life.II. BODY:• Developmental paragraph 1:Topic sentence 1: One important( the controlling idea) field in whichthe laser has many applications is communications {the subtopic I). Support: The laser light signals(la) are now being used to transmit telephone calls.Transition: An additional advantage is that...(1 b) will also be able to transmit video telephone conversations in the future.• Developmental paragraph 2:Topic sentence 2: Another,perhaps less known {the controlling idea) field in which lasers are helping improve the quality of life is metrology — the science of measurement {the subtopic Support: The extremely straight, narrow laser beam (2a) can be used to align parts of a structure being built.(2b) can also position the parts on an assembly precisely.(2c) has also been used to measure remote distances,e.g. the precise distance from the Earth to the Moon. (2d) can finally be used to measure the drifts of the Earth's plates.• Developmental paragraph 3:

Topic sentence 3: Probably the most vital ( controlling idea)application of the laser is in th Q fie of medicine (the subtopic Support:(3a) Doctors use laser knives:- for some general surgery because they cut sharply and because the beam seals off the blood vessels that it severs, thus reducing blood loss considerably.- in eye surgery to spot-weld detached retinas to the back of theeye.(3b) A less significant but more curio use of the laser isto remove tattoos.III. CONCLUSION:The use of the laser is numerous. It is being used in the fields of medicine, communications and metrology (three restated subtopics), as we have seen. There are many problems the laser helping to solve-, the laser (the restated topic), if wisely used, can be a saving device (the restated central idea).The Laser: The Solution to Many ProblemsLike most people, for many years I remained frightened of the laser, perceiving it as a deadly device capable of enormous destruction. I recall a scene in a James Bond movie, in which Bond, whowas lied to a table, was nearly sliced in half by a laser beam. Since then, other films and television shows have fuelled my fear of the laser by showing mad scientists who wanted to take over the world threatening to use huge laser devices to wipe out towns and strategic defence areas. Although the laser does have tremendous potential for destruction my unreasonable fear of the laser is fading. In recent years, scientists havefound that the laser has a wide variety , making it one of the most important inventions in the last quarter of a century for improving our quality of life.One important field in which the laser has many applications iscommunications. Scientists have found that the laser beam can transmit human voices; as a result, telephone companies are now using laser light signals to transmit telephone calls through extremely small cables that are capable of carrying many more transmissions than the standard telephone cables. An additional advantage is that these systems using thelaser light signals will also be able to transmit video telephone conversations in the future.Another,perhaps less known field in which lasers are helpingimprove the quality of life is metro; which is the science of measurement. The extremely straight, narrow laser can be used +0 align parts of a structure being built; it can position the parts on an assembly line precisely. The laser beam has also been used to measure remote distances, for example, the precise distance from the Earth to the

Moon. And finally,the laser can be used to measure the drifts of theEarth's plates. This measurement, along with other data, can help in the prediction of earthquakes.Probably the most vital application of the laser is in the field of medicine. Lasers have been devised that cut razor sharp; /77 factscientists have developed a laser knife that doctors can use for surgery. These knives are now used for some general surgery because they cut sharply and because the beam seals off blood vessels that it severs, thus reducing blood loss considerably. The laser has also been used in eyesurgery to spot-weld detached retinas to the back of the eye. A significant but more carious use of the laser in medicine is to remove tattoos. Whereas before tattoos were virtually impossible to remove without considerable difficulty and pain, now they can be removed relatively painlessly.When Dr. Theodore H. Mainan got the first laser to work in July of 1960, what uses it would have were unknown; in fact, he called it a multimillion dollar “solution in search of a problem.” As we have seen, the use of the laser is numerous.It is being used in the fields of medicine, communications and metrolog; as we have seen. But I have just touched down upon some of the applications of the laser; there are many, many more, not to mention in the areas of defence and space travel. What should be apparent by now is that there are many problems the laser is helping to solve and that the laser, if wisely used, be a life-saving device. I. INTRODUCTION:Their considerable differences (the topic) in ; personality.; and attitude toward ( subtopics) reflect thedifferences between Eastern and Western cultures central idea).II. BODY:1. Nhẫn and Hùng differ front each other in looks.(thecontrolling idea)the subtopic 1)la. Like the majority of oriental , Nhẫn looks an earlytwentieth-century intellectual.- is short and small- has a full moon-shaped face, smooth white skin and small arms and feet- always likes to wear formal, traditional clothes, e.g. the traditional black gown, white pants and black silky headbandlb. //7 contrast toN hon,Hùng looks more an American boxer.- is tall, muscular and big-boned- is marked by a straight-built body and a long and angular face

Unlike N hail,Hùng has strong feet and arms as well as hairy, large and full shoulders and chest.Unlike Nhẫn, too,Hùng likes to wear comfortable T-shirts andjeans or sports clothes. He prefers stylish Western style suits at a formal occasion.2. Nhẫn and Hùng a/so differ in personality.(the controlling idea) (the subtopic 2)2a. Nhẫn provides a good example of piety and tolerance.- His name means ‘patience’.- He has the smile of an ancient Chinese philosopher that Western people can never understand. He always smiles.- He likes books, ofcourse,and literature and philosophy. - He likes to walk in the moonlight and think.- He also enjoys drinking hot tea and singing verses.2b. Hùng, on the other hand,does not set a good example oftraditional respectful behavio for his brothers and sisters.- Hùng is strong, self-cantered and independent.- His name means “strength”, but his strength is self-cantered.As a result, unlike Wian,Hùng only smiles when he is happy.When he talks to people, he looks at their face. -» impoliteLike many American youths,Hùng loves his independence morethan he loves his family. He wants to move out of our house and live in an apartment by himself. He is an individualist. -» selfish3. My bothers ’ differences^ do not end with looks_Concerning their attitudes toward (the subtopic they are as different as the moon and the sun ( the controlling idea). 3a. Nhẫn is concerned with spiritual values. He is affected by Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist theories. He believes that man should get out of the competitiveness of life and should not depend on material objects.Therefore, he never tries hard to make money to buy conveniences.3b. //7 contrasty to Him II, Hùng is affected by the Westerntheories of real values. He believes that science and technology serve human beings and that the West defeated the East because the West was further advanced in these fields.

Therefore, there exists competition between man and nature and between one person and another for different conveniences. Consequently, he always works hard to make his own money to satisfv material needs.\ III. CONCLUSION:-1 cannot say which one of my brothers is wrong or right.-1 am lucky to inherit both sources of thought from my two brothers.My Two BrothersNo two people are exactly alike, and my two older brothers, Nhẫn and Hùng, are no exceptions. When I think of them, I think of Rudyard Kipling’s words:East is EaWest is West Never theEven though they have the same parents, their considerable differences in looks; personality; and attitude toward life reflect thedifferences between Eastern and Western cultures. theoriental men, Nhẫn is short and small, and has a full moon-shaped face. His smooth white skin and small arms and feet make him look somewhat delicate. Nhẫn always likes to wear formal, traditional clothes.example, on great holiday or at family rice celebrations, Nhẫn appears inthe traditional black gown, white pants and black silky headband, all of which make him look like an early twentieth-century intellectual.//7 contrast to Nhẫn, Hùng, who is his younger brother by ten years,looks more like an American boxer. He is tall, muscular and big-boned.He is built straight as an arrow and his face is long and angular as a Western character. Unlike Nhan,Hùng has strong feet and arms; andwhereas Nhẫn has smooth skin, Hung’s shoulders and chest are hairy,large and full. UnjikgNhẫn too,Hùng likes to wear comfortable T-shirtsand jeans or sports clothes. At a formal occasion, instead of wearing formal clothes, Hùng wears stylish Western style suits.Nhẫn and Hùng also differ in personality. I don’t know how myfather selected their names correctly to reflect their personalities. Nhẫn’s name means “patiencể’ and his patience is shown in his smile.He has the smile of an ancient Chinese philosopher that Western people can never understand. He always smiles. He smiles because he wants to make the other person happy or to make himself happy. He smiles whenever people speak to him, regardless of whether they are right or wrong. He smiles when he

forgives people who have wronged him. Nhẫn likes books, of course,and literature and philosophy. He likes towalk in the moonlight and think. Nhẫn also enjoys drinking hot tea and singing verses. //7 short. Nhẫn is the son who provides a good exampleof filial piety and tolerance.Hùng, on the other hand,does not set a good example of traditional respectful behaviour for his brothers and sisters. His namemeans ‘strength’, but his strength is self-cantered. As unlikeNhẫn, Hùng only smiles when he is happy. When he talks to people, he looks at their face. Because^of this,my eldest brother Nhẫn considershim very impolite. As one mighty expecHùng does not like philosophyand literature; instead, he studies science and technology.Nhẫn enjoys tea and classical verses, Hùng prefers to take sun baths and drink Coca-Cola while he listens to rock and roll music.American^ youths, Hùng is independent; //7 fact he loves hisindependence more than he loves his family. He wants to move out of our house and live in an apartment by himself. He is such an individualist that all the members in my family say that he is very selfish.My bothers' differences (to noder,d with and personality.Concerning their attitudes toward they as different asmoon and the sun.My eldest brother Nhẫn concerned with spiritualvalues. He is affected by Confucian, Tao St and Buddhist theories. These theories consider that the human life is not happy. Therefore, if aman wants to be happy, he should get out of the competitiveness of life and should not depend on material objects. example, if a man is notanxious to have a new-model car, he does not have to worry about how to make money to buy one. Or, if he does not have a car, he does nothave to worry about the cost of gas. My eldest brother is deeply affected by these theories, so he never tries hard to make money to buyconveniences.In contrast to Nhẫn, my brother Hùng believes that science andtechnology serve human beings and that the west defeated the east because the west was further advanced in these fields. Therefore, eachperson must compete with nature and with other people in the world in order to acquire different conveniences, such as cars, washing machines, and television sets. Hùng is affected by the Western theories of real values, consequently, he always works hard to make his own money to

satisfy his material needs.In accordance with the morality of the culture of my country, I cannot say which one of my brothers right or wrong. I do knowthat they both want to improve and maintain human on this earth. I am lucky to inherit both sources of thought from my two brothers. ATTITUDES TOWARD MONEYI. INTRODUCTION: People's attitudes toward money(the topic) ( idea)II. BODY:• Developmental paragraph 1:1.1. Topic sentence:The misers seem almost obsessed with the idea of saving.(the subtopic 1)( controlling idea)1.2. Support:1.2.1. The misers- accumulate money in banks and in the house.- deprive themselves of many things and most live miserably in order to hoard their wealth.1.2.2. A good example of the misers is my ninety-year-old neighbor.• Developmental paragraph 2:2.1. Topic sentence:The spenders cannot seem to hold on money.(the subtopic 2)(2.2. Support:2.2.1. The spenders- have a tendency to spend too much on too many unnecessary things. They are often too generous, making elaborate gifts to friends and family.Transition: others- like to gamble, and this can also be destructive if it turns into a vice. Transition: Many spenders do not necessarily throw their money away but-they give it to charities for good causes, simply because they enjoy giving.2.2.2. My uncle Mario is a big spender.• Developmental paragraph 3:

3.1. Topic sentence: The economizers(the subtopic 3) are practical people who spend ,usually making use of a budget ( controlling idea).3.2. Support:3.2.1. The economizers- can enjoy more and various material things and activities due to their careful utilization of funds.- spend in moderation and save in moderation for their future retirement and the education of their children.3.2.2. Parents are usually the best economizers, e.g. my mother. Transition. In conclusion,III. CONCLUSION:- Economizers ( the restated subtopic 3) are what most of US are having to be in the 1980’s in order to face the acute problems of inflation, shortages, and low salaries in this nation and to survive in the future.- The misers and big spenders {the restated subtopic 1 á 2) will modify their extreme attitudes toward money (the restated topic) and convert into economizers.Attitudes toward MoneyAmericans these days are very concerned with economy. It seems more people have to learn to spend less and to spend wisely due to the hard times we are experiencing. However, people's attitudes toward money differ. Some attitudes toward money are reflected by the following three types of people.The misers accumulate money in banks if their income is large, or in the house stuffed in mattresses or under the living room rug if they are low-income people. They seem almost obsessed with the idea of saving. The misers deprive themselves of many things and most live miserably in order to hoard their wealth. My ninety-year-old neighbor, havinggained the sympathy of neighbors, often colleeted groceries and money from them. She dressed shabbily and lived in an old deteriorated house. After her death it was discovered that this old woman had left thousands of dollars to the church and other organizations. She left nothing to her family.The spenders are people who cannot seem to hold on money.They have a tendency to spend too much on too many unnecessary things. They are often too generous, making elaborate gifts to friends and family. Credit cards in some spenders’ hands are often dangerous weapons. They become addicted to using them only to regret it later when the bills come in and they are unable to pay. spenders like togamble, and this can also be destructive if it turns into a vice. Manspenders dp nof necessarily throw_ their money 3way but give it to

charities for good causes, simply because they enjoy giving. My uncle Mario is a big spender. He makes over $25,000 a year but he never has any money in his savings account because he spends his entire pay- check each week on necessities and luxuries. Last week he spent $5000 on a new moped, not because he needed one, but because he thought it would be fun to own one. As a result of his spending, every year in April he has to borrow money to pay his taxes because he has spent it all.The economizers are practical people who spend , making use of a budget.They can enjoy more and various material things and activities due to their careful utilization of funds. They spend in moderation and save in moderation for their future retirement and the education of their children. Parents are usually the best economizers. My mother who budgets our money, resists the temptation to buy things we do not need and cannot afford. Instead, she makes a point of saving a certain amount of money from each of my father’s paychecks. As a result, we always have some money in the bank for emergencies and for education expenses. When my brother started college, we had the money to pay for his tuition and books.In conclusion, economizers are what most of US have to be in the 2000’s. The acute problems of inflation, shortages, and low salaries in this nation are forcing US to become economizers. It is the only way to be if we are to survive in the future. Hopefully, the misers and big spenders will modify their extreme attitudes toward money and convert into economizers.PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS — WHO NEEDS THEM?I. INTRODUCTION:International students should be considered as special cases. The composition proficiency requirements as now stated (the topic)should not apply (the central idea).II. REASON: The case of international students at an Americanuniversity is indeed specialFirst,most international students are using English as their second language. They need more time to write a composition.Ill Furthermore, the composition proficiency exam is biased againstinternational students. It counts grammar errors, which often have nothing to do with meaning, e.g. an participle vs. an infinitive as the complement after verbs.Therefore,international students should not be judged so severelyon grammar errors, but should be judged more on* the quality of theirideas.III. REFUTATION:1 a. My opponents' first argument

My opponents might argue that international students need the level of English proficiency indicated by the exam to get through their other courses such as math, science, history, psychology, etc. in American universities.lb. My first refutation- This is not just true.- First,75% of international students are majoring in math andscience. Their professors do problems on the board or demonstrations in the lab. No English composition skills arenecessary.- Fop further proof,multiple-choice tests, not essay tests, are givenin most introductory courses.2 a. My opponen ts' second argumen tPerhaps one may argue that the proficiency requirements are not necessary for American students, either.2b. My second refutation- Here I must point out several things.- First,because most native speakers rarely study composition thoroughly in high school, they really need a thorough study of it at the college level. On the other hand,many international studentshave studied composition in their own language quite thoroughly in high school. If they passed high school, they can already express themselves well in their first language. So, further practice in composition is not necessary.- Furthermore, in terms of future use, American students mightneed to write well in English for their careers. mostinternational students will not need English for their careers when they go back home; they will use their own language.IV. CONCLUSION: The case of international students at American universities is special.- They are using a second language.- Furthermore, the level of proficiency required on the test isnot necessary for most students to pass their courses.1 would propose that the standard used to judge international student papers (the restated topic) be relaxed or done away the restated central idea).Proficiency Examinations — who needs them?‘I’m so frustrated!’ These were the words of a friend of mine the other day, and international students on an F-l visa studying at this university. Although he is a junior in electrical engineering and doing1 1well in his engineering courses, he has again failed the English

Department’s proficiency examination in composition. And he is not theonly one. I know several international students who can pass differentialcalculus with no-problem, but cannot seem to get out of freshmanEnglish, you must be able to write a 500-word essay in fifty minutes withno more than two ‘major’ errors and five ‘minor’ errors. While mostnative speakers of English manage to do this after two or three Qsemesters of freshman English, non-native speakers have a much more difficult time. The reason for this is obvious. Non-native speakers needs to spend some of their fifty minutes looking up new vocabulary words.carefully going over grammar constructions, and looking everywhere for a missing third-person s. While international students may have some more original ideas than native speakers, they may fail for superficial grammatical reasons. This seems very unfair to me. It seems clear that international students should be considered special cases, and therefore the composition proficiency requirements as now stated should not apply.The case of international students at an American university indeed special. First,most international students are using English astheir second language. When it comes to writing a composition, international students using a second language require more time than native speakers. International students must spend part of their precious fifty minutes looking up words, checking over grammar constructions, and rephrasing tricky idioms. Furthermore, the composition proficiencyexam is biased against International students. As you know, it counts grammar errors, which often have nothing to do with meaning. A good example of this is the complement after verbs. Often international students have very good ideas and concentrate on expressing them. Then they fail the test because they use an ‘ing’ participle instead of an infinitive. For most American speakers of English, the complements after verbs are automatic; they do not have to think about them at all. Even if native speakers do not have very good ideas, they can still passthe test because they do not make any grammar errors. Therefore, itseems to me that international students should not be judged so severely on grammar errors; but should be judged more on the quality of their ideas.My opponents might argue that international students need the level of English proficiency indicated by the exam to get through their other courses. They fear that international students will fail their math, science, history, psychology courses if they cannot write compositions. This is just not true. 75% of international studentsare majoring in math and science. In these classes, professors do problems on the board or demonstrations in the laboratory. Virtually no English composition skills are necessary. I can give

several more examples, like my friend above, who are proving every day that they can do very well (A’s and B’s) in their math and science courses without having passed the composition test. It seems clear that international students do not need to write English as well as my opponents think they do. But what about history and psychology courses, courses that normally require a certain amount of writing skills? Here, too, I can easily show that the proficiency level demanded on the test is not necessary. On the sophomore level, most introductory courses in history courses in history and psychology are mass lecture courses in which multiple choice tests, not essay tests, are given. As Ions asinternational students can read the textbooks and tape record the lectures, they can most likely pass these courses with no more writing than a circle around the correct letter. The level of proficiency that the composition test requires is simply not necessary for most international students to pass courses in an American university.Perhaps one may argue that the proficiency requirements are not necessary for American studentseither. here I mustpoint out several things. First part of the point of writing composition isto express oneself well in language. Since English is the first language for most Americans, they will surely need to have this skill in their native language. And because most native speakers rarely study composition thoroughly in high school, they really need a thorough study of it at the college level. (Of course, if they have studied it in high school, they can generally pass the test with no problem.) On thehand, many international students have studied composition in their ownlanguage quite thoroughly in high school. If they passed high school, they can already express themselves well in their first language. So,further practice in composition is not necessary. in terms offuture use, American students might need to write well in English for their careers. But most international students will not need English fortheir careers when they go back home; they will use their own language.Since ihey have studied composition in high school, they are most likely adequately prepared in composition skills.It seems clear, then, that the case of international students at American universities is special. They are using a second language, and this fact should be taken into consideration when the English Department reads the final proficiency tests. Further, since the level of proficiency required on the test is not necessary for most students to pass their courses, I would propose that the standard used to judge international student papers be relaxed or done away After all, if students can show that they can pass their other courses, why should the university block their way with superficial but often iíiùưmiountable barriers?PRACTICE 7: Make a detailed outline to show how the ideas of each of the following essays are organized. These are, in fact, sample essays from previous final examinations for candidates of B.A. in English.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Attending Evening ClassesWorking during the day and going to school in the evening is becoming more and more popular in Vietnam these days. People have to work to support themselves and their family; however, in order to work efficiently and earn some more money to meet their own and other family members’ ever-increasing needs, they have to “renovate" their previous knowledge and skills to meet the demanding requirements of the labour market. I do the same, looking forward to receiving m\ B.A.in English. From what I have been experiencing in the in-service training section of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, I am getting aware of a few advantages and disadvantages of attending evening classes.There is no doubp that evening dosses provide me withopportunities to improve my English. This language is a must at my workplace, where I have to communicate with other people via this international language either orally or in written form.The second advantage of attending evening classes is I con workduring the day. It is impossible for me to quit my job to pursue some further study because I am a significant bread-winner/wagc-earner of my rather big family. But I do know that it is dangerous to stay academically unchanged for a decade or so, i.e. I have to refresh my knowledge to cope with all the demands at work or else I will be fired sometime.Attending evening classes also makes me always young and lively.The atmosphere of a school and its own requirements force me to forget something unpleasant usually found at work. I love such an atmosphere all my life.Although I highly appreciate theadvantaqes of attending evening classes, I really suffer from its unavoidable disadvantages. Firstly, Ioften feel tired after a long day of hard work. Consequently, I can hardlystudy enthusiastically in the evening. If the teacher of a given subject is experienced enough to inspire something in me and draw my attention to his or her lessons, I am all right with the subject; but if this is not the case, I have to struggle hard with the subject myself and only when I am lucky enough can I manage to pass it. Usually, I cannot avoid having to take the second examination for that subject.Secondly,attending evening classes means I have to go along thecrowded streets of Ho Chi Minh City during the rush ;especially from 5:00 to 5: 30 p.m. And I am always in a hurry, being frightened of being late for school. If the weather is favourable, it is still acceptable to go to school after work; but during the rainy season, skipping a few, or even a considerable number of, class meetings is unavoidable. As a result, I cannot say sure how well I have acquired the minimal knowledge for a required course. Never can I say I have a sound knowledge of the English language!

Lastbut not least,attending evening classes means I usually comeback home rather late and fail to have dinner together with other members of my family. And this is really bad. I need a B.A. in English but I do love and need my family very much, too. I feel regret at neglecting my duties at home just because I am a full-time worker and a part-time student at the same time.In spite of these disadvantages, I keep on studying what I consider as crucial for my present job and my future career. I cannotwait until everything is all right to start my evening courses. I have to do the best with what I have right now. I enjoy the advantages of attending evening classes, and I am readv to accept its disadvantages, following an English saying: “Take the bad as well as the good.” It is real life!- ’//untilIs Ho Chi Minh City a much better place to live in today than 10 years ago?The Vietnamese proverb ‘đất lành chim đậu’, which means ‘wherever there is good soil, there are flocks of birds coming to settle down’, shows that people tend to move to a place in which they can live and make money in a fairly easy way. Ho Chi Minh City is one of the biggest cities in the south of Vietnam, which provides people with a great number of various jobs; therefore, people from many different parts of the country keep on moving to this city, hoping to find out their ‘paradise’. For those who have been living in this city for a long time, more than 10 years for example, their ‘used-to-be paradise’ is getting worse and worse. Sharing these ‘native’ citizens’ viewpoint, I strongly disagree with the flattering statement that Ho ổhi Minh City is a much better place to live today than 10 years ago.Pollution s the /Zrg/thing that makes Ho Chi Minh City a worse placeto live in. The layout of Ho Chi Minh City was established only for its five hundred thousand residents more than 100 years ago. Its drainage system has been overbooked to drain for a city of over seven million peoplenowadays. Consequently, the so-called ‘the pearl of the Far East’ is getting more and more polluted. Water pollution only part of the pollutionfacing all the dwellers of this biggest city Vietnam. The air pollutionhere is no less serious. Thousands of factories are still located inside this city and keep on releasing poisonous smoke. Various means of transportation, especially millions of motorcycles, do contribute to the ever-increasing air pollution in HCM City.The second thing that makes Ho Chi Minh City a worse place tolive in is its high cost of living. Nowhere else in Vietnam do you have to pay such great sums of money just to lead a rather simple and really humble life. Food, public utility, means of transportation, tuition fees, accommodation and a variety of private services such as tailoring, hairdressing, renovating, etc. here are all much higher than the so-called standard legal income of the majority of the city dwellers. Consequently, they have to struggle hard to make their two ends meet. They don’t usually have time to enjoy themselves. In other words, a great

number of these city-dwellers just earn enough money to be physical beings, not emotional or spiritual beings.Its increasing crime and disorder a[so makes Ho Chi Minh Citya worse place to live in today than ten years ago. A number of the city dwellers, especially young illiterate guys of lower social classes, cannot earn their living legally. They allow themselves to rob or steal an\ thingthey can to satisfy their needs, irrespective of how serious the consequences of their frightening acts are. It is impossible for anyone who dares to live in Ho Chi Minh City to get rid of the lack of safety and order resulting from the above-mentioned kind of crime. In other words, the city dwellers have to face their fate/destiny every minute in their life.To tell the truth, I was born and grew up in Ho Chi Minh City and Iam old enough to witness the tremendous, multi-faceted changes and social reforms here. However, I can hardly say that I love my hometown very much because I am afraid that it does not deserve my love. Up to now, I have been trying my best to work hard and lead a simple but respectable life here. I do not dare to break any official law or well- established social rule. And I often jeer sarcastically at myself, saying how foolish I am in such a crazy, disorderly environment. Probably, you do not approve of my pessimistic perspectives; but that is me!■ '/ô - li ỉn/, rj/ian/iWhat Ỉ have Gained from University EducationNo country can afford to neglect the education of its citizens. Primary, secondary, and tertiary education provides anyone with knowledge and skill, both being of equal values in today’s human life. Attending a university, I have learned to study by to thinkclearly.; to express what I want to say in a precise and condensemanner; and to work well thanks to the knowledge and experience accumulated through my training at university.My first benefit from tertiary education is to learnsomething by myself. As you may know., self-study is a must at university. In addition to attending various classes, I have to prepare for any of them: do a lot of reading, finish all the required exercises and/or assignments, make reports, do research, take part in seminars, etc. These activities gradually build up my habit of self-study. This habit allows me to work independently and creatively in whatever field I choose to get involved in because I am able to gain further knowledge and skill through my own study.Attending a university, I have also learned how to think clearlyand express myself briefly and precisely. Time is a crucial factor influencing all aspects of modern life. More and more people lead their lives in the fast lane. To save my time, I have to think as clearly and critically as I can. To save the precious time of the receiver of my message whom I have an opportunity to

communicate with, either orallv or in the form of any written document, I always try my best to guarantee that what I say is brief, relevant, and clear enoueh to be understood immediately. In other words, I force myself to provide m\ listener or reader with as much information as needed in such a V. a\ that both my energy and his/her time and effort can be saved.Last buf not_least I highly appreciate the knowledge and Ihave acquired through a variety of courses at my university. Such knowledge and skill make me really competent at my work in particular and get me ready for my long and hard struggle against all the other difficulties and challenges in my own life in general. Graduating from a university, I have been well equipped with a good education which a great number of Vietnamese youths have ever dreamed of and aimed at. Such an education is the required invaluable foundation for me to climb up to higher and higher strata in society.People may hold different views on education: it is only a waste of time to some while to others it is one of the inevitable/necessary factors strongly influencing their success or failure in life. I belong to the second group/type, highly valuing what tertiary education brings to me. Therefore, it deserves my great efforts to meet all its requirements, the initial requirements of any well-educated person.

Nowadays the general standard of living in Vietnam is improved considerably; therefore, Vietnamese people especially young ladies, begin to take great care of their looks. That is why fashions play a much/far more significant role in our Living in the center of the south of Vietnam, the ladies from Ho Chi Minh City have a wide range of clothes to select from: aodais, jeans and T-shirts, blouses and skirts, dresses, trouser-suits, etc.Generally speaking, pieces of aodai are highly appreciated on special and/or foniml occasions such as celebrations of nationalholidays, academic conferences, professionally artistic contests, the traditional Vietnamese Tet, wedding receptions, etc.On /ess formal but more common occasions, today’s women maychoose western stylish clothes such as trouser-suits or dresses.In a trouser-suit, a lady may look business-like at work. And she seems really charming to entertain her guests at home, being decorated by a fashionable dress or by a lovely blouse and a well-formed skirt. Her feminine features are really strengthened by the western style of selecting clothes.On informal occasions, young ladies often appear in jeans and acomfortable T-shirt. It is much/far more convenient for them to move around in a (super)market or any kind of shops. Light and neat clothes are also suitable for picnics, barbecues or other friendly social outdoor gatherings. These clothes really make all the members of the sex of ■'beauty” lively and attractive.

There is no doubt that f ashions do contribute to making our today’slife more beautiful and meaningful. All women, especially young ladies,have a wide range of clothes to choose from. They may choose whatever is the most suitable on a particular occasion or for a particular purpose. In addition to their general knowledge, professional training, unique personality, working experience, etc., their clothes play a significant role in leading today’s women to success both at work and at home.Reducing Traffic AccidentsIt is believed that the number of the people who have died in traff ic accidents is much higher than that of the people who nave died of cancer or any other disease. In Ho Chi Minh City, the problem of traffic accidents is really serious. The following measures should be taken to reduce seriousness/to minimize the consequences of this problem.Firstly,the system of the main streets in Ho Chi Minh City mustbe improved or upgraded. It is awful to move along the streets of Ho Chi Minh City because most of them are in bad condition and some are full of holes, either big or small. In addition, during the rainy season many streets are flooded with water after a heavy rain. If we are not careful enough, we easily hit other people or fall off our bike or motorbike.Secondly, law-breaking and drunken should bepunished strictly. These law-breaking and drunken riders/drivers are the “devils” of the street: they operate their motor vehicle at (a) high speed and sway from one side/curb of the street to the other whenever they feel excited. There is no doubt that one of the main reasons of serious traffic accidents is the riders’ or drivers’ carelessness and lack of self-control.Las[ but_not least, calling for every citizen's obeying traffic lawsis crucial. The city dwellers’ awareness of the necessity to obey traffic laws is quite low; consequently, they travel along the streets without paying close attention to traffic lights and other signals. Quite often, motor-cyclists occupy the lane(s) for cars and other four-wheel motor vehicles while taxi drivers speed up, forcing the riders/drivers of other vehicles to give way to them. It takes a lot of time and energy to draw the attention of anyone who does travel along the streets in Ho Chi Minh City to the well-established traffic laws here in particular and to make each of the city dwellers a law-abiding citizen in general. But it is worth it!//7 conclusion,we are all overwhelmed by the increasing number ofthe traffic accidents in Ho Chi Minh City nowadays. It is time to upgrade the whole system of the main streets this city and apply efficient measures both to punish those who break traffic dcall for every citizen's consciousness of obeying these Vwhenever he/she travels along the street in this city. The sooner these suggestions will he taken into account, the traffic

accidents happening in Ho Chi Minh City' (lin/iTh # ^ 'h Ậ ^ ik:k 'h '2' 'k % 'k ^k 'kQualities of a Good TeacherTeachers play an important part in training children, teenagers and even people in their early maturity. Some qualities that are crucial for determining a teacher as good are (1) the teacher's sound knowledge his/her major and its related fields; (2) certain devotion to and greatlove for his/her students and (3) his/her to inspire thestudents' passion for studying either or out of class.There is no doubt that knowledge a must for a good teacher. Inaddition to his/her professional kno, the teacher need enlarge his/her general knowledge on culture, society, humanity, psychology, methodology, politics, history, etc. to provide his/her students with what they need to know, satisfy their curiosity and meet their requirements in any case.Another quality that a good teacher should have is his/herdevotion to and great love for those who him 'sir' or her 'madam' in class. Generally speaking, the students are not mature enough to behave properly. They are sometimes really stubborn.Consequently, the teacher has to learn how to handle the students’ troubles in a gentle and affectionate manner. He/she should pay adequate attention to the students and know how to keep calm in any situation so that he/she can give the students some advice when they are in need or help them distinguish the right from the wrong.Last_ but not least,a good teacher always succeeds in inspiringhis/her students' passion for studying both under his/her guidance in class and out of class by themselves. I highly appreciate this third quality because of its undeniable value. It is not always easy to provide his/her students with all the required knowledge in class; therefore, a good teacher can manage to make the students motivated enough to carry on their active and successful self-study at home. Obviously, teaching his/her students how to study independently, creatively and effectively is what a good teacher must do in any academic setting.//7 conclusion,to be a good teacher, anyone who devoteshimselfTherself to the “coinage” of a succession of young generations must keep on working really hard to enlarge his/her and general as well as professional knowledge, to accumulate experience how todeal with his/her students properly and to be able to inspire the students the true love, the increasing hope and the ever-lasting enthusiasm to reach higher and higher levels of education in their life.

* Many decades ago, women rarely went to work outside their house. Instead, they usually stayed at home and did the housework. Nowadays, women still play the role of a housewife but more and more women, especially the young ones, attend a school, get some trainingand become a member of the national work force. There is no doubt that\it is not easy for any of them to have ‘two jobs’ at the same time-one at work and one at home. In other words, it is almost impossible for them to be an ideal wife, a devoted mother and a competent employee at the same time. Therefore, it is quite often that they have to choose between their career and their family life. The paper/This essay is about the problems facing today's women. These problems not easy to solve at all.The women of the first type I would like to mention here usuallystay single. In other words, they may be successful at work and earn enough money to support themselves and even their relatives; however, they are considered as the ones who lose, not win at all, in the battles for love, for marriage and for the so-called ‘common’ life. They lead an unusual life - the life of ‘a spinster’. Their society accepts them for humanitarian reasons; but, to tell the truth, these ‘never-married’ women have never been accepted emotioifally. And this is my own destiny. Those of the second type face their own problems: they have todepend on their husband financially, and almost certainly they suffer from the lack of up-to-date pieces of information on social life, competition at work, recent changes and reforms in community, etc. All of these prevent them from being a hearty friend, an attractive lover or a reliable comrade. In other words, in spite of their devotion to bringing up their children, taking great care of their husband and doing almost all of the housework, these ideal housewives are still in danger of failing to go along with their husband and of being betrayed emotionally and even sexually. Some of my former friends at high school are nothing but the second-class citizens both in the society and right in their household.The women of the third type are both lucky and unlucky in theirown ways. On the one hand,they are lucky enough to get married and tobe able to give birth to at least one child. In addition, they do not belong to the ‘unemployed’ or the so-called ‘housekeepers’. Together with their husband and child(ren), they can build up a common life that all human beings have ever been aiming at and dreaming of. On otherthey suffer from doing two jobs simultaneously. It is extremely painful for any woman to combine her successful married life to her established professional career. My elder sister is a typical example of the third type of women. She has almost no time even to sleep! And sometimes I wonder whether it is worth it.The eighth of March is famous as a day for all the women in the world in general and in Vietnam in particular. That special day contributes to reminding anybody

of the real problems facing today’s women. Although we, as women, have been trying our best with what we have in life, we do need some more help and great sympathy from you-those who belong to ‘the fraternal world.’\ SECTION 4: SAMPLE ESSAYSfrom Previous Entrance Examinations for Candidates of M.A. in TESOLTopic 1: How can you help your students enlarge their vocabulary?Outline:WAYS TO HELP STUDENTS ENLARGE THEIR VOCABULARYI. INTRODUCTION:- There exists necessity of helping students enlarge their vocabulary in foreign language learning.- Thesis statement. Teachers can offer assistance to studentstheir vocabulary learning and vocabulary expansion centralidea)in the following ways (the topic).II. BODY:Developmental paragraph 11.1. Topic sentence: Teachers can controlling idea) byraising students' awareness of the importance of vocabulary learninq and expansion ( the subtopic1.2. Support:- Not all students are aware of the importance of having a wide vocabulary in English language learning; some may emphasize structures (grammar) over words- One needs words, not only grammar, to get one’s message across; for example, one c an produce a grammatically incorrect sentence but still can make oneself understood.- Students must realize the importance of knowing the vocabulary of the language they are learning so that they can try to learn and enrich their vocabulary.Developmental paragraph 22.1. Topic sentence: Second,teachers can help students enrich theirvocabulary (thecontrolling ideby teaching words in context(the subtopic 2).2.2. Support:

- English words often have more than one meaning; the meaning of words is decided by the context.- Words should not be presented to students in isolation; they should be presented in meaningful contexts.- Students then can rely on the context as a clue to the intended meaning of the word in question.- Students can also remember the meaning of the word more easily if they learn it in a clear context.Developmental paragraph 33.1. Topic sentence: Moreover,teachers can promote students’vocabulary learning and expansion ( by teachingwords in relation to other words {the subtopic3.2. Support:- Teachers have to present words in a network established by such language phenomena as sense relations, word formation and collocation, e.g. specific words such as red, blu should be related to the generic term colour,words like happy should be compared withhappily, happiness, unhappy, unhappi and words likebook should be extended to notebook, textbook and combinations like headache, earache, should be identifiedas opposed to illegitimate ones like eye ache or throat ache.- Teachers can present vocabulary in categories of words depending ontopics, for example, happy can be taught alongside with other words referring to human emotional states like glad, anddepressed.- All this will increase the number of words students learn and acquire. Developmental paragraph 44.1. Topic sentence: One more thing that teachers can do to helpstudents to widen their vocabulary ( th controlling is to train themin dictionary using skills {the subtopic4.2. Support:- Dictionaries can serve as the best source of reference to students outside the classroom; therefore, they should be trained in dictionary using skills.- Teachers can first recommend a good English-English dictionary.- Teachers can then design some activities to show students how to use the dictionary they have recommended; in this way students can get used to the

symbols, abbreviations used in the dictionary and learn how to choose the most appropriate meaning of a word from a range of meanings listed in the dictionary.III. CONCLUSION:- //7 conclusion,these are just a few ways (the restated topic)in which teachers can help their students enlarge vocabulary0 restated central idea).- With the help and guidance from the teacher, students can first discover the value of vocabulary learning and expansion in language learning and then develop strategies to increase their vocabulary (final comments).Essay:Ways to Help Students Enlarge Their VocabularyIt is a self-evident truth that a good command of a language requires a knowledge of both its grammar and vocabulary as structural patterns serve as building blocks that hold lexical items together. Therefore, in addition to teaching grammatical rules, English teachers must help their students enlarge their vocabulary. This win not come as a daunting task to language teachers if they know that they can offer assistance to their students in their vocabulary learning and vocabulary expansion in thefollowing ways.Teachers can first help by raising students' awareness of theimportance of vocabulary learning and expansion. As can be seen, not all students are fully conscious of the necessity of having a widevocabulary of English. Some students may emphasize the acquisition of linguistic structures over that of vocabulary because the former, in their opinion, can help them operate effectively in English. However, it is not difficult to find cases in which it is words, not grammatical structures that help one get his message across. For example, a speaker can still make himself understood even though he produces a grammatically incorrect sentence like ‘Yesterday I meet mine old friend’. Therefore, language teachers should give priority to making students aware of the important role that vocabulary plays in language learning. Only when students realise the significance of knowing the lexis of a language will they make effort to learn words and increase their vocabulary.Second,teachers can help students their vocabulary byteaching words in context. The reasons for this technique are not difficult to understand. For one thing, English words often have more than one meaning and it is the context, the environment in which a word occurs with other words that will decide which meaning of the word is intended. Lexical items should thus not be presented to students i n isolation; they should be presented in clear and meaningful contexts so that students can work out which sense of the word concerned is used. For another thing, students will get into the habit of guessing the meaning of new or unknown words from context, a badly needed skill for their vocabulary expansion. It is because when they first encounter new

vocabulary items students will reiy on the context as a clue to their i ntended meaning. In this way the meaning or use of the word will be retained longer in their mind.Moreover, teachers can promote students’ vocabularyexpansion by teaching words in relation to other words. It is highly recommended that specific words such as yellow should berelated to the generic term colour, that words like happy should be compared with happily, happiness, un and ,that words like book should be extended to textbook andhandbook and that acceptable combinations like stomach-ache should be identified as opposed to illegitimate ones like ache or throat ache. In other words, teachers do not simply teach certain words as discrete lexical items; teachers have to present words in a network established by such language phenomena as sense relations, word formation and collocation. An additional teaching tip is that teachers can present vocabulary in categories of words depending on topics. Teachers can ask students to keep a notebook to record words in different sections for different themes or topics so that they can develop their vocabulary systematically. In this sense, students not only learn, for example, a single word happy but several connected forms likeunhappily and unhappiness and other words referring to human emotional states like glad, pleased, sad,and depreThis will certainly lead to amassive increase in the number of words students learn and acquire.One more thing that teachers ca do to help to widentheir vocabulary is +0 train them in dictionary using s.hlls. Naturally,teachers can not provide students with all the word's they need. Sodictionaries will serve as their best source of reference outside class time. And that is the reason why students should be given practice in using dictionaries. Teachers can start by recommending a good bilingual dictionary such as an Oxford or Cambridge or Longman learners’ dictionary. Certainly, a monolingual dictionary has a role to play but an English - English dictionary would expose learners more to the language. As learners’ dictionaries often define more complex words by means of simpler words, students can get at the meaning without switching back to their mother tongue. What is more, as easy and familiar words are used to explain new words, the former are recycled, thus facilitating students’ comprehension and acquisition of the latter. Then teachers can spend some of their class time showing students how to use the dictionary they have recommended. For example, they can set exercises in which students have to look up some new words from their reading or listening texts. This will force them to get to know the symbols and abbreviations used in the dictionary and to choose the most appropriate meaning of the words from a range of meanings listed in the dictionary.//7 conclusion,these are just a few ways in which teachers can help

their students enlarge their vocabulary. It is hoped that with the help and guidance from the teacher, students can first discover the value of vocabulary learning and expansion in language learning and then develop strategies to increase their vocabulary.tf/tff' ‘//lị Outline:THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF GAMES ON LANGUAGE LEARNINGI. INTRODUCTION:- Some misconceptions about the use of games in language teaching: a waste of time, a time-filler.- A thorough understanding of the merits of games will help.- Thesis statement In fee/the use of games (the topic) proves to be Cl good idea because of its following toteaching and learning of foreign languages (II. BODY:Developmental paragraph 11.1. Topic sentence:First gomes (the topic) can inc of studentand pa(1.2. Support:- Games are often played in pairs or teams, so they create good conditions for pair work and group work to take place.- As pair work and group work provide students with more opportunity to use the language, games intended for groups of two or more than two students can increase student talking time.- Any increase in student talking time is significant because it contributes to students’ language competence.Developmental paragraph 22.1. Topic sentence:Second,games (the topic) can and increase(i the controlling idea),a vital factor to students* success in languagelearning.2.2. Support:- Games are capable of involving students if they are entertainina. intriguing and challenging.

- Moreover,nearly all learners enjoy playing games or want to have fun while studying regardless of their age or level. - To play games students have to learn to rely on themselves and cooperate with their friends; it is through self-reliance, cooperation and joint learning that students feel interested in the lesson.- Interest is a main part of motivation, so it can be concluded that games can provide motivation to students.Developmental paragraph 33.1. Topic sentence:Most importantly,games (the topic) practice any ofthe four skills at any level of ability or in any stage of the teaching process(the controlling idea).3.2. Support:- A great number of games have been designed for students at different levels, from elementary to advanced.- These games are intended for the practice of the four skills, namely reading, speaking, listening and writing.- Games can be used at any stage in language teaching and learning as warm-up activities or activities aimed at accurate reproduction and controlled or free practice.- What is more important, games create meaningful contexts for language practice: students have to read, listen, speak and write for a clear purpose.III. CONCLUSION://7 conclusion,the analysis above shows that language games (therestated topic) make significant contributions to students’ learning a foreign language (the restated central idea).Essay:The Beneficial Effects of Games on Language LearningGames have long been used in foreign language teaching but some teachers and students may still view them with suspicion. They may think that games are just a waste of time or just a means of filling in, for example, the last fifteen or ten minutes of a class period. However, athorough understanding of the relative merits and uses of language games will dispel such misconceptions. In fact, the use of games proves to be agood idea because of its following major to the teachingand learning of foreign languages.First,games can increase the amount of student practice and

participation. As games are often played in pairs or teams they create favourable conditions for pair work or group work to take place. Since these two forms of student grouping provide students with more opportunity to use the language (with students initiating their turns-at-talk instead of waiting for them to be nominated by the teacher) it is right to say that games intended for groups of two or more than two students can increase student talking time. As far as second or foreign language acquisition is concerned, any increase in student talking time, big or small, is significant because it will help develop students’ language competence.Second,games can generate and increase motivation, a vital factor tostudents’ success in language learning. A common reason for the use of games in language teaching is that they are an effective way to interest students. Indeed, games are capable of involving students if they are entertaining, intriguing and challenging. And nearly all learners enjoy playing games or want to have fun while studying regardless of their age or level. T 0 p lay g ames s tudents have 10 r ely 0 n t hemselves a nd c ooperate among themselves. It is the principle of self-reliance, cooperation and jointlearning that awakes and maintains students’ interest in the lesson. As interest is a main ingredient of motivation it can be concluded that games contribute much to providing motivation to-students. And of course, once students are highly motivated, they will likely study better.Most importantly, games give m any of the fourskills at any level of ability or ill any stage of the process. It is truethat a library search will yield a great number of games that have been designed for students at different levels from elementary to advanced. Moreover, these games are intended for the practice of the four skills, namely reading, speaking, listening and writing. In addition, games can be used at any stage in language teaching and learning as warm-up activities or activities aimed at accurate reproduction and controlled or free practice. Some well-known or commonly used books of games are Games series compiled by Jill Hadfield for three different levels: elementary, intermediate and advanced; Games andGames, both by Charles and Jill Hadfield directed at intermediate to advanced learners of English; Play Ga with English Heinemann series including games, puzzles and quizzes for beginners and pre-intermediate learners. What is more important, games create meaningful contexts for language practice. Initially, students have to make sure that they understand the rules of the game. This requires reading or listening comprehension of the instructions as set out in the book or explained by the teacher. Subsequently, students have to discuss with their friends to solve the problem presented' by the game. They have to use the languagethey are learning to express their opinions and to exchange ideas to reach their goal. Most of the time, their communication is based on an information gap or opinion gap, thus replicating real life communication. Games are therefore said to provide meaningful practice as students have to read, listen, speak and write for a clear purpose.

//7 conclusion, the analysis above shows that language gamessignificant contributions to students’ Thevalue of language games lies not onlv in the great number of games that have been invented or in the variety of levels they serve but in the useful and purposeful language practice they provide. That is why teachers should make optimal use of games in their language teaching to increase students' work and motivation and to offer them meaningful practice. Provided that teachers can select or design and organize good games in terms of language and type of participation, they will achieve these worthy aims. Topic 3: Is it true that one who is good at English grammar can writewell in English?Outline:ACQUISITION OF GOOD WRITING SKILLS REQUIRES MORE THANMASTERY OF ENGLISH GRAMMARI. INTRODUCTION:- The teaching and learning of writing has provoked much discussion about the question of how to write well in English.- Some people may think that a good knowledge of English grammar isenough.- Thesis statement As wịỊỊ_be ana belowthe acquisition of good writing skills (the topic) requires just a good commandof the grammatical system of English but a wide lexical knowledge,a thorough understanding of the topic given and a repertoire of organizational skills (thecentral idea).II. BODY:Developmental paragraph 11.1. Topic sentence: Aparf frvrna good knowledge of Englishgrammar, one needs to demonstrate a broad lexical knowledge (controlling idea) in a good piece of writing (the topic).1.2. Support:- Knowing English grammar is not enough; if one just knows grammar, he may produce grammatically correct but semantically inappropriate sentences.- A good writer must be able to manipulate structures and select words- That is to saỵ,accuracy is just as important as vocabulary selection in effective writing.Developmental paragraph 2

2.1. Topic sentence: Next,one needs to rely on one’s general and/or knowledge to develop the topic given depth (the idea) to produce an original piece of writing (the topic).2.2. Support:- Grammar helps to shape the form of a piece of writing and ideas decide the content.- The best way for the writer to achieve his purpose is to ensure that the content of his paper is excellent.- So the writer has to make the most of his knowledge: his general knowledge, his knowledge of current affairs or his specialist knowledge to come up with brilliant ideas that can attract and maintain readers’ attention; these areas of his knowledge are by nature different from his knowledge of grammar.Developmental paragraph 33.1. Topic sentence: //7 addition, one needs to know a number of generallycalled organizational skills( the controlling idea) which are essentialfor the production of a fine piece of writing (the top id).3.2. Support:- The production of a piece of writing requires a number of so-called organizational skills like planning, paragraphing, drafting, editing, proofreading; each has a role to play in the process of writing.III. CONCLUSION:In general,the mastery of the writing skill (the restated topic)demands different areas of knowle asknowledge and specialist knowledge and inaddition to that of grammar (the restated idea).Essay:Acquisition of Good Writing Skills Requires More than Masteryof English GrammarIn the English language teaching writing is called a productive skill because it is concerned with the production of the language. The teaching and learning of this specific skill has provoked much discussion about the question of how to write well in English. Some people may think that a good knowledge of English grammar is sufficient to enable them to achieve a high level of competence in written English. However, this is a s errev. catsimplistic view. As willbe analyzed^ below,the acquisition of goodwriting skills requires not just a good thesystem of English but a wide lexical kn,a thorough understanding

of the topic given and a repertoire of organizationalApart from a good knowledge of English grammar, one needsdemonstrate a broad lexical knowledge in a good piece of writing. There is an element of truth in the fact that grammar rules help to generate sentences. However, if the writer has no real understanding of the lexis of the English language and just applies the grammatical rules mechanically, he will run the risk of producing grammatically c orrect but semantically inappropriate or anomalous sentences. To use the English language with clarity and precision, he needs to know what words mean literally and figuratively, what words can collocate and how words, though synonymous, are different from each other in subtle ways. Therefore, the writer’s ability to manipulate structures and his word choice are both needed for the appropriate use of 1 anguage. For example, while one can write Sony, I can't make it in response to a friend’s invitation he must formulate his refusal to a business partner more formally Inot be able to be there.In other words, structural accuracy is just asimportant as vocabulary selection in effective writing.Next one needs to rely on one’s general and/or specialist knowledge todevelop the topic given in depth to produce an original piece of writing. Ifone's mastery of English grammar can partly help shape the form of a piece of writing, it is the ideas presented that decide the content. A good writer does not write merely to reach the word limit (within the time limit); he must write to achieve his purpose, whether to narrate a story, to describe someone or something, to discuss a topic, to inform or to persuade the reader. The best way for him to do this is to ensure that the content of his paper is excellent. He is therefore expected to exploit whatever kind of knowledge he has acquired, be it his general knowledge, his knowledge of current affairs or his specialist knowledge to come up with brilliant ideas that can attract and maintain readers’ attention. As the writer is not in direct contact with readers and cannot therefore get direct feedback from them, he cannot afford to be vague. He has to elaborate his ideas or explanations to get his message across, leaving no scope for misunderstanding or interpretation of any type. This makes an enormous demand on the writer indeed. So in his treatment of the subject assigned, the writer has to draw on the above mentioned areas of his knowledge, which are by nature different from his knowledge of English grammar, to search for worthwhile ideas and arguments.//7 addition,one needs to know of calledorganizational skills which are essential for the production of Q finepiece of writing. Viewed as a process, writing involves the following major skills. The skill of much use during the first stage is that of planning. Before starting off, the writer has to envisage how he would like: J about his writing assignment. He has to take into consideration .. theresources he has at his disposal (such as time, vocabulary, language structures, his understanding of the topic) to make a detailed plan as to how to turn out the end product: a letter, a story, a description, a report, an essay, a term paper, etc.

Next comes the skill of much importance here, the skill of paragraphing. After a brainstorming session in the planning stage, the writer may have hit on many ideas and now it is time for him to select and organize those that are really relevant to the topic under discussion. The organization of ideas requires a clear understanding of the discourse structure of the target language, which is English in this case. Here the non-native writer is expected to go beyond the realm of grammar to explore the realm of discourse. For example, he needs to acquaint himself with a variety of genres or styles produced by native writers so that he knows what is expected of him when he wr'tes in English. Besides, the skill of structuring discourse is often coupled with the skill of using liking devices. It is because ideas must not only vbe grouped together but also developed in logical and coherent paragraphs. Then the skills of drafting, editing and proofreading come into play. The writer has to work on his draft to revise his ideas and check for spelling and punctuation. Only when all the necessary changes have been made can the writer be sure that his end product is ready for ‘publication'.In general, writing is not an easy skill to get even to native speakersof English. As can be seen above, the mastery of the skill demands different areas of knowledge suck as world knowledge and specialist knowledge and organizational thatgrammar. Thus a wide knowledge of English grammar is a necessary condition, not the only necessary and sufficient condition for the acquisition of the writing skill. A high level of written English can only be achieved when one puts huge efforts in building up his knowledge of the areas mentioned above.(Am (rTopic 4: Should all errors made by foreign language learners be correctedat any cost?Outline:OVERCORRECTION SHOULD BE AVOIDED AT ANY COSTI. INTRODUCTION:- Error correction may be a difficult task to language teachers because it requires decision-making about what, to correct.- One approach to error correction insists that all errors made by learners should be corrected at any cost.- Thesis statement. However,a close examination will reveal that thisapproach to error correction (the topic) will do moreharm than good ( the central idea).II. BODY:Developmental paragraph 11.1. Topic sentence: The first reason is thatteachers will undermine students’ confidence (

if they correct student mistakes the time (the1.2. Support:- Overcorrection will discourage students.- While speaking, students will lose concentration and forget what they want to say if they are interrupted to have their mistakes corrected.- Students will feel a sense of failure or defeat when they see their piece of written work covered with red corrections and comments from the teacher.- So teacher’s over emphasis on accuracy at the expense of fluency or comprehensibility has a demotivating effect on students.Developmental paragraph 22.1. Topic sentence: The second reason is that overcorrection (the Ifails to focus students on genuine errors ( controlling2.2. Support:- Teachers may think that all incorrect forms produced by learners are dangerous and need to be fixed but not all mistakes or errors need to be treated in the same way.- Errors or mistakes made by language learners fall into two categories: unfortunate mistakes and genuine errors.- Unfortunate mistakes result from mere confusion, from lapses of memory, from slips of the tongue or the pen, etc; these can be tolerated because given time and help or guidance from the teacher and friends, learners can remedy these mistakes themselves.- Genuine errors reflect students’ lack of knowledge about the target language; these errors show language areas which are difficult to students and they should be addressed immediately.Developmental paragraph 33.1. Topic sentence: The last and also the most reason is thatteachers who are in favour of constant error correction ( topic) fail to realize that mistakes are a part oflearning( the controlling idea).3.2. Support:- Unrealistic to expect student output to be faultless; even native speakers make mistakes all the time.- Teachers have to accept the fact that mistakes made by learners are inevitable.- Moreover, not all mistakes are regrettable and should be avoided; some are evidence that learning is taking place; so mistakes are a natural part of learning.III. CONCLUSION:

- //7 summary, error correction is an area in which teachers can offerdirect service to students. However do students a gravedisservice( the restated central instead if they insist on overcorrection (the restated topic).- Remedial work done by the teacher should highlight important mistakes to encourage students to use the correct form; teachers should be sensitive enough to leave some errors alone, especially those that are evidence of learning taking place; such an attitude to errors on the part of the teacher will boost students’ confidence and overcome their fear of making mistakes (a summary of major points).Essay:Overcorrection Should Be Avoided at Any CostError correction may prove to be a difficult task to language teachers because it involves decision-making about what to correct, when to correct, how to correct and how much to correct. Several approaches to correcting student errors have been suggested. One of them holds that all errors made by learners should be corrected at any cost. On the surface, this approachseems to be of much benefit to students. a close examination willreveal that this approach to error correction do students more harm than good.The first reason is that teachers students’ ifthey correct student mistakes all the time. It is not difficult to realize the ỏemoũvatìng effect of thisovercorrection. Perhaps theremore disconcerting or intimidating to students than to be interrupted every time they make a mistake in oral practice. Distracted and discouraged in this way, they may forget what they intend to say or feel that they will never be able to say anything right. The damage that over written correction does to students is no less serious. Most students will feel a sense of failure or defeat when they see their piece of written work covered with red corrections and comments from the teacher. Only very few well-motivated students will not lose heart in this case. Thus the teacher’s over emphasis on accuracy at the expense of fluency or comprehensibility has a detrimental effect on students indeed. It goes against the principle of language teaching that part of the teacher’s job is to support and encourage students, not to discourage or demotivate them.The second reason is that overcorrection to focus ongenuine errors.Apparently, teachers who tend to overcorrect think that all incorrect forms produced by learners are dangerous and need to be fixed. However, their indiscriminate treatment of student errors may backfire because students may not understand what is worth correcting. There are many kinds of errors or mistakes and if all the errors or mistakes are picked up and dealt with, students will assume that they are of equal importance. In reality, some of the inaccuracies produced by learners are just unfortunate mistakes resulting from

mere confusion, from lapses of memory, from slips of the tongue or the pen, etc. Given time and help or guidance from the teacher and friends, learners can remedy these mistakes themselves. In contrast, genuine errors reflect students’ lack of knowledge about the target language. For example, they do not know what the correct form or word should be or they believe that what they are saying or writing is correct. In other words, these errors are clear indications of problem areas to students and as such they should be addressed immediately if teachers do not want ihem to persist and hinder learning in the long run.The last_and a/so the most important reason is that teachers who are in favour of constant error correction to realize that are anatural and important part of learning. If teachers insist o n putting right anything incorrect in students’ oral and written communication, they will over time reinforce the false belief that mistakes of any type are something to be feared and should be avoided at any cost. However, in so doing, they ignore a very basic fact that even native speakers, those who are supposed to have a good, if not perfect, command of the language, make mistakes all the time. The main reason is that communication, oral or written, is a complex activity. To process the language people have to simultaneously make use of several language systems such as syntax, lexis, phonology. They also need to draw on their communicative competence to use the language appropriately. It is understandable why any instance of using the target language is quite challenging to learners. It is therefore quite unrealistic to ask learners’ speech or written work to be faultless. So teachers have to be open to the fact that mistakes made by learners are natural and inevitable. What is more important, not all mistakes are regrettable and should be condemned; they have a role to play too. As an expert in language teaching puts it, mistakes are sometimes “healthy proof that learning is taking place”. It may sound strange but it is true. A telling example can be found when students are adventurous enough to experiment with the structure or the word or the sound they have just learned instead of sticking to the safe old one. In this case the students' brave attempt should be encouraged rather than thwarted.//7 summary, error correction is an area in which teachers can offer direct service to students. However,they will d0 their students a gravedisservice if they i nsist on 0 vercorrection. The i mplication for foreign language teaching is that remedial work done by the teacher should highlight important mistakes to encourage students to use the correct formto improve their performance. Moreoveteachers should be sensitiveenough to tolerate some errors, especially those that are evidence of learning taking place. Such an attitude to errors on the part of the teacher will have positive effects on students the most important of which is to boost their confidence and overcome their fear of making mistakes.T/uf •){<<)Topic 5: “The goal of teachers who use the Communicative Approach is to have students become communicatively competent. While this has been the stated goal of many of the other methods, in the Communicative Approach the notion of

what it takes to be communicatively competent is much expanded.” State the reasons why you are for or against the above idea.Outline:THE NOTION OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE AS EXPANDED INTHE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHI. INTRODUCTION:- The Communicative Approach appeared in the late 1960s and has gainedmuch popularity since then.- Most of its value lies in its expansion of the notion of communicative competence.- Thesis statement The Communicative Approach expands the notionof communicative competence (the topic) a way that noother method is able to( the central idea).II. BODY:Developmental paragraph 11.1. Topic sentence: First,the Communicative Approach highlights thefact that understanding language functions ( subtopic 1) is an important aspect ( the controlling idea) of communicativecompetence (the topic).1.2. Support:- The Communicative Approach is not the first to put forward the idea of teaching a second/foreign language for communication but the first to advocate the learning of language functions to gain communicative competence.- For example, Direct Method tries to establish a direct link between the targetlanguage and meaning; the Audio-Lingual Method insists on mastery of structural patterns; only the Communicative Approach emphasizes not only on linguistic forms and meanings but also on functions.- The Communicative Approach claims that students must understand language functions because language is used for performing a variety of functions.- Learners need to know that a function can be realized by different forms or that a form can serve different functions; therefore they must choose the most appropriate form to fulfil the function intended.Developmental paragraph 22.1. Topic sentence: The Communicative Approach emphasizes thatthe ability to use language appropriately ( subtopic 2) isanother essential aspect ( the con idea) of communicative

competence (the topic).2.2. Support:- Grammatical competence and lexical knowledge are not enough to enable students to use language appropriately.- Some variables that decide the appropriateness of language use: purpose of interaction, role relationships between conversational participants, topic and the shared knowledge between them.- To use language appropriately, language users have to consider the social situation they are in: who thev are talking to, what they are talking about, when, where, and why they are talking.Developmental paragraph 33.1. Topic sentence: The Communicative Approach also points out thatthe ability to develop strategies that can ensure effectivecommunication ựhe subtopic 3) is indispensable part controlling idea) of communicative competence (the topic).3.2. Support:- The Communicative Approach places special emphasis on the process of negotiating meaning.- To be successful, communicators have to employ different strategies to make themselves understood as well as to understand their interlocutors.- A wide range of communicative strategies: initiating and maintaining communication, sharing and clarifying information, repairing, redirecting and terminating communication.III. CONCLUSION:- The concept of communicative competence (the restated topic)as defined by the Communicative Approach is very broad (the restated central idea).- It embraces three fundamental dimensions: the to uselinguistic means to realize a variety functions, theto use language appropriately with due consideration of the social context in which communication takes place and the todevelop strategies to manage the negotiation of meaning ( rest a ted sub topics).Essay:The Notion of Communicative Competence as Expanded in theCommunicative ApproachIn the English language teaching methods come and go but few can establish themselves firmly in the field. The Communicative Approach is one of those few

exceptions. It has gained much popularity since its advent in the late 1960s. Most of the value of this approach lies in the fact that itexpands the notion of communicative competence such a way that no other method is able to.First,the Communicative Approach highlights the fact that understandinglanguage functions is an important aspect communicative competence.This can be clearly seen in the following comparison. The Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method and the Communicative Approach are similar in that they all aim at teaching language for communication. However, each of them has its own way to achieve its goal. While the Direct Method tries to establish a direct link between the target language and meaning by immersing students in a rich sample of the structural and lexical items being taught and the Audio-Lingual Method insists on mastery of structural patterns through imitation and repetition, the Communicative Approach stands out with its emphasis not only on linguistic forms and meaning but also on functions. It claims that as language is used for performing a variety of functions such as apologizing,requesting, an understanding of language functions is really necessary. Learners need to enow that a function can be realized by different forms or that a form can serve different functions. What is important, learners must draw on this knowledge to choose the most appropriate form to fulfil the function ntended. So, though the Communicative Approach is not the first to put forward the idea of teaching a second/foreign language for communication, t is definitely the first to advocate the learning of language functions to Jain communicative competence.The Communicative Approach emphasizes that the ability to use language appropriately is another essential aspect of communicativecompetence. The principle applied here is that grammatical competence and lexical knowledge are not enough to enable students to operate efficiently in the target language. They must be able to use the language appropriate to the speech event they find themselves in. Some variables that decide the appropriateness of their language use are the purpose of their interaction, the role relationships between them, the topic they are engaged in and the shared knowledge they have. In other words, by considering who they are talking to, what they are talking about, when, where, and why they are talking, speakers know what words to use. And of course, the ability to use language appropriately helps to distinguish skilled communicators from unskilled ones.The Communicative Approach points out that the ability todevelop strategies that can ensure effective communication is indispensable part of communicative competence. As theCommunicative Approach views language as a vehicle for communication the process of negotiating meaning receives much attention. Engaged in oral communication, speakers not only have to make themselves understood but also have to interpret the listener's intention correctly. To do this they need to employ a number of strategies to make sure that communication can take place smoothly. These strategies cover a wide range, from initiating and maintaining

communication, sharing and clarifying information to repairing, redirecting and terminatingcommunication. Obviously, successful communicators must be able to devise strategies that suit them as well as the social context they are involved in.It can be concluded that the concept of communicative competence as defined by the Communicative Approach is broad indeed. It embraces three fundamental dimensions: the ability to use linguistic means to realize a variety of language functions, the ability to use language appropriately with due consideration of the social context in which communication takes place and the ability to develop strategies to manage the negotiation of meaning. This specification of communicative competence is the hallmark of the Communicative Approach because it cannot be found in the theoretical framework of any other method of or approach to language teaching.(fut -'Jhi yf ■)(<<)I)(/Topic 6: The advantages and disadvantages in teaching English to adultlearners in the current situation in VietnamOutline:THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IN TEACHING ENGLISHTO ADULT LEARNERS IN THE CURRENT SITUATION IN VIETNAMI. INTRODUCTION:- The demand for English language learning in Vietnam is great.- Adult learners of English form a special group.- Thesis statement. Due to some of their characteristics the teaching of English to adult I earners (the topic) lias some advantages and disadvantages as follows (thecentralII. BODY:'Developmental paragraph 11.1. Topic sentence: The first advantage(the controlling idea) is thatadult learners have some degree of extrinsic motivation(the subtopic1.2. Support:- Adult learners study English because they want to or they need to.- They all have some sort of extrinsic motivation.- They are easier to teach when they bring some motivation to the classroom.Developmental paragraph 2 1

2.1. Topic sentence: The second advantage controlling idea) is that adult students can transfer those study and learning strategies they have acquired. their first language to their study of English (the subtopic2.2. Support:- Adult learners have gained some basic skills and higher-order skills in their mother tongue like reading, summarizing, describing, analyzing, synthesizing, hypothesizing, speculating, etc.- They also have some strategies for learning.- Now they can transfer these skills and strategies to their study of English. Developmental paragraph 33.1. Topic sentence: One more advantage controlling idea) is thatadult learners can make use of whatever kind of knowledge they have accumulated in their own language (the subtopic '3.2. Support:- Adult learners have extensive experience of using a language, which is their mother tongue so they can remember the new language system better by making use of what they know about their own language.- Adult students also have life experience, world knowledge and specialist knowledge; this knowledge can help them a lot when they have to read about or discuss complex or controversial topics in English.Developmental paragraph 44.1. Topic sentence: The first disadvantage controlling idea) is thatEnglish learning makes a strong demand on adult learners terms of time {the subtopic 4).4.2. Support:- Difficult for adult students to make time for study: they have commitments in life; they have to study after work.- Therefore they cannot spend as much time as they should to study. Developmental paragraph 55.1. Topic sentence: Anotherfactor that can interfere with or even impede adult students’ learning English {the controlling idea) is their fear of failure and frustration with lack of progress {the subtopic5.2. Support:- Some adult learners are successful people at their work place; they are afraid of failure in studying English.- They may not give themselves enough time to achieve their goals or they may set themselves unrealistic goals.- Adult intermediate and advanced students, those who already know a lot, may feel that they do not make any progress.Developmental paragraph 6

6.1. Topic sentence: [n_ addition,the lack of well-qualified teachersand the poor physical conditions of the classrooms at some English language centres {the subtopic 6) can be damaging to student the controlling idea).6.2. Support:- At some schools and centres teachers are untrained or inexperienced, delivering boring or uninteresting lessons, the physical conditions and resources for learning are just basic or poor.- As a result.; student expectations are not satisfied.III. CONCLUSION:- //7 genera! this analysis of the current teaching context for aduk learners of English in Vietnam in general and of the characteristics: f the group of learners in particular shows the advantagesdisadvantages( the restated central that adult students havein their English study (the restated topic).- Both teachers and students need to find ways to maximize the advantages and minimize the disadvantages (final comments)Essay:The Advantages and Disadvantages in Teaching English to Adult Learnersin the Current Situation in VietnamA brief look at the current English language teaching and learning context in Vietnam will show that the demand for English learning is very great. This is clearly seen in the multitude of institutions and centres that offer English courses as well as in the great number of learners who go to English classes. Among these learners adult learners form a big specialgroup. Due to some of their characteristics the teaching of English tothis group of adult I earners has some advantages and disadvantagesas follows.The first advantage is that adult I have some degree ofextrinsic motivation. They may study English for a variety of reasons but they all do so because they want to or need to. For some students, the motivation may be in the form of integrative motivation because they wish to integrate themselves into the culture of an English-speaking country like Britain, America, Canada or Australia. For others, the motivation is instrumental in the sense that the mastery of the English language is seen as an instrument that can bring them a better job or position. When theseadult students go to class with some motivation they are easier to teach than those who bring no motivation to the classroom.The second advantage is that adult students can transfer those

study skills and learning strategies they have acquired in their first language to their study of English. Unlike children and adolescents, adults are autonomous in someway. They have finished their studies or have undertaken at least some in their own language, so they must have gained some basic skills like reading, summarizing, identifying and applying formulae and information and such critical thinking skills as analyzing, synthesizing, hypothesizing, speculating, etc. Moreover, they may also have some well-established strategies for learning. Therefore, the English language teacher can make his job easier by creating conditions for adult s tudents t o reactivate t hese s tudy s kills a nd 1 earning s trategies a nd apply them to their study of a new language.One more advantage is that adult learners can make use ofwhatever kind of knowledge they have accumulated in their own language. Again this advantage cannot be seen in other groups of learners like children 'and adolescents. First, adult learners have extensive experience 0 f u sing a 1 anguage, w hich i s t hei: m other t ongue. N ow t hat they start learning English, they can remember the new language system better by making use of what they know about their own language. It is not uncommon to see learners comparing and contrasting their first lansucce with the foreign language they are learning to find out areas in which thetwo languages are different or similar so that they can learn the new language more quickly. Second, adult students’ life experience, world knowledge and specialist knowledge can contribute much to their learning a foreign language. It can help them a lot when they have to read about or discuss complex or controversial topics in English. So the English teacher can engage adult learners more easily if he knows how to tap the knowledge they have gained over time.On the contrary, there are some disadvantages to the teaching of English to adult students as well. Th is that Englishlearning makes a strong demand on adult I in terms of time.As a matter of fact, it is really difficult for adult students to make time to learn English. As most institutions and centres teach English in the evening adult students have to study after work. Three one-hour-and-a-half sessions or three three-hour sessions a week seem not to add up to a lot of time but not all adult students can manage to set aside that much time for study purposes. The simple reason is that they a 11 have their own lives to live outside the classroom or they all have other commitments in life than learning English. As a result, some students fail to invest as much time and effort in learning as they should. Of course, teachers will have difficulty in monitoring the performance and progress of those students who cannot attend class regularly.Another factor that can interfere with or students’learning English is their fear of failure and frustration with lack ofprogress. As can be seen, some adult students are very successful professionals or have a high status at their work place. And now, at school they are just normal students coping with tasks, assignments, examinations, etc. As they have been successful in their career, they do not want to fail to achieve t heir d esired g oal o f m astering E nglish. They may t herefore p ut themselves under unnecessary

stress if they do not give themselves enough time to achieve their goals or if they set themselves unrealistic goals. Other students may be hard on themselves in a different way. For example, adult intermediate and advanced students, those who already know a lot, may find progress difficult to perceive. In this case, the teacher has more work to do: they must help these students get the level of challenge right or view success in a broader sense.//7 addition,the lack of well-qualified teachers and the poorphysical conditions of the classrooms at some English language schools and centres can be damaging to student Currently, inVietnam a great number of institutions and centres provide English courses and they range from universities and their satellite centres, joint-venture centres, privately-owned centres to privately-run home-based classes. Such proliferation of schools and centres is useful in the sense that it offers students a wide variety of programs to choose from. However, because of a lack 0 f q uality c ontrol, t he r eality o f s ome s chools and centres may fall short of student expectations. Some teachers are untrained or inexperienced, delivering boring or uninteresting lessons; the physical classroom conditions and resources for learning, are just basic. All:h:scannot of course supply students in general and adult students in particular with any intrinsic motivation, a crucial factor for successful language learning.In general.this analysis of the current teaching context for adultlearners of English in Vietnam in general and of the characteristics of this group of learners in particular partly reflects the increasing need for English language learning and mainly shows anddisadvantages that adult students have in their English study. Both teachers and students need to be aware of these findings of the analysis so that they can find ways to maximize the advantages and minimize the disadvantages. Only in this way can teachers deliver quality English language programs for students to benefit from.('/ill 7 BIBLIOGRAPHYAllen, V. F. (1983) Techniques in Teaching Vocabulary. Oxford University Press.Campbell, R.R. (1962) English Composition for Foreign Students. Longmans, Green and Co Ltd.Dawe. c.w. and Dornan E.A. (1987) One to One. Resources forConference-Centered Writing. Little Brown and Company. (Third Edition)Gower, R. and Walters, s. (1983) Teaching Practice Handbook Reference Book for EFL Teachers Training. Heinemann.Granger, c. (1980) Play Games with E Heinemann.Hubbard, p., Jones, H., Thornton, B. and Wheeler, R. (1983) A Training Course for TEFL. Oxford University Press.

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