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121. POPULATION STATUS OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR (PRESBYTIS GEEI) IN ASSAM. R. P. Mukherjee, ’ A. Srivastava,’ S.M. Mohnot,2 I. Bernsteiq3 and C.H. Southwickl

‘Zoological Survey of India, CD 292, Salt Lake, Calcutta 700064; 21ndo-US Primate Project, Dept. of Zoology, JN. V. University, Jodhpur, 342001 India; 3University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602; ‘University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309.

Natural populations of the golden langur occur in a relatively small area of Assam and southern Bhutan. A group has also been introduced to the Sepahijala Reserve of Tripura. Two years of field survey in Assam located 48 groups - 37 of these were found in western Assam west of Guwahati, between the borders of Bhutan and Meghalaya, and 11 groups were located in central and northeastern Assam. All groups were found in isolated forest patches except those in Manas Reserve. The largest group contained 20 individuals, and average group sizes were 8.8 in western Assam and 9.0 in northeastern Assam. Of 325 individual langurs found in western Assam, 16% were adult males, 59% adult females, 12% infants, and 13% juveniles. The golden langur is seriously endangered in India - present data indicate that the total population of golden langurs in India may be less than 1000 individuals. In addition, the small group sizes, scattered and isolated distribution, proportionately few infants and juveniles, and decreasing habitat are all causes for concern.

122. GENOTYPING THE POLYMORPHIC OPSIN LOCUS IN CALLITRICHIDS USING SINGLE-STRANDED CONFORMATIONAL POLY- MORPHISMS (SSCP). Nicholas I. Mung), Institute of Biological Anthropology, University of Oxford, 58 Banbwy Road, Oxford, OX2 SQS, UK.

Many New World monkeys exhibit a remarkable polymorphism in the X-linked opsin (colour visual pigment) gene. As a result of this polymorphism, all males have dichromatic colour vision whereas fe- males may either be trichromats, if heterozygous at this locus, or are dichromats if homozygous. The polymorphism is apparently maintained by balancing selection, but the way that selection is acting in nature is unknown. In order to study the relationship between phenotype and fitness correlates in wild and captive populations of callitrichids, a method to genotype individuals at this locus from hair samples has been developed. Single exons of the polymorphic opsin locus are amplified using conserved PCR primers, which work in all five callitrichid genera, and electrophoretically separated on an SSCP gel. The method is illustrated by analysis of exon 3 from Geoffroy’s marmoset (Callithrix geoffroyi). PCR amplifications of this exon separated on an SSCP gel reveal three major bands which were demonstrated by sequencing to correspond to the three alleles previously described in the common marmoset, Callithrixjacchus. SSCP provides a rapid method to screen large numbers of samples at this locus, and is sensitive enough to detect novel allelic variants.

123. TOOL USE, OBJECT MANIPULATION, AND NEST BUILDING BY CAP- TIVE BONOBOS (PAN PANISCUS-). P. Neary Lucas Digital Ltd., San Rafael, CA, 94912.

Tool using behaviors by wild or captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are well documented, while observations of tool use by wild or captive bonobos (Pan pan&us) remain few in number. Attempts to stimulate tool using behaviors in captive bonobos have had limited success with devices such as artific-ial termite mounds. However, nest building behaviors by captive bonobos, when in close proximity to en- riched or provisioned areas within an enclosure, have apparently stimulated tool using behaviors. Addi- tionally, nesting material has been used as a suspension device while an individual has engaged in pirou- etting within a social context. Tool use by captive bonobos has not been observed to be a behavior learned by an infant from it’s parent. Of nine documented examples of spontaneous use of probing tools, all were adolescents (n=3). Of these three individuals, one showed a left-hand preference and two showed a right-

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hand preference, while one individual at times used both hands simultaneously when manipulating the probe tool. Log ladders have been used to investigate enclosure walls, allowing the user to reach areas approximately two and one-half times their bipedal standing height. Providing potential tool using mate- rial to captive bonobos has resulted in spontaneous invention of various tools.

124. DOES INFANT GROWTH PREDICT INVESTMENT OF MATERNAL BODILY RESERVES? L.L. Newell-Morris, I C. C. Aumann, 2 E. WLipkin, 3 and S. M. Ott-’

‘Department of Anthropology and UW Regional Primate Research Center, Box 353100, Uni- versity of WA, Seattle, WA 98195,‘Department of Statistics,3Department of Medicine, UW,

Infancy is a time of rapid growth when the offspring is dependent on maternal milk, and maternal bodily stores are mobilized accordingly. Few studies in primates, however, have explored the association of infant growth to maternal losses of body weight (Wt) and bone mineral content (BMC). In this study we investigate the association in 62 primiparous pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) that lactated for 6 mos. Variables analyzed were maternal and infant Wt and maternal BMC measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. Assessments were made at 3 days postpartum and 3 and 6 mos. The associations of infant size and rate of growth with loss of maternal tissue were explored using a mixed model. Male infants did not differ from female infants in birth Wt (480+.063g vs 471+.047g), but males grew faster over 6 mos (4&-l .Og/dy vs 4.0~1 .Og/dy, p=.O2). At 3 mos dams had lost approximately 7% Wt and 8% BMC, but by 6 mos had returned to Wt and BMC observed at parturition. The mixed model (adjusted for infant sex) showed that gains in infant Wt were not significantly associated with change. In conclusion, our results suggest that infant rates of weight gain are not associated with maternal loss of body tissue, as reflected in maternal Wt or BMC. Supported by NIH Grants ROl AR408 13-O 1 and RR00 166.

125. VOCAL COMMUNICATION IN TARSIUS SPECTRUM A. Nietsch and M. Nitsch Free University of Berlin, Inst. of Anthropology and Human Biology, Fabeckstr. 1.5, 1419.5 Berlin, Germany.

Previous studies on vocalization in the nocturnal Sulawesi tarsiers focused mainly on the acoustic structure of the duet calls of adult males and females. These duets were suggested to serve functions in territorial defense, group cohesion, and mate attraction. Vocalizations others than duet calls have not yet been analyzed regarding the acoustic structure of calls or the associated behavioral context. Here we present preliminary data on the vocal repertoire of free-ranging Tarsius s. spectrum from north Sulawesi, Indone- sia. Vocalizations (n=260) were obtained from both sexes and different age-classes. Spectrograms were made with conventional software, which permitted the analysis of various physical parameters. Results revealed, that all calls were tonal in acoustic structure. Fundamental frequency ranges from 4 to 16 kHz. The vocal repertoire is characterized by at least 15 discretely structured sound patterns. Some of these sound patterns could be exclusively ascribed to infants. We were able to relate various trills or whistles to specific behavioral contexts. According to accompagnying behaviors, we distinguished various contact, distress, and alarm calls. Sounds that were related to duets are clearly distinguishable from other vocaliza- tions with one exception. One of the duet whistles, expressed by males, is very similar in its morphology to a particular contact call by all individuals.

Further studies should reveal signed to specific behaviors.

if within those identified behavioral contexts specific calls could be as-

126. TIME / ENERGY BUDGETS OF BOTH SEXES DURING REPRODUC- TION OF CAPTIVE COMMON MARMOSETS (CALLITHRIX JACCHUS). C. M. Nievergelt and R. D. Martin

Department of Biology, University of Caltfornia, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0116 and Anthropologisches lnstitut und Museum der Universitat Zurich, Switzerland.

Callitrichids show reduced body size and high reproductive output compared to other anthropoid pri-

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mates. Associated high costs of reproduction may have contributed to the evolution of a cooperative breeding system and observed variations in the mating system. Over a 3-year period, we investigated costs and strategies of reproduction during endocrinologically defined reproductive states in captive common marmosets by monitoring changes in behavior, food intake and energy budget. Behavioral observations over the reproductive cycle of 6 - 9 adult pairs without additional helpers showed changes in time budget reflecting the variable requirements of reproduction: Activity was found to be reduced in pregnant females and in both sexes during care-giving periods; only lactating females showed an increase in feeding behav- ior. Measurement of food intake of 3 - 5 adult pairs revealed no significant changes during pregnancy, but females doubled intake towards the end of lactation. Male care-givers showed no increase in energy in- take. A model to estimate energy budgets during different stages was developed and broadly matched measured food intakes. Detailed analysis of reproductive costs showed that energy intake measurements alone lead to underestimation of effective costs; models that ignore activity allocations can generate incor- rect estimates.

127. RAPID ONSET OF ADULT VOCAL BEHAVIOR IN CAPTIVE, NEWLY PAIRED, PUBERTAL COMMON MARMOSETS. J. L. Norcross, L. Cofrancesco and J. D. Newman

Lab. of Comparative Ethology, NICHD, NIH, Poolesville, MD 20837. “Phee“ calls are produced by captive adult common marmosets (Callithrixjacchus) while in their home

cage (presumed territorial marking function), and while physically separated from group members (‘isola- tion call’ function). Our previous work has shown that calls in these two contexts can be differentiated by acoustic analysis, as well as by adult marmosets tested with playback techniques. Nonreproductive off- spring remaining in their natal group rarely produce home cage calls or respond to playbacks, but do produce isolation calls when separated. The present study examined the changes in phee call production by nonbreeding individuals following removal from the natal group and pairing with an age-matched member of the opposite sex. Six males and six females were studied. All individuals produced calls in the home cage after pairing, and ten (of twelve) called when separated from their mate. We measured 19 acoustic parameters from home cage calls recorded at two time intervals after pairing, and from calls produced after separation from their natal groups and separation from their new mate. We then employed discriminant function analysis (SPSS 6.1) to test whether home cage calls were structurally different from isolation calls. Calls recorded in the home cage (103 calls) and separation contexts (139 calls) were differentiated with an average classification accuracy of 9 1.7% (df=l , x2=204.18, p<O.OOO 1). Thus, adult vocal behavior emerges rapidly after pairing.

128. MATERNAL ACTIVITY AND MOTHER-INFANT SPATIAL RELATION IN WILD MURI@JIS (BRACHYTELES ARACHNOZDES) AT THE ESTACAO BIOLbGICA DE CARATINGA, IN MINAS GERAIS, BRAZIL. Odalia-Rimoli, Adriana e Otta, E

Instituto de Psicologia, Universidade de S&o Paula, Av. Mello Moraes, I721 Bloco A, CEP 05508-900, SGo Paula, S. P., Brazil.

Physical contact between mother and infant is essential for effective maternal care among primates. Various studies have shown that the proportion of time infants spend in contact with their mothers is directly related to maternal activity, and that this relationship is imposed by the mother. We examined the relationship between ontogeny of mother-infant contact and maternal activity in muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides) from birth to 3 years of age. Focal samples of 10 minutes of duration were conducted on 10 mother-infant dyads from August 1989 to March 1990, and 19 dyads from June 1994 to July 1995. Pre- liminary analyses, based on 1029 focal samples involving 9 dyads indicate that mother-infant contact decreases more quickly during foraging episodes than during episodes of locomotion and resting of the mother. Infants approaching one year of age kept in contact with their mothers during 41.7% of the time when their mothers were foraging, 90.0% during locomotion episodes, and 61.3% while their mothers rested. By the end of the second year of life, mother-infant contact decreased to 2.8%, 48.9%, 46,7% of the

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time respectively. The spatial relationship between mother and infant was primarily determined by the infant during its fntst year of life. This situation changed during its second year, when the mother rejected the infant more intensively.

129. HAND-REARING PRIMATES IN ZOOS...THE TIMES THEY ARE A- CHANGING. J. Ogden, K. Killmar, J Hawes

Zoological Society of San Diego, P. 0. Box 551, San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92112. Historically, many zoos had a policy of hand-rearing non-human primates to better ensure their sur-

viva1 to adulthood. Now, the vast majority of zoos hand-rear animals only when medically necessary. Further, handrearing methods have improved dramatically, as researchers and captive managers have learned about the deleterious effects of hand-rearing for particular species, and simultaneously applied new knowl- edge of these species’ natural history. Over the past decade, the Zoological Society of San Diego has been working to resocialize hand-reared primates at the earliest age possible. Particular ingredients have proved valuable in facilitating early socialization for each species, including close monitoring of weight and in- take, conditioning of adult animals, exposure to relevant sensory cues, use of species-appropriate social behaviors with hand-reared neonates whenever possible, gradual socialization procedures, and interde- partmental communication and teamwork. In this poster presentation, we will illustrate these critical ingre- dients in a case study from each of the following primate groups: great apes, monkeys, and prosimians.

130. HAIR TODAY, GONE TOMORROW: DYE-MARKING AND SHAVING HELP TRACK HAIR LOSS AND GROWTH IN RHESUS MONKEYS. P. L. 0 ‘Neill- Wagner

NICHD, Laboratory of Comparative Ethology, Poolesville, MD. 2083 7. Two concerns for captive monkey management involve: (a) coat condition and, (b) accurate identifica-

tion of individual animals. To understand seasonal changes in coat condition and to simplify individual animal identification, dye-marking was employed in a troop of free-ranging rhesus monkeys at the NIH

Safe dye agents were applied to 9 males and 10 females in June (Group 1) , and to 11 Animal Center. males and 13 females in October (Group 2). Subjects, ranging in age from l-23 years, were observed for dyed hair loss and visibility of color. When CSF testing required shaving animals the opportunity was taken to monitor hair growth. In Group 1, females that did not give birth or nurse the previous spring retained their dyed coats for 10 months. Other subjects shed dyed hair and their coat re-growth was complete within 2 months, by late August. For Group 2, females that did not breed , and a I-yr. old male, completed new coat growth 7 months after shaving. Other subjects, by contrast, just began new hair growth 7-8 months following shaving. As with Group 1, shedding and coat re-growth were complete by the end of August. Alpha and Beta males were the last to begin new coat growth. These results suggest that daylight and hormonal activity may be instrumental in determining hair loss and growth patterns.

131. INSECT EGG CONSUMPTION BY ZWVPANZSCUS AT WAMBA, ZAIRE. Evelyn Ono- Vineberg,

Biology Department, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0116, USA. All African great apes consume some form of insect in their diet. In the Equateur region of Zaire where

Pan paniscus (bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee) has been studied the most extensively, they have been observed to regularly feed in shallow stream beds. At Wamba, Zaire, despite researchers’ relatively close observations of feeding, no one has yet established exactly what bonobos eat after scooping through the mud at particular stream sites. This paper presents an observation of insect egg consumption by Pan paniscus at Wamba. The observation is supported by (1) indirect evidence from analyses of fecal samples (N=395) collected from E2 Group throughout the study period (February - May 1994) and (2) the match- ing of larvae found in bonobo feces to larvae hatched from insect eggs collected from the site where the observation was made. The eggs were oval, creamy white, and about 1 .O x 1.25 cm in size. It appears that

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bonobos may swallow the eggs whole and that the larvae of this insect (Diptera, Tipulidae?) hatch from the egg while still inside the gut of the bonobo. No explanation for this phenomenon can be offered yet, but it is clear that Panpaniscus seek and consume this insect at a particular time of the year. Grants from the Leakey Foundation and the Zoological Society of Milwaukee County supported this research.

132. HAND-USE PATTERNS ACROSS A VARIETY OF TASKS IN FREE- RANGING WHITE-FACED CAPUCHIN MONKEYS (CEBUS CAPUCINUS) IN COSTA RICA. Melissa A. Panger

Department ofAnthropology, 232 Kroeber Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 The leading frameworks that attempt to explain and predict primate hand-use patterns were tested

during an 11 -month study of white-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus) in Palo Verde, Costa Rica. Data on 5 tasks differing in regards to manipulative difficulty and required postural regulation were col- lected from 14 individuals. Binomial tests and z-tests were run to determine possible hand-use preferences at the individual and populational levels respectively (alpha=.05). The hand-use patterns observed in the monkeys varied depending on the task being considered and differed from the predictions set forth in the leading frameworks attempting to explain primate hand-use patterns. No biased hand-use patterns were found for the tasks that did not require significant postural regulation or manipulative abilities (reaching and tapping). The symmetrical hand-use patterns for these tasks are probably related to the random distri- bution of food items in the monkeys’ environment. Populational level biases, suggesting biological influ- ences, were found for tasks which do not require fine manipulative abilities but do increase postural de- mands [grabbing (right-hand bias) and carrying (left-hand bias)]. And strong individual, but not popula- tional, hand preferences were correlated with a task which requires fine manipulative abilities (i.e., object- substrate use). The pattern of left- and right-handers for this behavior did not fall along any age/sex category and is probably related to experiential (i.e., positive feedback loop of learning) and not biological factors.

133. THE RECOGNITION OF FACES AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS IN CHIM- PANZEES (PAN TROGLODYTES). L. A. Parr, Iv3 W. D. Hopkins 213 and F. B. M. de Waa11v3

‘Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, 2Berry College, and ‘Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, 954 N. Gatewood Rd, Atlanta, GA 30329.

The ability of nonhuman primates to discriminate among conspecifics and facial expressions is as- sumed in their social life, but rarely studied under controlled conditions. These abilities are important for maintaining social cohesion, and may constitute the basic components necessary for demonstrating empa- thy and emotionality. This study presents data on two aspects of face recognition: individual recognition and facial expression discrimination, using a computerized matching-to-sample paradigm. Subjects were five captive chimpanzees previously trained to manipulate a joystick controlled cursor in order to match one of two laterally displaced images to a sample stimulus presented above. Discriminanda consisted of digitized black and white photographs of unfamiliar chimpanzee’s faces. The first task, feature masking, involved neutral portraits and showed that individual recognition was significantly imparied when the eyes, as opposed to the mouth, were masked. The second task, expression discrimination, involved five different expressions: the scream, bared-teeth, hooting, relaxed-lip and play-face. Data revealed that four of five expressions were discriminate above chance only when the matching-to-sample format required subjects to first orient the cursor to the sample stimulus. Collectively, these studies provide comprehen- sive evidence that chimpanzees rely on specific facial features to recognize individuals and categorize their own facial expressions. These abilities may be essential components involved in empathy, and under- standing emotion.

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134. SEED PREDATION PATTERNS IN THE DIET OF THE SONS0 FOREST BABOON TROOP. J. D. Paterson

Department of Anthropology, The University of Calgay, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2N IN4. During a 15 week field study of the feeding ecology of a forest edge resident baboon troop living at the

Budongo Forest Project, Sonso clearing, Budongo Forest Reserve, new observations of seed predation by baboons on several species of forest trees, in addition to that on species of savanna grasses and shrubs were made. A combined methodology involving focal animal sampling of feeding behaviour and faecal sample examination yields a more comprehensive listing of food materials over the course of the study, combined with an estimation of the proportion of seed damage produced for each species of plant. Descriptions of the distinctive treatments offered to three important forest trees, Raphia, Ricinodendron, and Cleistopholis are presented along with some data on the phytochemical differences that discourage consumption of the flesh of the Ricinodendron fruit while the structurally similar Cleistopholis fruit is subjected to both flesh and seed consumption. Raphia may be unique in that the palm nuts are first targeted for mesocarp con- sumption, and later the seedling or hydrated embryo is consumed. A profile of the faecal seed recovery shows that for several species the baboons are indeed acting as seed dispersers, while for other species, they are seed predators. The faecal examinations also point out that proportions of seed remnants and crude fibre vary substantially from week to week.

135. PITH-ING AND BARK-ING: BABOONS ON THE EDGE OF THE FOR- EST. J. D. Paterson

Department ofAnthropology, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2N IN4. Baboon troops residing in forest environments have been infrequently studied. This paper presents

some of the results of a study of feeding ecology conducted at the Sonso clearing in the Budongo Forest Reserve, Masindi District, Uganda. The Budongo Forest Project maintains an extensive grid for the study of the 5 resident primate species. A 15 week study, September - December 1996, focused upon the feeding ecology of a lo- 12 member group of savanna baboons. Data was collected through focal animal sampling, scan sampling, and ad libitum methods (Altmann, 1974). The baboons concentrated their activity along the edge of the clearing and rarely travelled more than a few hundred metres into either the forest or the clearing. Exotic, introduced species were the most important observed foods, but the piths and barks of several species of forest edge plants were major features of their diet. Bark of Khaya anthotheca, a commerically important mahogany tree was regularly consumed, and two Ficus species, were irregularly ingested. The stem pith of several species of grasses and shrubs, as well as the roots of three tree seedlings were food on numerous occasions. The general conclusion that forest living baboons are substantially different from their savanna dwelling relatives in dietary pattern and intensity of utilization is supported.

136. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ADULT FEMALE AND IMMA- TURE WILD WHITE-FACED CAPUCHINS AT LOMAS BARBUDAL, COSTA RICA. S. Perry

Department of Anthropology, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095- I553. Female-bonded primate social organization is argued to originate ontogenetically via prolonged affiliative

and coalitionary relationships between adult females and immature female kin. This proposal is evaluated using data from a female-bonded platyrrhine, Cebus capucinus. Focal individual follows yielded 1043 hours of data on 5 adult females and 12 immatures aged 3 months to 6 years. Female immatures received more nursing and carrying than male immatures from adult females other than their mother. Among immatures aged 13 years, 6 of 7 maintained stronger grooming and proximity relationships with their mothers than with other adult females, but one 3 year old female failed to maintain such a relationship with

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her mother. Most 4-6 year olds, including both females, did not have an obviously preferred adult female grooming or proximity partner. Maternal coalitional support for offspring was (a) rare (O-4 incidents per mother/infant dyad), (b) usually directed against adult males, and (c) less common than maternal interven- tion against her own offspring. Adult females usually supported higher-ranking immatures against lower- ranking immatures, and they supported female immatures more than males. These results suggest that immature C. capucinus females’ social experiences integrate them into a female-bonded society, but that kin bias in adult female-immature relationships is less consistent than in cercopithecines.

137. GENETIC CHARACTERIZATION OF THE LONGTAILED MACAQUES ON PULAU TABUAN. D. Perwitasari-Farajallah, R. C. Kyes, Y Kawamoto, and R. P. A. Lelana. Department of Biology and Primate Research Center, Bogor Agricultural University, Indone- sia, Department of Psychology and Regional Primate Research Center, University of Washing- ton, Seattle, WA 98195, USA, and Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan.

The longtailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) on Pulau Tabuan, Indonesia appear morphologically distinct (i.e., darker pelage and skin) from main-island populations in West Java and Southern Sumatra. Although darker pelage is characteristic of M f: fusca on P. Simeulue and M f: Zasiae on P. Lasia (deep- water fringing islands), most shallow-water fringing-island populations of 1M. fascicularis (Tabuan prob- ably included) fall within the range of variation of the nearby core-area populations of M f: fascicularis and therefore are not recognized as separate subspecies (Fooden, 1995). At present, no information exists on the genetic characteristics and evolutionary history of the Tabuan population. We have extended our assessment of this population by analyzing polymorphic protein variation in 8 monkeys. Protein polymor- phism was screened electrophoretically for 7 kinds of serum proteins. Blood protein loci included, ceru- loplasmin, leucine aminopeptidase, transferrin, protease inhibitor, albumin, vitamin D-binding protein, and thyroxin-binding peralbumin. All loci showed a monomorphic pattern. Among the proteins exam- ined, transferrin (Tfl is known to be highly polymorphic in the surrounding areas. However, all Tabuan samples fixed to allele Hf. Interestingly, the Tf HI allele is third most common in the South Sumatran populations and rare in West Javan populations. The remaining loci were fixed to the most common allele in Sumatra and Java. These preliminary results suggest low genetic variability and long-term isolation of the Tabuan population. Further characterization will include analysis of DNA variation.

138. TEMPERAMENT AND MOTHERING STYLE IN CAY0 SANTIAGO RHESUS MACAQUES: BEHAVIORAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RELATION- SHIPS. K.L. R. Rasmussen, A. Timme, and S.J. Suomi NICHD Laboratory of Comparative Ethology, NIHAC Bldg. 112, P. 0. Box 529, Poolesville, MD 20837.

A study of temperament and mothering style was conducted on mother-infant pairs from the free- ranging colony of Cayo Santiago, PR, examining relationships between maternal behavior and several physiological indices of stress-responsiveness. Subject dyads were 16 multiparous females and their infants; focal behavioral observations were collected on each dyad from the infant’s birth through the age of three months. EKG and blood samples were collected from the mothers during the annual trapping of the colony. A preliminary factor analysis of the behavioral data revealed several factors that were highly correlated with maternal rank, cortisol levels and heart rate levels. Maternal rank was strongly related to acluster of behaviors suggesting maternal permissiveness: high-ranking mothers were less responsible than low-ranking mothers for maintaining body contact with their infants and initiated contact with the infants less frequently. Low cortisol levels were associated with a relaxed mothering style characterized by a very high frequency of infants initiating and ending contact with their mothers. Maternal heart rate was most strongly related to behaviors suggesting excitability or irritability: mothers with the highest heart rates showed the highest frequency of rejecting and breaking contact with their infants. Since maternal rejection is a crucial influence upon the timing of a mother’s subsequent pregnancy, the ramifications of an “excitable” mothering style are potentially very great.

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139. AN EVALUATION OF THE VALUE OF NATURAL FORAGE FOR CAP- TIVE CHIMPANZEES (PAN TROGLODYTES). Gail E. Renehan

Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA 01536. The aim of this study was to correlate health status with selective foraging by captive chimpanzees.

Information provided to African zoos and rehabilitation centers with limited budgets may increase self- sufficiency through reliance on native forage and improve the health of captive chimpanzees. This study, a continuation of a pilot study conducted by the investigator June-August 1995 at Sweetwaters Chimpan- zee Sanctuary in Kenya, was conducted at Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage, a free-ranging chimpanzee facility in Zambia, June-August 1996. A non-invasive evaluation system was developed to measure each chimpanzee’s general health status in correlation to its foraging behavior. Twenty-one samples of plants consumed by twenty-one chimpanzees were collected. Plants were identified scientifically and ethnomedicinal information on local uses was obtained. Analysis of the plant samples are currently under- way. Antifungal, antinematode, antibacterial, antiviral, and anticancer screens are currently being run on all plant samples. Preliminary antibacterial data shows over 30% of plant samples exhibiting good to excellent bioactivity against yeast and bacteria. Continued analysis of extracts will verify the presence of compounds in the plants selectively consumed, which may explain the observed foraging behavior in correlation to the health status of the individual chimps.

Analysis of plant samples is being performed through a collaborative effort with Dr. Eloy Rodriguez of Cornell University.

140. THE EFFECTS OF SELECTIVE LOGGING ON THE ECOLOGY OF SULAWESI BLACK MACAQUES (MACACA NIGRA) ON BACAN ISLAND, INDONESIA. B. R. Rosenbaum

University of Colorado, EPO Biology, Box 334, Boulder, Colorado 80309. Two subpopulations of crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) in logged and unlogged forests were

studied for 12 months in eastern Indonesia to assess and evaluate the major differences in habitat, popula- tion, and behavioral ecology of macaques living in logged and unlogged forests and to explain the differ- ences in densities in the two study sites. Methods included repeated line transects to estimate macaque population densities, enumeration of vegetation in eight 5Ox50m plots in the two study sites, and assess- ments of diets and behaviors of crested black macaques. Significant differences were found in the habitats, densities, ecology, behavior, and socioecology of crested black macaques in logged and unlogged forests. Differences in the composition and structure of the two forests suggested that logged forest had a greater potential for food production and a greater variety of food than logged forest. As might be expected, macaque densities were higher in unlogged forest (170.3 individuals/km*) than in logged forest (133.4 individuals/km*). Lower population densities were achieved through a reduction in group density while group size remained relatively stable, lending support to Wrangham’s (1980) hypothesis that cooperative defense of fruit trees against conspecifics determines the size and cohesiveness of primate groups. Diet shifts to the exotic successional Piper aduncum in the logged forest may be key to supporting the high density and large groups of macaques found in logged forest.

141. A SURVEY OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY OF THE SULAWESI CRESTED BLACK MACAQUE (MACACA NIGRA) ON BACAN ISLAND, IN- DONESIA. B.R. Rosenbauml and Y. Muskita’

I University of Colorado, EPO Biology, Box 334, Boulder, CO 80309 2University of Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia.

Natural popul ations of Sulawesi crested black macaques are endemic to a small area of northern Sulawesi, but a population presumed to be the result of introduction has been known since the mid- 1800’ s to occur

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on Bacan. Data is presented from four years of the first broad-scale survey of A4&aca nigra on Bacan. We used exploratory transects, repeated systematic census techniques, and interviews of local inhabitants at 22 locations. Macaca nigra was abundant at all locations visited to an elevation of 1200m on Bacan, in low densities on the nearby island of Kasiruta, and absent from the island of Mandioli. The highest densities were found in primary forest, 170.3 individuals/km2, but macaques were abundant in logged forest, forest currently being logged, and mosaics of cultivation, secondary forest, and primary forest. Group sizes ranged from l-66 individuals, with group densities ranging from 2.1 to 6.8 groups/km2. Rough extrapola- tions indicate that the total population on Bacan may be close to 100,000 individuals. All populations of Macaca nigra on Sulawesi are threatened by land clearing and hunting. The population on Bacan may offer a potential reservoir for potential reintroduction or captive breeding.

142. LOCALIZATION OF LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) AND LH-RECEP- TOR (LHR) IN THE OVARY OF THE MARMOSET MONKEY (CALLITHRIX JACCHUS) DURING THE PERIOVULATORY AND LUTEAL PHASE.

J. Rosenbusch,’ J.A. Dias,2 A:F: Parlow, and G. Rune’

‘University of Greifswald, Institute for Anatomy and Cellbiology, Fr. Loeflerstr.23 C, I7487 Gre fswald, Germany; 2 Wadsworth Center, Dep. of Health, Albany, N. Y I220 I-509, USA; “UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90509 USA.

In most mammalian species the process of luteinization is essential mediated by LH. In spite of the fact that the marmoset ovary frequently serves as a model for reproductive studies of endangered primates, information about the distribution of LH and its receptor is missing. We studied the localization of LH and LHR in frozen sections of marmoset ovaries with polyclonal antibodies against human LHR (15-30) and recombinant monkey LH (AFP342994). LH immunoreactivity was found in theta cells (TC) of secondary follicles and in granulosa cells (GC) of large antral follicles. Staining was more intensive during the periovulatory stage. Neither oocytes nor primordial nor primary follicles were LH or LHR immunopositive, providing within tissue controls. Expression of LHR was evident in TC and GC with the beginnings of secondary characteristics. An intense membranous staining was observed in the inner GC layer during the periovulatory stage whereas GC lying adjacent to the basement membrane showed a less intensive immunosignal. The interstitial cells were weakly immunolabeled. Most cells in the corpora lutea were immunopositive for LH and LHR. The data show that LH and LHR are predominantly found during the periovulatory stage in antral follicles. The regional heterogeneity of immunostaining may be correlated to functional differences between the GC compartments within the follicles. Furthermore these results dem- onstrate that the marmoset ovary provides a suitable model for further studies of the process of luteiniza- tion.

This study is supported by NHPP#5300 J.R. and NIH HD18408 J.A.D.

143. PATTERNS OF CONSISTENCY OF SOCIAL DYADS IN THE SAN DI- EGO ZOO’S BONOBOS (PAN PANZSCUS ). S. Ruiz, C. J Frydach, and P. A. Scollay McNair Scholars Program, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182-4635.

In the wild the social integration of an unfamiliar adolescent female transferring groups depends upon her frequent association with a “specific senior female.” However, there are few reports of how captive individuals are integrated into new groups. The San Diego Zoo’s 10 bonobos were observed in each of nine different group compositions to determine whether social pairings are maintained across multiple social behaviors and social groups. Nine social behaviors were recorded using one-zero, focal-animal sampling for a total of 348.5 hours. A Friedman analysis of variance for ranked data, p < .05, indicated that certain dyads were significantly more consistent than others in each of the groups studied. The most consistent dyads in each group included the reintroduced members which suggests that they were forming bonds with specific other group members as a means of integration into the group. Unlike a reported captive female, newly introduced individuals did not form their strongest bonds with the highest ranking female in the group. The orphaned juveniles formed consistent dyadic bonds with the lower ranked adult

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female and the sub-adult female who was introduced interacted more with the males. The pattern of bond- ing with specific individuals as a means of social integration is similar to that in the wild. The difference in the selection of a partner may result from an inadequate supply of “senior females.”

144. IS SELF INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR IN RHESUS MONKEYS RELATED TO SOCIAL AGGRESSION? A. Rulf Fountain,’ S. Tiefenbacher,’ M.A. Novak, 112 and Jerrold Meyer’ ‘The University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01002, 2New England Regional Primate Re- search Center.

Rhesus monkeys housed individually sometimes develop a pathology of self-injurious behavior (SIB) involving biting which can lead to self-inflicted wounding. The causes of SIB are largely unknown. However, some authors suggest that self-biting is linked to aggression inasmuch as threats from other animals can elicit SIB in some subjects, and monkeys with SIB sometimes display threats prior to biting themselves. The purpose of this study was to create a “safe” aggressive encounter with another animal (through mirror exposure) and to determine the relationship between mirror aggression and SIB. The subjects were 2 1 individually housed males (12 with a veterinary record of SIB and 9 controls) and 10 males living in harem groups. Monkeys were observed during a baseline period and during four experi- mental sessions (2 mirror exposed and 2 mirror closed). All males regardless of group threatened more during the exposed mirror condition than during the closed mirror or baseline conditions. However, males with SIB did not differ from controls on any measure of mirror related aggression. Males in harem groups actually showed the highest levels of aggression to their mirror image. Mirror aggression was not related to self biting rates and showed only a weak negative correlation with CSF 5-HIAA. Thus self injurious behavior was not linked to social aggression when mirrors were used to create the aggressive encounter.

145. GROWTH, HEALTH, AND REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS OF NURSERY VERSUS MOTHER REARED IMACACA NEMESTRINA FROM l-10 YEARS OF AGE. G. P. Sackett Regional Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Box 357330, Seattle, WA 98195.

Most primatologists and laypersons believe that mother-peer rearing will be superior to nursery rearing in promoting life span growth, health, and reproduction. To test this belief over 800 nursery and 4000 mothered monkeys were studied from computer colony records. Nursery infants lived in individual cages, receiving socialization and developmental tests throughout infancy. At 9-l 5 months they were rehoused in same-age peer groups of 10-l 5 yearlings. Mother reared infants lived with other adult females and mothers and infants, and often an adult male, until weaned at 4-9 months of age. Thereafter, they lived under the same peer group conditions as nursery monkeys. At 4-4.5 years of age most females lived in harem groups with one adult male and 4-8 females. The results revealed (1) no juvenile body weight differences between groups, with nursery females (pc.01) and males (p<. 15) heavier than their mothered counterparts after 5 years; (2) lower odds of nonwound (pc.025) and bite wound (pc.01) clinical treat- ments for nursery monkeys after 4 years of age; (3) lower odds of fetal loss for nursery females (pc.025) at parities 1, 2, and 4, with no group differences at parities 3 and >4; and (4) no differences in neonatal deaths. Thus, the belief in adaptive superiority of mother-peer over nursery-peer raised juvenile and adult pigtails is not supported by these partial life span data.

146. SOCIAL AND REPRODUCTIVE INFLUENCES ON PLASMA CORTISOL AND ACTH LEVELS IN FEMALE COMMON MARMOSETS: SENSITIVITY TO GLUCOCORTICOID NEGATIVE FEEDBACK. W. Saltzman,’ NJ Schultz-Darken, l and D. H. Abbott1*2 ’ Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center and 2Dept. of Ob./Gyn., University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53715.

As a consequence of social subordination, female common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) usually

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undergo hypoestrogenic anovulation. Previously we have demonstrated that anovulatory subordinate fe- males also exhibit pronounced suppression of plasma cortisol concentrations, as compared to females undergoing ovulatory cycles. In the present study, we began to investigate the endocrine mechanisms underlying this adrenocortical suppression by characterizing (1) plasma concentrations of cortisol and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) under baseline conditions and (2) sensitivity to negative feedback effects of glucocorticoids. Subjects were 5 anovulatory subordinate females, 5 dominant females in the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle, and 6 bilaterally ovariectomized females. Subjects received an injec- tion of dexamethasone (1 mg/kg, i.m.), a synthetic glucocorticoid, at 1700 h on day 0, and blood samples were collected at 0900 h on days 0, 1,2, and 3. Prior to dexamethasone treatment, subordinate females had significantly lower plasma cortisol concentrations than dominants (P<O.O5), and ovariectomized females had intermediate levels (NS). Plasma ACTH levels, in contrast, did not differ significantly between groups. Following dexamethasone treatment, cortisol and ACTH levels on days 1 and 2 were markedly lower than baseline levels (P’s<O.OOl) but did not differ reliably between groups. These results suggest that socially induced suppression of cortisol levels in subordinate female marmosets is not accompanied by a similar suppression of plasma ACTH levels or by pronounced enhancement of negative feedback sensitivity to glucocorticoids.

147. COSTS OF COOPERATION IN COTTON-TOP TAMARINS (SAGUINUS OEDIPUS) IN CAPTIVITY. 5’. Sbnchez, ‘v2 W. Kaumanns,2 F. Pelbez’

‘Dpto Psicologia Biolbgica y de la Salud. Universidad Autdnoma de Madrid (UAM) 28049 Madrid. Spain. 2AG Verhaltensforschung/iikologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum (DPZ) 3 7077 Giittingen, Germany.

Cooperative breeding in tamarins and marmosets have been related to energetic demands of mothers in carrying infants. In cotton-top tamarins there is only one reproductive female that gives birth to very heavy twins which must be carried continuously during the first month. Mothers lack of a post-partum anovula- tory period and became pregnant between weeks 4th~5th, while still lactating. Contribution of males seems to be especially important and be affected by group size. We present data on the development of weight of helpers of five different size groups of the DPZ during 9 weeks after birth. Non-invasive methods were employed. Energetic costs were deemed to be the rate between losses in each individuals’ weight and its weight the day of birth. Fathers and subadult males are affected by losses in their weights which are maximal during the 4th-5th weeks (5% and 4% respectively), afterwards weights increase. In small groups these classes undergo a maximal loss of 7% and 8%, but not in large ones. Results show the role of helpers assuming costs, especially males, and agree with the effect of the number of helpers. They assume maxi- mal costs when reproductive females are fertile, that might permit mothers optimize their reproduction. Costs decrease when infants become independent, which should delimit a period in which breeding im- poses an important energetic constrain.

Financial support come from the grant FP-93 93 1075 1 MEC(DGICyTPB90-206) and the International Agreement between UAM (Madrid) and DPZ (Gottingen).

148. DOES ALTERING CAGE SIZE AND CAGE FURNISHINGS ALTER BE- HAVIOR IN SENEGAL GALAGOS? Melissa S. Schaefer, Leanne T. Nash

Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402, USA. Captive housing features of cage size and cage furnishings were evaluated to determine which features

are important in promoting the psychological well-being of six adult Senegal galagos (G&go senegalensis braccatus). Behavior was compared across four conditions: (1) initial cage size, minimal furnishings, (2) doubled cage size, minimal furnishings, (3) doubled cage size, enriched furnishings, and (4) initial cage size, enriched furnishings. Both focal and scan sampling were used and approximately 101 hours of focal samples and 678 scan samples were collected over an 1 l-week period. A nonparametric equivalent to a repeated measures ANOVA was computed. When the overall ANOVA was significant, post hoc tests

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were done on planned paired comparisons of conditions using a Tukey’s studentized range test. All tests required a < 0.05 for significance. Both active and inactive forms of solitary behaviors were rarer in the larger cage. Enriching cage furnishings (vs. minimal furnishings) resulted in a decrease in time in active and inactive solitary behaviors. Results indicate that the enriched cage was preferable to the unenriched cage for increasing activity and sociality. The most counter-intuitive result of this study was that there were so few significant changes in behavior. Neither increasing cage size nor enriching cage furnishings resulted in any dramatic behavioral changes.

149. LACK OF AGGRESSION IN CALLITRICHIDS: THEORETICAL IMPLI- CATIONS. C. M. Schaffner, ’ T. E. Smith, 2 and R. L. Addington

‘Dept. of Psychology, College of St. Benedict and St. John ‘s University, Collegeville, MN 5632 I, 2Dept. of Psychology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, ‘Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706.

Within callitrichid groups (tamarins and marmosets), relationships between parents and offspring are often referred to in terms of dominance and submission. Adopting this terminology (borrowed from research on Old World Monkeys) suggests a certain level of aggressive and submissive behavior that rarely occurs in groups of callitrichids. We systematically evaluated the frequency, form, and context of aggressive interactions (on an all occurrences basis) in 3 different genera of captive callitrichids. Ten red- bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus) from 4 family groups, 29 black tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrix kuhli) from 6 family groups, and 15 pygmy marmosets (Cebuellapygmaea) from 8 family groups served as subjects for the study. For both red-bellied tamarins and black tufted-ear marmosets aggression oc- curred at a rate of approximately 1 act per hour and over 90% of aggressive interactions were either visual or vocal displays. Pygmy marmosets exhibited slightly higher levels of aggression, approximately 3 acts per hour, consisting of primarily vocal and mild contact aggression. Our data in conjunction with anec- dotal reports on the non-aggressive nature of intra-group interactions of marmosets and tamarins demon- strates that group life among callitrichids is by and large pacific. Factors, such as high reproductive costs, cooperative foraging, and antipredator behavior necessitate high levels of cooperation, individual toler- ance and low levels of aggression.

150. A CHANGE IN HOUSING CONDITION LEADS TO RELATIVELY LONG- TERM CHANGES IN CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSES IN ADULT RHESUS MACAQUES. S.J. Schapiro, P.N. Nehete, J E. Perlman, and K.J. Sastry

Dept. of Vet. Sciences, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park, Bastrop, TX 78602.

Changes in the social environment, such as removal and/or reintroduction of groupmates, affect the immunological responses of captive macaques of all ages. This study compares cell-mediated immune responses of adult Macaca mulatta (N= 17) whose housing condition was changed from social to single or from group to pair housing. Blood samples were collected prior to the change and after monkeys had lived for 2 days, 1 month, 4 months, and 8 months in the new housing situation. Samples were assayed for proliferation response, lymphocyte subset distribution, and production of cytokines. Mixed-factors ANOVAs revealed that proliferation responses to PWM and Campylobacter increased, proliferation re- sponses to PHA, ConA, and SaZmoneZZa decreased, and absolute numbers of CD4+ lymphocytes decreased over the eight months. Production of IL- 10 and IFN-y increased significantly within the first month after the housing change. Type of housing change had no effect. A change in housing condition results in changes in immune responses, even after subjects had spent up to eight months in the new housing and regardless of whether the change was to solitary or pair housing. The observed time-related differences suggest that subjects may not acclimate to “experimental” conditions until sometime after 8 months in the new situation and provide an initial pathway for explorations that might account for the immunological effects of psychosocial factors.