abc notes - fire earthquake typhoon volcanic eruption

8/7/2019 ABC Notes - Fire Earthquake Typhoon Volcanic eruption

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Marijune L. Tiamzon ACUTE BIOLOGIC CRISIS 1

I. DISASTERA. Definition of Disaster

A catastrophe which may be natural in origin or manmade, whether produced accidentallyor by design.

B. Stages of Disaster:1. Threat Stage when situation has a potential of creating crisis but does not show actual

condition of peril2. Warning Stage it is more specific than the stage of threat and almost assures the

reality of disaster3. Impact when the disaster is manifested full-blown4. Recovery when the assessment of the disaster effects is made, the injured are

rescued, and rehabilitation of people and their lives is begun.

C. Types of Disaster:A. Natural

Floods Earthquakes

Storms Tornadoes/Hurricane

Extreme Heat orColdness

Bush Fires Epidemics

B. Manmade Strikes Riots Mass Shootings Hostage Taking Terrorism Demonstrations

C. Technical VehicularAccidents Major IndustrialAccident Building Collapse HazardousChemical Incidents Fire Incidents

II. DISASTER NURSING MANAGEMENT1. Critical thinking is Important.

Nurse should remain calm Rapidly Assesses Situations Consider Options Enact Emergency Response Plan Ability to TRIAGE

2. Collaboration with other Agencies

Communication Delegation Coordination Negotiation

III. FIRE

A. Definition of FireFire is rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat andlight in varying intensities. Fire is believed to be based on three elements being present:fuel, heat and oxidizer. Fire disasters can occur above the ground (in tall buildings and onplanes), on the ground, and below the ground (in mines). Sometimes they occur incircumstances that are unexpected or unpredictable.

B.Types of FireNatural

Fires which are considered as natural are basically earthquake, volcanic eruptionand lightning - generated fires. The fire and explosion risk associated with anearthquake is a very complex issue. Compared with ordinary (normal) fires the fire andexplosion hazard related to earthquakes can constitute a substantial and heavy risk.Damage to natural gas systems during an earthquake is a major cause of large fires.Again probably the most significant direct impact of power systems on fire following an


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earthquake is that electric power is a major fire ignition source. In addition to droppeddistribution lines, power circuits in damaged houses are another major ignition source.

There have been cases where as many as two-thirds of all ignitions after an earthquakehas been attributable to power system.

Manmade

Fire caused by human/machine errors are considered as manmade fires, e.g.industrial or chemical fire disasters, fires at social gatherings due to Electrical shortcircuit fires, accidental fire and kitchen-fires. Rural and urban residential and non-residential structural fires are also largely manmade fires. Any confined fire could bedue to many reasons like, cooking fire confined to container, chimney or fuel fireconfined to chimney, incinerator overload or malfunction, fuel burner/boiler malfunction,and trash fire

C.Causal/ Contributing factorsCauses include:

Cooking/heating equipmentIntentional

ElectricalOpen flame or emberAppliance, tool or air conditioningChild playingOther heat sourceNatural causes: earthquake, volcanic eruption and lighteningOther equipmentSmoking material

Contributing factors:Principal factors contributing to fires across the globe include:Wood shingle / thatched roofs

High windCongested accessInadequate water distribution systemLack of exposure protectionInadequate public protection (i.e. fire department inadequacies)Unusual hot or dry weather conditionsDelay in discovery of fireInadequate personal fire protectionDelay in raining the alarm

IV. WHAT TO DO BEFORE A FIRE

The following are things you can do to protect yourself, your family, and your property in theevent of a fire:

a. Escaping the Fire

Review escape routes with your family. Practice escaping from each room. Make sure windows are not nailed or painted shut. Make sure security gratings on windows

have a fire safety opening feature so they can be easily opened from the inside. Consider escape ladders if your residence has more than one level, and ensure that

burglar bars and other antitheft mechanisms that block outside window entry are easilyopened from the inside.


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Teach family members to stay low to the floor (where the air is safer in a fire) whenescaping from a fire.

Clean out storage areas. Do not let trash, such as old newspapers and magazines,accumulate.

b. Flammable Items

Never use gasoline, benzine, naptha, or similar flammable liquids indoors. Store flammable liquids in approved containers in well-ventilated storage areas. Never smoke near flammable liquids. Discard all rags or materials that have been soaked in flammable liquids after you have

used them. Safely discard them outdoors in a metal container. Insulate chimneys and place spark arresters on top. The chimney should be at least three

feet higher than the roof. Remove branches hanging above and around the chimney.

c. Heating Sources

Be careful when using alternative heating sources. Check with your local fire department on the legality of using kerosene heaters in your

community. Be sure to fill kerosene heaters outside, and be sure they have cooled. Place heaters at least three feet away from flammable materials. Make sure the floor and

nearby walls are properly insulated. Use only the type of fuel designated for your unit and follow manufacturers instructions. Store ashes in a metal container outside and away from your residence. Keep open flames away from walls, furniture, drapery, and flammable items. Keep a screen in front of the fireplace. Have heating units inspected and cleaned annually by a certified specialist.

d. Matches and Smoking

Keep matches and lighters up high, away from children, and, if possible, in a lockedcabinet. Never smoke in bed or when drowsy or medicated. Provide smokers with deep, sturdy

ashtrays. Douse cigarette and cigar butts with water before disposal.

e. Electrical Wiring

Have the electrical wiring in your residence checked by an electrician. Inspect extension cords for frayed or exposed wires or loose plugs. Make sure outlets have cover plates and no exposed wiring. Make sure wiring does not run under rugs, over nails, or across high-traffic areas. Do not overload extension cords or outlets. If you need to plug in two or three appliances,

get a UL-approved unit with built-in circuit breakers to prevent sparks and short circuits. Make sure insulation does not touch bare electrical wiring.

V. WHAT TO DO DURING A FIRE

If your clothes catch on fire, you should:

Stop, drop, and roll - until the fire is extinguished. Running only makes the fire burn faster.

To escape a fire, you should:


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Check closed doors for heat before you open them. If you are escaping through a closeddoor, use the back of your hand to feel the top of the door, the doorknob, and the crackbetween the door and door frame before you open it. Never use the palm of your hand orfingers to test for heat - burning those areas could impair your ability to escape a fire (i.e.,ladders and crawling).

Hot Door Cool Door

Do not open. Escapethrough a window. If youcannot escape, hang awhite or light-coloredsheet outside the window,alerting fire fighters toyour presence.

Open slowly and ensure fire and/or smoke is notblocking your escape route. If your escape route isblocked, shut the door immediately and use analternate escape route, such as a window. If clear,leave immediately through the door and close itbehind you. Be prepared to crawl. Smoke and heatrise. The air is clearer and cooler near the floor.

Crawl low under any smoke to your exit - heavy smoke and poisonous gases collect firstalong the ceiling.

Close doors behind you as you escape to delay the spread of the fire. Stay out once you are safely out. Do not reenter.

VI. WHAT TO DO AFTER A FIRE

The following are guidelines for different circumstances in the period following a fire:

If you are with burn victims, or are a burn victim yourself, cool and cover burns to reducechance of further injury or infection.

If you detect heat or smoke when entering a damaged building, evacuate immediately. If you are a tenant, contact the landlord. If you have a safe or strong box, do not try to open it. It can hold intense heat for several

hours. If the door is opened before the box has cooled, the contents could burst intoflames.

If you must leave your home because a building inspector says the building is unsafe, asksomeone you trust to watch the property during your absence.

VII. FIRE DISASTER

Specific aspects of a fire disaster, briefly summarized as follows: The number of persons involved is usually high; The burns tend to be extensive, and the general condition of the victims precarious; The burn is often associated with other serious pathologies, such as wounds, fractures,

electrocution, and blast or inhalation lesions; Hypovolaernic shock, a characteristic feature in the first phase of the burn illness, as early

as within three hours of the trauma, induces a state of tissue hypoxia, with irreversibledamage to the various organs and systems; the time interval between the burn accidentand initiation of resuscitatory therapy must be less than two hours;

The inhalation of combustion gases, fumes, and hot air causes damage to the airways andthis alone can jeopardize survival;


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The place where the disaster occurs is not always easily accessible, and speedy care andassistance may be inadequate;

Triage in loco of the victims must be carried out by specialists, as only experts are able toevaluate the immediate gravity of the burn and the measures to take;

Besides the number of dead, the overall assessment of the severity and damage must bemade on the basis of the number of persons in a condition of potential mortality andsevere risk of disability;

The rapid assessment and care of the viable and potentially curable victims is paramount.

a. Thermal agent disaster, burn disaster A disaster causing severe losses in human lives and material goods as a result of massiveheat production.It is an exclusively mathematical expression of the damage caused, i.e. of the number of the dead and injured, and the extent of damage to material goods.

b. Burn Disaster Overall effect of the massive action of a known thermal agent on living beings.It is characterized by a high number of fatalities and of seriously burned patients with ahigh potential rate of mortality and disability.Its extent may be aggravated if appropriate rescue operations are delayed.Some decisive factors involved here are the type of causal agent, the type of pathologycaused, the overall characteristics of the harmful action of the thermal agent, theimmediate evaluation of its gravity in relation to emergency care, and the modalities of rescue operations.In burn disaster, two concepts are therefore involved: the pathological condition, i.e.extensive burns, as well as the high number of persons injured.

VIII. THE PLAN FOR BURN DISASTER

The drafting of an operational rescue plan for a burn disaster cannot fail to take into accounttwo points:

1. The victim's pathological picture, i.e. the presence of extensive burns, inhalation lesions,and polytrauma;

2. The type of intervention required.Plans must be developed along three lines:

1. Immediate care2. Medical rescue within three hours3. Use of specific equipment and means for the rescue of the burned

patient.a. Rapid evaluation of the extent of the disaster

A rapid evaluation of the extent of a burn disaster is essential for calculating the size of therescue forces that need to be involved (teams operating on the spot, teams brought up to theoperative area, local first-aid units, regional/interregional/intemationaI units, etc.) for healthassistance to the injured.

The death of 25-30 persons indicates a burn disaster of very severe proportions, especiallyconsidering the high number of additional burn patients that can be expected.

The number of dead and injured, the types of pathology involved, the availability on the spotof material and personnel capable of providing assistance, local environmental conditions as


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regards access to the disaster area - all these factors are essential information for theassessment of the initial gravity of a disaster.

The persons on the spot, who provide immediate aid, must be able to provide rapidinformation on local conditions and the extent of the disaster for the use of local authorities incharge, i.e. fire brigades, police, etc.

These will in turn send the alert to local hospitals, specialized centres, ambulance services,helicopter rescue, etc. All these persons must be able to assess, even if only approximately, thetime necessary for the arrival of full scale first-aid support.

b. Specific and rapid health assistance response on site

Three distinct phases can be defined in rescue operations: immediate care, medical first aid,and organized relief.

i. Immediate care. This is provided by persons present at the scene of the disaster: relatives, friends, passers-by,

uninjured survivors - all persons who witness the disaster or who arrive immediately on thescene.

Generally speaking, their help is an automatic reaction derived from affection, friendship, anda spirit of human solidarity.

In the event of burn disasters, in particular, it is important that the first people to provideassistance should be fully aware of what they have to do.

The behaviour of the rescuers in immediate care can be summarized as follows:1. Self-control2. Self-protection3. Reduction of the fire4. Extraction and transfer of victims to the open air5. Appropriate action when clothing is on tire6. Removal of burning clothing7. Emergency treatment of burned areas8. Knowledgeable action pending more complete relief 9. Dealing with chemical burns10.Dealing with electrical burns

The occasional rescue workers must be able to perform, even if only in summary fashion,an initial assessment of the damage that has occurred and activate the first triage procedures.

In a disaster with great numbers of burn patients and other casualties occurring in a ruralor isolated area, with predictable delays in the arrival of the first rescue workers, the persons

present on the spot should mark out a safe place as an area for assembly of the injured. Thisarea should be accessible to vehicles already in the vicinity or on their way (ambulances,helicopters, private cars, etc.). This will facilitate the task of the first rescue workers who arriveas they will be able to proceed immediately to their task and perform initial triage and initialresuscitatory treatment.

ii. Medical first aid.

This refers to the action of trained persons present in the immediate vicinity who havealready received experience in rescue operations and who organize and go into action veryrapidly, within 2-3 hours. They may be physicians, nurses, EMS paramedics, members of


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voluntary organizations, etc. They are supported by public and private organizations in the area -hospitals, casualty departments, clinics, fire brigade, police, etc. - co-ordinated by the localauthorities. The authorities provide guidelines on specific stockpiles in convenient locations, themanagement of ambulance services, traffic control, the use of local and regional mass media,general means of transport, and other relevant services.

The kind of trained assistance provided by these first rescuers is of primary importance for

the prognosis of the casualties. They must carry out the first triage of urgent cases and the manypolytraumatized patients.

Given the particular evolution of burn disease, particularly worsening hypovolaemic shock,they must also initiate all medical and surgical procedures necessary for preliminaryresuscitatory therapy and the initial local treatment of burns.

The following are ten points that these medical first aid teams must follow:

1. Immediate triage of all victims2. Inspection of the upper airways3. Qualitative assessment of the burns4. Quantitative assessment of the burns5. Intravenous resuscitatory therapy

6. Analgesic therapy7. Bladder catheterization8. Pressure-relieving incisions9. Examination of the patient with

particular attention to respiratorycapacity

10.Hospital transfer

iii. Organized relief.

This refers to the mobilization of all civil defence, military and volunteer forces thatare ready to intervene in the event of a large disaster. These forces arrive on the site asrapidly as possible, but mostly not within the first three hours, equipped with the

necessary means and structures able to perform rescue action within the first 48-72 hoursafter the disaster, until all the wounded have been evacuated. These units will be involved in triage of the victims, i.e. stabilization of the condition

of serious victims, separating the less injured, preparing a preliminary evacuation plan,contacting dispatching stations, selecting means of transport, organizing first-aid posts,and clearing the dead .

1. Burn casualty triage

Conditioned by the number of patients, the gravity of the burns, the age of thepatients, the presence of respiratory complications, and the availability of beds.In burn disasters, it is useful to distinguish action for patients according to gravity

categories: Minor burns/noncritical sites (


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A second level of triage may be performed in a decentralized, safer area, wherecasualties have been assembled, for example outside a hospital.

A third level may be necessary in the hospital itself before sending on patients tothe specialist treatment units.

Once the patients have been selected on the basis of the gravity of their condition,they should be labelled with cards or other clearly recognizable means of identification inrelation to the priority of health care.

Burn victims should never be marked on the skin with visible signs or by theapplication of adhesives to the forehead. The Pan American Health Organization of WHO uses a colour system:

Red tag = First priority for evacuation: burns complicated by injury to the air passages. Green tag = Second priority for evacuation: seconddegree burns covering >30% T13SA;

third-degree 10% T13SA; burns complicated by major lesions to soft tissue or minorfractures; third-degree burns involving such critical areas as hands, feet or face but withno breathing problem present;

Yellow tag = third priority for evacuation: minor burns, second-degree covering less than15% TBSA; third-degree


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IX. BURN VICTIMS

The burn is an injury consisting of the destruction of the skin and the underlyingtissues, due to thermal, electrical, or chemical causes.

Division and classification of burns First-degree burns affect only the epidermis, causing reddening of the skin, pain, and

oedema. Second-degree burns affect not only the epidermis but also some of the dermis,

causing reddening of the skin, acute pain, and the formation of blisters and oedema inand around the affected area.

Third-degree burns destroy the full thickness of the skin (epidermis, dermis,subcutaneous fat, muscle, and bones). The burned area is white and dry. Owing to thedestruction of the nerve endings, pain is minor or non-existent.

Burns are thus divided into the following three categories: Superficial burns, corresponding to first-degree burns. These burns heal withoutmedical treatment in 12-15 days and do not require specialist care; Partial-thickness burns, corresponding to second-degree burns. These burns heal in21-30 days; Full-thickness burns, corresponding to third-degree burns. These burns heal slowly.Scars develop, causing problems for mobility and the patients appearance.

There is another classification of burns:1. small-scale burns

first-degree burns second-degree burns affecting less than 15% TBSA third-degree burns affecting less than 2% TBSA. These burns require only topical

therapy and the burn patient is treated as an out-patient.2. medium-scale burns

second-degree burns affecting 15-20% TBSA third-degree burns affecting less than 10% TBSA, unless the face, limbs, and/or

perineum are involved. These patients are treated in a specialist burns unit;3. large-scale burns

second-degree burns affecting 25% TBSA third-degree burns affecting 10% TBSA burns with complications in the respiratory system and burns due to fractures or

craniocerebral injuries electrical burns third-degree burns involving the face, limbs, or perineum. These burns require

specialist treatment in a burns unit.

Treatment First-aid treatment in burns

The treatment of burns caused by heat or electricity starts with the application of cold waterin order to cool destroyed tissues and to minimize damage to them.

This treatment is not administered in extensive or third-degree burns, as cold water mayaggravate the state of shock.

1. If the patient has suffered burns in the face or has inhaled smoke or hot air in a burningbuilding, the burn is regarded as an inhalation burn that requires assessment by aphysician.

2. We immerse the burned area immediately in cold running water. We place it under a tapor in a bucket of water, or we apply cold-water compresses (but not ice) to the burnedarea.


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3. We continue to cool the burned area with cold water for about 5 minutes or until the paindiminishes. We then dry the area gently with a clean towel and dress it with a sterile orclean, dry cloth.

4. We do not prick blisters or otherwise interfere with the burned area.5. We do not remove clothing adhering to the wound. We remove any watches, bracelets,

rings, belts, or constricting clothing from the affected area before it begins to swell.6. We do not apply butter, oil, or creams to the wound. We use analgesic drugs, ointments,

or sprays only in first-degree burns or according to medical instructions.7. We do not press the burned area.8. In electrical burns, we look for the entrance and exit points of the electric current.9. In chemical burns, we do not use other materials to neutralize the chemicals without

detailed medical instructions. However: we remove contaminated clothing and the patients shoes and socks; we douse the victim with cold water and keep washing off the burned area with

running water for at least 5 minutes; we relieve pain with cold-water compresses; we cover wounds with a damp bandage; we require evaluation by a physician even when the burn is not extensive.

10.When peoples clothing is on fire, they should not start running as this will only cause the

fire to expand. Also, people should not stand upright as this facilitates inhalation of smokeand their hair may catch fire. In such moments, people should be laid on the ground,where it is easier to wrap them in a blanket, douse them with cold water, or roll them overin order to extinguish the fire. We should then remove any clothing still burning andanything that could retain heat. We should also ensure that any clothing adhering to thewound is not removed.

11.In extensive burns, the victim is wrapped in a clean sheet and transferred to hospital.12.In face burns, extensive first-degree burns, second-degree burns in the limbs or perineum,

burns in more than 10-15% TBSA, and all third-degree burns, we require evaluation by aphysician.

Treatment of burn patients in the Emergency Department

A. The treatment of burns in the Emergency Department includes the following actions, inorder of precedence.

1. Checking of respiratory passages The respiratory passages must be checked to ensure that the patient is properlyoxygenated. Close observation of the victim can prevent suffocation.25,26

2. Placement of phlebocatheterA vein chosen for intravenous fluid replacement should be able to accept largequantities of fluids (15-20 l per 24 h in extensive burns). The drip inserted into thevein should not pass through the affected area; it is recommended that it should beplaced in the neck (subclavicle), in the arm, or in the crural vein, in order to avoidthrombophlebitis.

3. Record of vital signsPulse, arterial pressure, temperature, and respiration frequency (danger of dyspnoea) should be carefully recorded in order to evaluate the patients generalstate.

4. Record of the patients case-history (information from the patient directly oraccompanying persons)


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The patients name and age are recorded, as well as the causes of the burn,including the conditions in which the accident took place, so that the patient can beproperly treated. It is of the utmost importance for the physician to know if thepatient is suffering from any disease (nephropathy, allergy, heart disease, diabetesmellitus), if first-aid treatment was given, and if the patient takes drugs, has eversuffered from allergies caused by a drug, or has suffered any other injury apart fromthe burn (e.g. a fracture).

5. Relief of pain, and administration of painkillers or intravenous morphine1,27

6. Prevention of shock and anti-shock therapy

7. Placement of a urocyst catheter.It is necessary to know the quantity and the specific gravity of the urine excreted bythe patient.

8. Placement of a Levin rhinogastric tubeIn modern practice, the rhinogastric tube is placed as soon as the patient isadmitted to hospital in order to allow proper feeding. In the past, it was placed in

order to divert gastric fluids.

9. Quantitative evaluation of the burned surface To evaluate the quantity of the burned surface, all burned areas are addedtogether, irrespective of their depth.

10.Qualitative evaluation of the burned surface The depth of the burn cannot always be evaluated precisely when the patient isadmitted to hospital. The depth of the burned area should therefore be re-assessedon the second or third day post-burn. Qualitative evaluation includes sensibility of the burned area, erythema, formation of blisters, and the extent of oedema.

11.Laboratory tests This entails hematocrit, electrolytes, blood air, and urine specific gravity. During thefirst days after the accident, the tests should be repeated every 2-4 h. Urea, bloodsugar, creatinine, albumin, liver function, and blood group should be carefullyrecorded.

12.Electrocardiogram Thorax radiography is necessary.

13.Check of patients psychological stateSteps should be taken to limit the patients psychological and emotional reactions(e.g. pain, anxiety).

The purpose of the clinical and laboratory check of the burn patient during the firsttwo days after the accident is to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment and todiagnose complications as soon as possible.

Earthquake

1. DefinitionEarthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden breaking and shifting of largesections of Earth's rocky outer shell.

Source: http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/earthquake_worldbook.html
http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/earthquake_worldbook.htmlhttp://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/earthquake_worldbook.html


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2. Types of Earthquake and Their Causesa. Tectonic Earthquake

Tectonic earthquake begin when there is movement in the earth Tectonic plates. These plates are made up of sections of the earth crust and they float on the earthmantle. Most of the time these plates are slowly in moving; they might slide towards oraway from each other or even slip past each other. However, it is when these tectonic

plates collide or move too closely to each other that an earthquake is caused.

Source: http://earthquakecauses.com/ , http://www.britannica.com/

b. Volcanic EarthquakeEarthquakes related to volcanic activity may produce hazards which include

ground cracks, ground deformation, and damage to manmade structures. There aretwo general categories of earthquakes that can occur at a volcano: volcano-tectonicearthquakes and long period earthquakes.

i. Volcano-tectonic EarthquakeEarthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection

or withdrawal of magma (molton rock) are called volcano-tectonic earthquakes(Chouet, 1993). These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can producelarge ground cracks. These earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill inspaces where magma is no longer present. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don'tindicate that the volcano will be erupting but can occur at anytime.

ii. Long Period EarthquakeLong period earthquakes are produced by the injection of magma into

surrounding rock. These earthquakes are a result of pressure changes during theunsteady transport of the magma. When magma injection is sustained a lot of earthquakes are produced (Chouet, 1993). This type of activity indicates that avolcano is about to erupt.

Source: http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/hazards/primer/eq.html

c. Explosion Earthquake The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the

ground and cause a minor earthquake. Theory suggests that a nuclear explosion couldtrigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances within a few tens of kilometers from the shot point. The explosion earthquakes are caused due to the
http://earthquakecauses.com/http://www.britannica.com/http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/hazards/primer/eq.htmlhttp://earthquakecauses.com/http://www.britannica.com/http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/hazards/primer/eq.html


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nuclear explosions. These man induced earthquakes are one of the biggest side effectsof the modern nuclear war.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions#Earthquakehttp://hubpages.com/hub/Types-Of-Earthquakes

3. Measuring Earthquakesa. Magnitude

Magnitude is a measure of earthquake size and remains unchanged withdistance from the earthquake. An earthquake magnitude is measured by the RichterScale.

b. IntensityIntensity describes the degree of shaking caused by an earthquake at a given

place and decreases with distance from the earthquake epicenter. Earthquake intensityis measured by the Mercalli Intensity Scale.

c. InstrumentsEarthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances, because

seismic waves travel through the whole Earth's interior. The absolute magnitude of a

quake is conventionally reported by numbers on the Richter scale, magnitude 7causing serious damage over large areas, whereas the felt magnitude is reported usingthe modified Mercalli intensity scale (intensity II-XII).

i. SeismographSeismograph is an instrument that measure motions of the ground,

including those of seismic waves generated by earthquakes, nuclear explosions,and other seismic sources.

ii. Richter Scale The Richter magnitude scale, also known as the local magnitude ( ML)

scale, assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energyreleased by an earthquake. It is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained bycalculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal amplitude (shakingamplitude) of the largest displacement from zero on a particular type of seismometer.

The Richter scale has been superseded by the moment magnitude scale,which is calibrated to give generally similar values for medium-sizedearthquakes (magnitudes between 3 and 7). Unlike the Richter scale, themoment magnitude scale is built on sound seismological principles, and does notsaturate in the high-magnitude range.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions#Earthquakehttp://hubpages.com/hub/Types-Of-Earthquakeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions#Earthquakehttp://hubpages.com/hub/Types-Of-Earthquakes


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iii. Mercalli Intensity Scale The Mercalli intensity scale is a scale used for measuring the intensity of

an earthquake. The scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth'ssurface, humans, objects of nature, and man-made structures on a scale of Ithrough XII, with I denoting not felt, and XII total destruction. The values willdiffer based on the distance to the earthquake, with the highest intensities beingaround the epicentral area.

Source: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Earthquake ,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismograph , http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scale ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale

4. Signs of Earthquake Occurrencea. Scientifici. Thermal precursor

A few months before the occurrence of an earthquake the averagetemperature of the area keeps increasing. Weather report bulletins refer totemperatures above or below average by so many degrees. It is seen that incase the area is heading for an earthquake, the average temperature goes onincreasing. On the day of the earthquake it is about 5 to 9 degrees Celsius abovethe average normal temperature for that day. This could be monitored by themeteorology department and also by thermometers inside homes.

ii. Water precursor
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Earthquakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scalehttp://www.eoearth.org/article/Earthquakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale


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There is a sudden rise or fall in water level in the wells. It could be as highas one meter. Sometimes the well water may turn muddy. At times a fountainappears inside the well. All these changes happen about one or three daysbefore the earthquake. Sometimes a fountain appears in the ground. Thisnormally happens a few hours before the quake.

Another form of water precursor is seen in the flow of riverwater. There isa sudden and rapid increase or decrease of water flow in the river or nallah. This

happens about one to two days before the quake. In wells, the well water maybegin to bubble.

iii. Seismo-electromagnetic precursor This is a very reliable precursor. It occurs and is exhibited about 10 to 20

hours before the quake. Before the occurrence of an earthquake the subsurfacetemperature rises. As a result of this the geomagnetic field is reduced. Thereduction in geomagnetic field adversely affects the propagation of electromagnetic waves. This is experienced abundantly on the radio, televisionand telephone.

b. Non scientific

i. Animal precursorIt is seen that 10 to 20 hours before the occurrence of an earthquake, theentire animal kingdom becomes highly disturbed and restless. They move in adirectionless manner and in fear. Birds do not sit on trees but move about at alow height, emitting a shrill noise. Rodents like rats; mongooses etc are in apanic. Domestic animals like cows, dogs, cats etc struggle against being tied up,and even turn on the owner. Pandas may moan.

ii. Human precursorDoctors and nurses observe that some sensitive patients in hospitals

become highly disturbed. They exhibit a sudden rise in blood pressure, hearttrouble, headache, migraine, respiratory disorders etc. Further, these

psychosomatic signs are manifested without any provocation. It is also seen thatthe number of patients in the out-patient department increases by five to seventimes, some 10 to 20 hours before the quake.

Source: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Warning_signs_for_an_earthquake

5. Effects of Earthquakea. Shaking and Ground Rupture

Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes,principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigidstructures. Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surfacealong the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several meters in the case of major earthquakes.

b. Landslides and AvalanchesEarthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, and coastal wave

attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a majorgeological hazard

c. FireEarthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the

event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult tostop the spread of a fire once it has started.
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d. Soil liquefactionSoil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular

material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to aliquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt orsink into the liquefied deposits.

e. Tsunami

Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the suddenor abrupt movement of large volumes of water.

f. FloodA flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. Floods occur

usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake,exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows orsits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondaryeffects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to damrivers, which then collapse and cause floods.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake#Effects.2Fimpacts_of_earthquakes

6. Interventionsa. Before an Earthquake

Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio,a flashlight, and extra batteries at home. Learn first aid. Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity. Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake. Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake). Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor. Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

b. During an Earthquake Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside. If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand ina doorway, or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away fromwindows and outside doors. If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything thatmight fall. Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the buildingcould fall on you). Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix. If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquakestops. Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway). Drop, cover and hold are still recommended by most reputable earthquakerescue experts. It is recommended that you take cover within three seconds or lessafter you feel the first vibrations or shaking. Do not try to run to a safer place, butget under the nearest sound structure or piece of furniture you can find to avoidinjury from flying debris and glass. Trying to move on your feet also exposes you tothe danger of being thrown violently by the seismic force of the earthquake. Triangle of Life

When buildings collapse, the weight of the ceilings falling upon the objects orfurniture inside crushes these objects, leaving a space or void next to them. Thisspace is what they call the "triangle of life". The larger the object, the stronger, the
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less it will compact. The less the object compacts, the larger the void, the greaterthe probability that the person who is using this void for safety will not be injured.

c. After an Earthquake Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needsit. Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves. Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows anddoors, leave immediately, and report it to the authorities (use someone else'sphone).

Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency. Stay out of damaged buildings. Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes tokeep from cutting your feet. Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you). Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after theground has stopped shaking. Stay away from damaged areas. If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of the person in charge. Expect aftershocks.

Source: http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/bda.htmlhttp://urbanlegends.about.com/library/bl_triangle_of_life.htmhttps://reader009.{domain}/reader009/html5/0523/5b04ee5dc45a6/5b04ee6762874.jpghttp://ezinearticles.com/?Disaster-Preparedness---Triang le-of-Life-Survival-

Method&id=4193940

Tsunami

1. DefinitionPronunciation: \(t)su -n-m\A very large ocean wave that is caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption

and often causes extreme destruction when it strikes land. Tsunamis can have heights of up to 30 m (98 ft) and reach speeds of 950 km (589 mi) per hour. They are characterizedby long wavelengths of up to 200 km (124 mi) and long periods, usually between 10 and60 minutes

2. Types of Tsunamia. Tidal Wave

These waves are caused by the moons gravitational attraction. They aregenerally only a few feet high, although higher waves are found during the new and fullmoons. They can rise 5 to 6 feet above normal when the new and full moon occurs atthe same time as the moons perigee (the time when the moon is closest to the earth).
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/bda.htmlhttp://urbanlegends.about.com/library/bl_triangle_of_life.htmhttp://mamimomikuto.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/t-of-l.jpghttp://ezinearticles.com/?Disaster-Preparedness---Triangle-of-Life-Survival-Method&id=4193940http://ezinearticles.com/?Disaster-Preparedness---Triangle-of-Life-Survival-Method&id=4193940http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/bda.htmlhttp://urbanlegends.about.com/library/bl_triangle_of_life.htmhttp://mamimomikuto.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/t-of-l.jpghttp://ezinearticles.com/?Disaster-Preparedness---Triangle-of-Life-Survival-Method&id=4193940http://ezinearticles.com/?Disaster-Preparedness---Triangle-of-Life-Survival-Method&id=4193940


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Tidal waves are harmless unless accompanied by storm conditions or on unusualcoastlines, where the topography creates daily tides as high as 50 feet.

b. Tidal Bore These are quickly advancing front waves of incoming tides and are found in

shallow estuaries. It is usually a foaming water wall that signals approaching tides. Theheight can vary from a few inches to a few feet, depending on the tides strength, the

attraction of the moon, and the geography of the estuary.c. Internal Waves/ Underwater Waves

These are the strong, vertical motions that a current causes. They usually occurwhen the current is passing through a narrow passage between a pair of islands, divinginto a deep ocean trench, or when two underwater currents of differing density mergetogether. One can detect internal waves from the surface by noting patch of strongturbulence, which can extend as long as 125 miles. Beneath the ocean surface, thewave, or water of different density, can measure as high as 300 feet. Some expertsthink that these are responsible for the disappearance of some submarines, causingthem to drop below safe traveling depths.

d. Storm Waves/ Sea Surges These are wind-driven waves created on top of normal tides, and are often

caused by hurricanes and cyclones. They reach 30 to 40 feet in height, producing aconstant pounding motion as opposed to the tsunamis characteristic single hugewave.

e. Seiche This is the rhythmic vibration of water in an enclosed water body. Water moves

slowly back and forth from shore to shore in waves no higher than 5 feet. They arecreated by either seismic action or storms.

3. Prediction of a Tsunami

eHow Contributor Tsunamis have killed more than 70,000 people during the 20th century, and thousands

more since the beginning of the 21st. The ability to predict a tsunami is still in its earlieststages. Predictors range from primitive visual cues to complex satellite data. The best placeto predict tsunamis is in an area where earthquakes are likely.

Things Needed: Satellites Pressure sensors Topographical maps

Instructionsa. Run a computer simulation of the effects of earthquakes in various areas of the globe. Run

the simulation just after an earthquake with an epicenter in the ocean, in order to predictwhere the resulting tsunami is likely to occur.

b. Use a pressure sensor at the bottom of the ocean to determine if a tsunami has started, aswell as how large it might be.

c. Map the locations of the places most prone to tsunamis. Consult the data currently beingcompiled by satellite along with geological data for maps of the area.


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d. Watch for a retreating shoreline, which is an immediate visual indicator that a tsunami isbuilding. Notice how far the water is receding to gauge how large the tsunami is likely tobe.

e. Pay attention to the earthquake hot zones, such as the, "ring of fire," in the Pacific. Checkelevation maps after an ocean earthquake, to predict which areas of the coast are likely to

be affected by the tsunami.

f. Pay attention to the latest earthquake prediction information, such as new uses forsatellite data. Use earthquake predictors to predict a tsunami.

Measuring a Tsunami Tsunami are difficult to measure because many factors, such as shape of ocean floor,

shape of coast, size and location of earthquake generating the tsunami, can effect their sizeand destructive potential. Often tsunamis are measured after the event by looking at thedamage. However, like earthquakes, a comparison of intensity can give an idea of thedestructive potential.

The chart below gives some general information on relating wave size and damage. Itwas recreated from information found at this site.

Intensitylevel

Height in

meters

DescriptionFrequency in

the Pacific

region

1 2Moderate with flooding of gently sloping coasts, slightdamage.

1 per 8months

2 4Large with flooding of shore,some light damage tostructures.

1 every year

3 8Very large with generalflooding and heavy damage toshoreline structures.

1 every 3years

4 16 Disastrous with almostcomplete destruction of structures.

1 every 10years

Sources: http://www.noaa.gov/ http://www.tsunami.org/

4. Interventionsa. Before A TsunamiPrecautions For Those At Risk of a Tsunami

- If you live in a coastal area that is hit by an earthquake, especially near thePacific Ocean, the chances of a tsunami hitting increase. Take these precautionsimmediately after an earthquake.
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Turn on your radio or TV to hear if there is a tsunami warning Move away from the shoreline and to higher ground Do not go to the beach, especially if you see a noticeable recession of water away from the shoreline.

- Tsunami Tips for Boaters If you are on a boat when a tsunami is possibly approaching, move todeeper waters. Upon returning to your boat after a tsunami hits land, becautious because wave conditions may be severe and strong currents mayexist for a period after the tsunami hits.

- Protecting Your Home and PropertyIf you live in an area of the world where tsunamis could occur, there are a

few precautions you can take to help prevent damage to your home andproperty.

Elevate your home if it's on the coast. Make a list of things to bring inside in case a tsunami hits. Have your home inspected by an engineer to determine ways todivert water away from the structure.

Contact your insurance agent. Homeowners' policies don't covertsunami flooding. Inquire about the National Flood Insurance Program.

- Family Disaster PlanLong before a natural disaster strikes, it is wise to create a family disaster

plan, especially for children. Make the following decisions before the evacuationactually occurs:

1. Determine a place to meet outside your neighborhood2. Determine a second meeting place in case the first one is damaged orruined3. Decide on another family member (apart from members of yourhousehold) to call to check-in in case you are separated. Ideally, the contact

should be someone out-of-state4. Designate someone to take the disaster kit when they evacuate.

- What Should Go In a Family Disaster KitKeeping a Family Disaster Kit is important in case a tsunami strikes. It

should contain necessities for the entire family. Store one-gallon of water per person for at least three days inplastic containers. Keep a three-day supply of non-perishable food, such as peanutbutter, trail mix, canned juices, milk, soup and sweetened cereals. Store a first-aid kit, tools, some clothing and bedding and importantdocuments in the kit as well. Be sure to store the kit in a convenient place for all family membersand keep things in a airtight, plastic containers.

Source: http://tsunami.lifetips.com/cat/64567/what-to-do-before-a-tsunami/index.html

b. After a Tsunamii. Know When Food Supplies Are Safe

Any food that has been in contact with contaminated flood watersshould be thrown out. Don't eat any food that hasn't been sealed in a plastic, waterproof container or commercially canned.
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Don't consume food from containers with screw caps, twist caps or fliptops if they've been in contact with contaminated water.

ii. Building Safety after a Tsunami Strikes If a tsunami reaches shore, the water damage to structures can bedevastating. Stay out of buildings surrounded by water since floors can sinkand the structure could collapse. If a building is safe enough to enter, open all windows and doors to dryout the building. Carefully inspect a building for various fire hazards, such as broken orleaking gas lines, submerged heating equipment and flooded electricaloutlets.

SOURCE: http://tsunami.lifetips.com/cat/64570/what-to-do-after-a-tsunami/index.html

Landslide

1. Definition

wide variety of processes that result in the downward and outward movement of slope-forming materials including rock, soil, artificial fill, or a combination of these result from the failure of the materials which make up the hill slope and are drivenby the force of gravity Movement of landslide material can vary from abrupt collapses to slow gradualslides and at rates which range from almost undetectable to extremely rapid can be triggered by natural causes or by human activity

2. Types of Landslide Movementa. Fall

Abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials, such as rocks and bouldersthat become detached from steep slopes or cliffs

Separation occurs along discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and beddingplanes and movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling

Strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical weathering, and the presence of interstitial water

b. Topple distinguished by the forward rotation of a unit or units about some pivotal point,

below or low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and forces exerted byadjacent units or by fluids in cracks.
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c. Flows The most destructive and turbulent form of landslide have a high water content which causes the slope material to lose cohesion,

turning it into slurry Channeled by the landscape and move rapidly 5 basic categories of flows:

a. Debris flows- a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose soil,rock, organic matter, air, and water mobilize as slurry that flow downslope.- commonly caused by intense surface-water flow, due to heavyprecipitation or rapid snowmelt, that erodes and mobilizes loose soil orrock on steep slopes.

b. Debris avalanche

- a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.

c. Earth flow

- have a characteristic "hourglass" shape- The slope material liquefies and runs out, forming a bowl or depression

at the head.- The flow itself is elongate and usually occurs in fine-grained materialsor clay-bearing rocks on moderate slopes and under saturated conditions.


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d. Mud flow- an earth flow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow rapidlyand that contains at least 50 percent sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles.

e. Creep- the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-formingsoil or rock.- Movement is caused by shear stress sufficient to produce permanentdeformation, but too small to produce shear failure

* 3 types of creep: Seasonal - movement is within the depth of soil affected by seasonal

changes in soil moisture and soil temperature. Continuous - shear stress continuously exceeds the strength of the material. Progressive - slopes are reaching the point of failure as other types of mass

movements.

d. Slides One of the most common forms of failure

Three major types of slides:

i. Rotational slides- a slide in which the surface of rupture is curved concavely upward andthe slide movement is roughly rotational about an axis that is parallel tothe ground surface and transverse across the slide.

ii. Translational slides- the landslide mass moves along a roughly planar surface with littlerotation or backward tilting.

iii. Block slide- a translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a single unitor a few closely related units that move down slope as a relatively

coherent mass.

e. Spread


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The dominant mode of movement is lateral extension accompanied by shearor tensile fractures Failure is caused by liquefaction, the process whereby saturated, loose,cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solidinto a liquefied state. Failure is usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as that experiencedduring an earthquake, but can also be artificially induced.

Source: http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/a_landslide.html#one www.ga.gov.au/hazards/ landslide /

3. Causes of LandslideSome slopes are susceptible to landslides whereas others are more stable. Many

factors contribute to the instability of slopes, but the main controlling factors are the natureof the underlying bedrock and soil, the configuration of the slope, the geometry of the slope,and ground-water conditions. Three distinct physical events occur during a landslide: theinitial slope failure, the subsequent transport, and the final deposition of the slide materials.

Landslides can be triggered by gradual processes such as weathering, or by externalmechanisms including:

Undercutting of a slope by stream erosion, wave action, glaciers, or humanactivity such as road building

- Wildfires: Plants help to stabilize the soil by holding it together like glue withtheir roots. When this glue is removed, the soil loosens, and gravity acts upon itmuch more easily. The loss of vegetation after a fire makes the razed landsusceptible to slides.- Humans make landslides more likely through activities like deforestation,overgrazing, mining and road-building.

Intense or prolonged rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or sharp fluctuations in ground-water levels Shocks or vibrations caused by earthquakes or construction activity

- Earthquakes: If the Earth's crust vibrates enough to disrupt the force of friction holding sediments in place on an incline, a landslide can strike.- Volcanic landslides: Volcanoes have unstable surfaces, so landslides are likelyeven when the volcano is dormant. In addition to the fact that the surface iscomposed mostly of loose rock, the volcanic gases create acidic groundwater.

This contributes to the rocks' breakdown, making them more likely to be carriedaway.

Loading on upper slopes A combination of these and other factors.

Source:http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geology/landslide3.htm

http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/MINING/GEOSCIENCE/SURFICIALGEOLOGYANDHAZARDS/LANDSLIDES/Pages/Whatcauseslandslides.aspx
http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/a_landslide.html#onehttp://www.ga.gov.au/hazards/landslide/http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geology/landslide3.htmhttp://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/MINING/GEOSCIENCE/SURFICIALGEOLOGYANDHAZARDS/LANDSLIDES/Pages/Whatcauseslandslides.aspxhttp://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/MINING/GEOSCIENCE/SURFICIALGEOLOGYANDHAZARDS/LANDSLIDES/Pages/Whatcauseslandslides.aspxhttp://nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/a_landslide.html#onehttp://www.ga.gov.au/hazards/landslide/http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geology/landslide3.htmhttp://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/MINING/GEOSCIENCE/SURFICIALGEOLOGYANDHAZARDS/LANDSLIDES/Pages/Whatcauseslandslides.aspxhttp://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/MINING/GEOSCIENCE/SURFICIALGEOLOGYANDHAZARDS/LANDSLIDES/Pages/Whatcauseslandslides.aspx


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4. Landslide Warning Signs Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have not typically been wetbefore. New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or sidewalks. Soil moving away from foundations. Ancillary structures such as decks and patios tilting and/or moving relative to themain house. Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations. Broken water lines and other underground utilities. Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences. Offset fence lines. Sunken or down-dropped road beds. Rapid increase in creek water levels, possibly accompanied by increased turbidity(soil content). Sudden decrease in creek water levels though rain is still falling or just recentlystopped. Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces indicating jambs and framesout of plumb. A faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears. Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, mightindicate moving debris.

5. Measuring Landslide Intensity

6. Interventionsa. Before Landslide

i. Assess whether the area is prone or safe to landslides Areas that are generally prone to landslide hazards:


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Existing old landslide paths On or at the base of slopes In or at the base of minor drainage hollows At the base or top of an old fill slope At the base or top of a steep cut slope Developed hillsides where leach field septic systems are used

Areas that are generally safe from landslides: On hard, non-jointed bedrock that has not moved in the past On relatively flat-lying areas away from slopes and steep river banks At the top or along the nose of ridges, set back from the tops of slopes

ii. Enumerate features that might be noticed before major landslides

Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have not typicallybeen wet before New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements orsidewalks Soil moving away from foundations Ancillary structures such as decks and patios tilting and/or movingrelative to the main house Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations Broken water lines and other underground utilities Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences Offset fence lines Sunken or down-dropped road beds Sudden decrease in creek water levels though rain is still falling or justrecently stopped. Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces indicating jambs

and frames out of plumb

iii. Demonstrate ways on what to do during landslide Quickly move out of the path of the landslide or debris flow. Movingaway from the path of the flow to a stable area will reduce your risk. If escape is not possible, curl into a tight cloth and protect your head. Atight ball will provide the best protection for your body.

iv. Collaborate with the contact local officials in developing a Family Disaster Plan. Contact local officials, state geological surveys or departments of natural resources, and university departments of geology. Landslides occurwhere they have before, and in identifiable hazard locations. Encourage thefamily to ask for information on landslides in their area, specific informationon areas vulnerable to landslides. Contact local fire, police, or public works department. Local officials arethe best persons able to assess potential danger. Inform affected neighbors. Neighbors may not be aware of potentialhazards. Advising them of a potential threat may help save lives. Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is theirbest protection.

b. During Landslide


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Advise the victim to stay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occurwhen people are sleeping. Listen to a battery-powered radio or television forwarnings of intense rainfall. Be aware that intense, short bursts of rain may beparticularly dangerous, especially after longer periods of heavy rainfall anddamp weather. If in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, advise the family toconsider leaving if it is safe to do so. Remember that driving during an intensestorm can be hazardous. If they remain at home,they can move to a secondstory if possible. Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such astrees cracking or boulders knocking together. A trickle of flowing or falling mudor debris may precede larger landslides. Moving debris can flow quickly andsometimes without warning. Be aware of weather conditions and remember that short burst of rain,particularly after longer periods of heavy rainfall and damp weather, can beespecially dangerous conditions conducive to landslides/rockslides If near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden increase or decrease inwater flow and for a change from clear to muddy water. Such changes mayindicate landslide activity upstream, so be prepared to move quickly. Tell the victim to be alert especially when driving. Embankments alongroadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides. Watch the road for collapsedpavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flows. Tell the patient that if escape is not possible, curl into a tight cloth andprotect his head. A tight ball/thick cloth can protect his cranium from fractures.

c. After Landslide Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides. Look for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering thedirect slide area. Assess victims regarding their health status especially a neighbor who mayrequire special assistance--infants, elderly people, and people with disabilities.Elderly people and people with disabilities may require additional assistance.People who care for them or who have large families may need additionalassistance in emergency situations. In cases of difficulty of breathing, promote airway of the victim by providingadequate ventilation. Remove any obstructions in the airway. Position thepatient to help him breathe. Perform Jaw thrust maneuver. If the victim isalready in the hospital, he may be given supplemental oxygen. If the victim has a wound, perform wound care. In cases of severe bleeding,immobilize then elevate the affected part. Apply a pressure dressing on theaffected area then a direct finger pressure depending on the location of theaffected area. If it does not work, put a tourniquet before the wound (if theaffected blood vessel is the artery) or after the wound (if the affected bloodvessel is the vein) If the victim had a fracture, immobilize the affected area using a splint (itmay be an umbrella or a branch of a tree) and go to the nearest hospital. Listen to the victims when they verbalize their feelings regarding thelandslide. Victims may experience trauma after the disaster. Listening to themwill help them release their stress through verbalization of their feelings. Watch out for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow.Floods are often tandem with landslides/rockslides since they may share a rootcause


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Look for and report any broken utility lines and damaged roadways andrailways to appropriate authorities. Reporting potential hazards will help directefforts to mitigate any additional hazards and injury.

TYPHOON

A. DEFINITION OF TERMS

A typhoon is a violent tropical hurricane/cyclone that occurs in the west Pacific and the IndianOcean.

A tropical cyclone is warm-core non-frontal synoptic-scale cyclone that originates overtropical or subtropical waters. This has three classifications: tropical depression, tropicalstorms, and the last which name depends where it originates.

A tropical depression is a tropical cyclone that has a maximum sustained surface windspeed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 33 kt (38 mph or 62 km/hr) or less,

A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that has a maximum sustained surface wind speed(using the U.S. 1-minute average) ranges from 34 kt (39 mph or 63 km/hr) to 63 kt (73 mph or118 km/hr),

A tropical storm warning is an announcement that tropical storm conditions (sustainedwinds of 39 to 73 mph) are expected somewhere within the specified coastal area within 36hours.

A tropical storm watch is an announcement that tropical storm conditions (sustained windsof 39 to 73 mph) are possible within the specified coastal area within 48 hours. A tropical wave is a cyclonic curvature maximum in the trade-wind easterlies that may reach

maximum amplitude in the lower middle troposphere.

B. DEVELOPMENT OF TYPHOON

Tropical Storm Genesis is the technical term for the process of storm formation thatleads ultimately to what are called hurricanes, typhoons, or tropical storms in various parts of the world. This occurs when, in the Northern Hemisphere, the Intertropical Convergence Zone,or ITCZ, shifts northward out of the doldrums and atmospheric conditions become favorable fortropical storm formation after about the middle of May.

A series of low-pressure ripples develops within the ITCZ. These are known as tropicalwaves and progress from east to west. In the late season, they typically shift their movementtoward the west-northwest, or even northwest, after crossing 45 or 50 W longitude.

These tropical waves, ideally imbedded in the deep layer easterly flow, contain anortheast wind shift. This is typically referred to as a convergence , where lines of equalatmospheric pressure are pressed together between the deep-layer high to the north and thedeveloping low-pressure system. The divergence that results ahead of the convergence zonegives us a north-easterly wind as the axis of the tropical wave approaches. Gusts up to 25 mphmay occur. Sometimes there can be gusts to tropical storm force in stronger waves. There can


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be next to no weather associated with these waves, and they may pass virtually unnoticed. Moretypically, there are bands of disturbed weather riding the axis of the wave.

When the wave passes over warmer waters (SSTs), convection and resulting rainfallare enhanced. This greater rainfall is concomitant with falling surface pressures. By the timethese pressures fall to 1008mb, it is likely that the northeast wind has closed off to a southwestwind on the backside of the wave. The forward motion of the wave completes the closure on the

northern side of a broad low-level center, and a tropical depression has formed.

We often hear that a tropical depression has formed, but conditions are unfavorable forfurther development. There are two conditions that must be present for the tropical depressionto continue its development: warm SSTs (above 79 Fahrenheit/26 Celsius) and lowvertical shear . A tropical storm derives its power from the warm waters below. In addition, astrong anti-storm directly above the low-level inflow is favorable. As a tropical storm is pulling inwarm, moist air at the surface, it must also evacuate this inbound flow aloft. This occurs in theupper levels of the atmosphere, where high pressure facilitates the development of the storm byevacuating the flow from the lower levels of the storm. Every powerful hurricane has an equallypowerful high pressure system over it. The key is inbound air counter-clockwise at the bottom,outbound air clockwise aloft. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is reversed: clockwise inbound,

counter-clockwise outbound.

If the upper-level high pressure system does not develop over a storm, it means there isshear instead. This is a strong jet of air that is blowing directly over the storm, and ripping thetops off the deep convection. This has the effect of breaking down the whole mechanism. This isknown as vertical shear . Vertical shear usually comes from a westerly direction, and can occurif the storm is located in an unfavorable position near a cold front or upper-level low pressuresystem. Another factor that can interfere with the development of a tropical storm is subsidence.Subsidence is the sinking of air. Usually this happens on the edge of an upper-level high-pressure system. Subsiding air has the effect of suppressing thunderstorm formation. This also iswhy a tropical storm that tries to form near an established hurricane has a very difficult timethe storm is on the edge of the hurricanes upper-level outflow, and may have to contend with

both subsidence and shear. The effect of shear on a storm can range from impairedstrengthening to catastrophic failure of the tropical storms support structure.

Tropical storms have the low-level circulation and the upper-level circulation (outflow),whose formation was discussed above. There is also a mid-level circulation. The mid-levelcirculation is similar in structure to the low-level circulation, and is critical to the survival of atropical storm that is passing over land. The lower-level circulation can be severely disrupted, oreven dissipated, by interaction with land, especially mountainous terrain. If the mid-levelcirculation remains intact, the storm can regenerate rapidly when it re-emerges over water,providing other factors are favorable.

Assuming all the ingredients are in place warm SSTs, upper-level high pressure,and falling surface pressures the storm will develop and reach a point of rapidintensification. It is one of natures perfect machines. As warm waters feed the convectionswirling around the center, heavy rainfall lowers surface pressures, high pressure aloft evacuatesthe inflow, which intensifies the inflow of warm, moist air, which in turn increases the rainfall andbrings about a more rapid fall in central pressure.

C. NAMING OF TYPHOONS

The Philippine Weather Bureau adopted the system in 1963 by setting four groups of Filipino womens nickname ending in ng from A to Y to name all tropical cyclones occurringwithin the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR). These four sets of names were then repeated


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every four years. In addition, each group was accompanied by an auxiliary list from A to G in theevent that the number of typhoons occurring in a particular year exceeds the number of Filipinoalphabet letters. The first tropical cyclone for the year always starts with the letter A, followed byB, and so on.

Revised List of Names for Tropical Cyclones within the Philippine Area of Responsibility

The first tropical cyclone of the year starts with the name beginning in letter A as inAURING under column 1 for 2005 and so on down the list as one disturbance succeeds another. The 5th year (2006) will bring us back to column 1 of AURING. In the event that the number of tropical cyclones within the year exceeds 25, an auxiliary list is used, the first ten of which arelisted under each column.

D. THE PHILIPPINE PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNAL

PSWS # 1

METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS: A tropical cyclone will affect the locality. Winds of 30-60 kph may be expected in at least 36 hours or intermittent rains may be

expected within 36 hours. (When the tropical cyclone develops very close to the locality ashorter lead time of the occurrence of the winds will be specified in the warning bulletin.)

IMPACT OF THE WINDS: Twigs and branches of small trees may be broken. Some banana plants may be tilted or downed. Some houses of very light materials (nipa and cogon) may be partially unroofed. Unless this warning signal is upgraded during the entire existence of the tropical cyclone, only

very light or no damage at all may be sustained by the exposed communities. Rice crop, however, may suffer significant damage when it is in its flowering stage.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES: When the tropical cyclone is strong or is intensifying and is moving closer, this signal may

be upgraded to the next higher level. The waves on coastal waters may gradually develop and become bigger and higher. The people are advised to listen to the latest severe weather bulletin issued by PAGASA

every six hours. In the meantime, business may be carried out as usual except when floodoccur.

Disaster preparedness is activated to alert status.

PSWS # 2

METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS:


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A tropical cyclone will affect the locality. Winds of greater than 60 kph and up to 100 kph may be expected in at least 24 hours.

IMPACT OF THE WINDS: Some coconut trees may be tilted with few others broken. Few big trees may be uprooted. Many banana plants may be downed. Rice and corn may be adversely affected. Large number of nipa and cogon houses may be partially or totally unroofed. Some old galvanized iron roofing may be peeled off. In general, the winds may bring light to moderate damage to the exposed communities.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES: The sea and coastal waters are dangerous to small sea crafts. Special attention should be given to the latest position, the direction and speed of movementand the intensity of the storm as it may intensify and move towards the locality. The general public especially people travelling by sea and air are cautioned to avoidunnecessary risks. Outdoor activities of children should be postponed. Secure properties before the signal are upgraded. Disaster preparedness agencies / organizations are in action to alert their communities.

PSWS # 3

METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS: A tropical cyclone will affect the locality. Winds of greater than 100 kph up to 185 kph may be expected in at least 18 hours .

IMPACT OF THE WINDS: Many coconut trees may be broken or destroyed. Almost all banana plants may be downed and a large number of trees may be uprooted. Rice and corn crops may suffer heavy losses. Majority of all nipa and cogon houses may be unroofed or destroyed and there may be

considerable damage to structures of light to medium construction. There may be widespread disruption of electrical power and communication services. In general, moderate to heavy damage may be experienced, particularly in the agricultural

and industrial sectors.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES: The disturbance is dangerous to the communities threatened/affected. The sea and coastal waters will be very dangerous to all sea crafts. Travel is very risky especially by sea and air. People are advised to seek shelter in strong buildings, evacuate low-lying areas and to stay

away from the coasts and river banks. Watch out for the passage of the "eye" of the typhoon indicated by a sudden occurrence of

fair weather immediately after very bad weather with very strong winds coming generallyfrom the north.

When the "eye" of the typhoon hit the community do not venture away from the safeshelter because after one to two hours the worst weather will resume with the very strongwinds coming from the south.


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Classes in all levels should be suspended and children should stay in the safety of strongbuildings.

Disaster preparedness and response agencies/organizations are in action with appropriateresponse to actual emergency.

PSWS # 4

METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS: A very intense typhoon will affect the locality. Very strong winds of more than 185 kph may be expected in at least 12 hours .

IMPACT OF THE WINDS: Coconut plantation may suffer extensive damage. Many large trees may be uprooted. Rice and corn plantation may suffer severe losses. Most residential and institutional buildings of mixed construction may be severely damaged. Electrical power distribution and communication services may be severely disrupted. In the overall, damage to affected communities can be very heavy.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES: The situation is potentially very destructive to the community. All travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled. Evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed since it may be too late under this

situation. With PSWS #4, the locality is very likely to be hit directly by the eye of the typhoon. As the

eye of the typhoon approaches, the weather will continuously worsen with the windsincreasing to its strongest coming generally from the north. Then a sudden improvement of the weather with light winds (a lull) will be experienced. This means that the eye of thetyphoon is over the locality. This improved weather may last for one to two hoursdepending on the diameter of the eye and the speed of movement. As the eye moves out of the locality, the worst weather experienced before the lull will suddenly commence. Thistime the very strong winds will come generally from the south.

The disaster coordinating councils concerned and other disaster response organizations arenow fully responding to emergencies and in full readiness to immediately respond topossible calamity.

E. REVISED GUIDELINES ON THE SUSPENSION OF CLASSES AND WORK IN THEGOVERNMENT DURING INCLEMENT WEATHER (Based on DepEd Order No.50, July 19,2007)

The Department of Education set the rules on the suspension of classes to keep parents

aware and students danger-free in cases of typhoons and other calamities. Storm number 1

Classes in pre-school level in all public and private schools will be automaticallysuspended.

Storm signal number 2Classes in pre-school, elementary and high school in all public and private schools will beautomatically suspended.

Storm signal number 3Classes in all levels are automatically suspended.


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Storm signal number 4All travel and outdoor activities are cancelled.

F. RESPONSIBLE PHILIPPINE AGENCIES AND NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONSDURING TYPHOON

Disaster-assistance and Preparedness Agencies

DOST . The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the premiere science andtechnology body in the country charged with the twin mandate of providing centraldirection, leadership and coordination of all scientific and technological activities, and of formulating policies, programs and projects to support national development.

Hotline: (02) 837-2071Website: www.dost.gov.ph

PAGASA. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical ServicesAdministration (or PAGASA), is a Department of Science and Technology (DOST) nationalservice institution. It provides public weather forecasts and advisories, warnings for floods,giant waves and typhoons, meteorological, astronomical, climatological, and other scientificinformation and services to protect life and property and support the economy, productivityand development of the country.

PAGASA monitors tropical storm activity and broadcasts warnings and safety measures everysix or twelve hours within its area of responsibility which is 25N 120E, 25N 135E, 5N135E, 5N 115E, 15N 115E, 21N 120E and back to 25N.

Other Information:Address: Agham Road, Diliman, Quezon CityWebsite: www.pagasa.dost.com.ph

NDCC. National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) is under the Department of NationalDefense, and it is responsible for the protection and welfare of people in cases of disastersor emergencies.

Formerly the National Emergency Council, it became the NDCC with the PD 1566 thatprovided the NDCC the obligation to organize disaster coordinating councils from the nationalto the municipal level, prepare a National Calamities and Disaster Preparedness Plan, conductdrills and exercises, and gives government units the power to allocate funds for disasterpreparedness activities.

Emergency Hotlines: 9125668, 9111406, 9122665, 911506Help Hotlines: 7342118, 7342120

CDP . Center for Disaster Preparedness Foundation, Inc. (CDP) is now serving for ten years,the CDP started as the Disaster Resource Training Center, registered as an independentinstitution in the Philippine Securities and Exchange Commission.

So far, they have made significant contributions, especially with capability building as theircore competency. They have given communities and service providers from the non-governmental organizations and government units the avenue to participate in trainings,interactive forums, consultancies, research and publication, networking and advocacy.

Other Agencies and their Hotlines: (Disaster Emergency)
http://www.dost.gov.ph/http://www.pagasa.dost.com.ph/http://www.dost.gov.ph/http://www.pagasa.dost.com.ph/


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Rescue Operations: Philippine National Police CALL 117, (632) 722-9585, 412-3227 OR TEXT 2920 Philippine Coast Guard (+632-5276136) Air Force (+63908-1126976, +632-8535023) Metro Manila Development Authority (136) Marikina City Rescue (+632-6462436, +632-6462423, +632920-9072902) Pasig Rescue Emergency Number (+632-6310099) Quezon City Rescue (161) San Juan City Hall Command Post (+632-4681697) Bureau of Fire Protection Region III (Central Luzon) Hotline: (+63245-9634376)

Civil Society/ Media: Philippine National Red Cross (143, +632-5270000) Philippine National Red Cross Rizal Chapter operations center hotline: (+632-6350922,

+632-6347824) ABS-CBN Typhoon Ondoy Hotline: (+632-4163641) Jam 88.3: (+632- 6318803) or SMS at JAM (space) 883 (space) your message to 2968

Rubber Boat, 44 Trucks, Chopper Requests NCRPO (+632-8383203, +632-8383354 Private citizens who would like to lend their motor boats for rescue please call emergency

nos: +632-9125668, +632-9111406, +632-9122665, +632-9115061) You can also text (+632917-4226800 or +632927-6751981) for rescue dump trucks. For those who are able to lend 44 trucks for rescue: Please send truck to Greenhills

Shoppng Center Unimart Grocery to await deployment, Tel No. (+632920-9072902) Petron & San Miguel Corporation are lending choppers for rescue operations, call/text:

(+632917-8140655) ask for Lydia Ragasa

For IN-KIND DONATIONS, there are many drop-off centers, among them are the

following: ABS-CBN SAGIP KAPAMILYA WAREHOUSE at 13 Examiner St., West Triangle QC or at

ABS-CBN Center along Mother Ignacia QC/Scout Bayoran corner Tomas Morato, beside AlexIII, Quezon City. Tel 413-2667 / 416-0387.

GMA KAPUSO FOUNDATION, INC. 2nd Floor GMA Kapuso Center, GMA Network Drivecor. Samar Streets, Diliman, Quezon City. Tel 982.7777 loc. 9901 & 9905.

ATENEO DE MANILA UNIVERSITY drop-off at MVP (Manny V. Pangilinan Building)Lobby. Also at Cervini Hall Lobby at 12nn. For details, please contact 0917 631 2423 or0917 703 5357.

DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY proceed to South Gate, Taft Avenue, Manila (gate nearest toMcDonalds).

LA SALLE GREEN HILLS- go to Gate 2 along Ortigas Avenue, Mandaluyong. CARITAS MANILA OFFICE at Jesus St., Pandacan Manila near Nagtahan Bridge

(tel.no.5639298/5639308) or Radio Veritas at Veritas Tower West Ave. Corner EDSA (tel no.9257931-40)

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