a landowner’s guide to woodland wildlife ......all landowners will likely be urged to factor such...
TRANSCRIPT
G3578
By Stephen DeStefano, Scott R. Craven,Robert L. Ruff, Darrel F. Covell
and John F. Kubisiak
with emphasis on the ruffed grouse
A LANDOWNER’S GUIDE TO WOODLAND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
University of Wisconsin–Madison, University of Wisconsin–Extension, Wisconsin Departmentof Natural Resources and the Ruffed Grouse Society of North America
Cover photo of the Leopold shack, Leopold Memorial Reserve, Baraboo, Wisconsin by Darrel Covell
PREFACE iii
INTRODUCTION vFocus on the ruffed grouse viThe Wisconsin private woodland owner:a profile vii
1 A FOREST ECOSYSTEM PRIMER 1-6Wildlife needs 1Wildlife management principles 2Forest succession: the growth of
a woodland 4Managing the forest as an ecosystem 6
2 THE NATURAL ZONES OF WISCONSIN 7-10The Northern Forest 8The Eastern Deciduous Forest 9The Central Sand Counties 9The Western Upland 9
3 DESIGNING A HABITAT MANAGEMENT PLAN 11-14
Set management objectives 11Inventory and evaluate your land 12Seek professional assistance 13Finalize your management plan 14
4 MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS FOR GROUSE AND OTHER WILDLIFE 15-30
Evaluate your land’s potential 15Aspen management 17Oak-hickory management 21Conifer management 24Northern hardwoods management 25Alder management 25Shrubs 26Food and cover plantings 27Reserve trees 27Preservation 28Diversifying your woodlot 28Do-nothing cover types 29Odd areas 29Openings 29Brush piles 30Access 30
5 MANAGING MATURE FORESTS AND THEIRWILDLIFE 31-35
What is a mature forest? 31The value of mature forests 33
Turkeys 33Squirrels 33Woodpeckers, wood ducks and
other cavity-users 34Songbirds 34Mammals 35Reptiles and amphibians 35
6 FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 36-39Marketing timber 36Seven steps to successful timber harvest 36Cost-sharing programs 36Tax considerations 38
CONCLUSION 40
REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 41-42Woodland wildlife management 41Ruffed grouse ecology 41General wildlife 42Field guides 42Forestry and woodland management 42Controlling wildlife damage 43Financial considerations 43Tax guides 43Record systems 43
APPENDICES 44-55A) Some common forestry terms 44B) Sources of publications 45C) Sources of wildlife plants 46D) Cavity-using birds of Wisconsin 48E) Wisconsin’s Recreational Use Statute 50F) Sample timber sale contract 53
i
CONTENTS
iii
Preface
We developed this publication to helpyou—the private woodland owner—
manage your property for enjoyment andprofit, for the betterment of wildlife habitat andpopulations, and for the overall soundstewardship of Wisconsin’s natural resources.
Though we focus on the very popular ruffedgrouse, you will find advice to benefit virtuallyall wildlife species found in wooded habitats.In fact, a management activity targeted to onespecies often has an impact on many others.A “cookbook” approach to managingwoodland wildlife won’t work, because themanagement “recipe” for each property is
slightly different. We hope this publication willclarify some of the many reasons why this istrue.
Using this guide and some of the referencesand contacts it suggests, you will be able tomaintain or improve your land as productivewildlife habitat , whether you are a first-timelandowner or a seasoned veteran.
The authors wish to thank the many individualswho contributed to and reviewed thispublication, especially Dan Dessecker,Michael Foy, Deedee Wardle, John Keener,Jeff Martin and Ken Sloan.
A note on stewardship
We targeted this guide to woodland owners with specific forestry and wildlifeobjectives, such as improving habitat for ruffed grouse. While such objectivesare perfectly valid and attainable, we want you to take note of recent trends inthe way woodland owners view their land and their role as woodland stewards—and also in the way society as a whole perceives the responsibility of woodlandowners.
We use many terms which refer to new programs and concepts. These deserveyour consideration. Biodiversity, habitat fragmentation, conservation biology,ecosystem management, endangered and threatened species—these and othernotions all imply certain responsibilities for you as a landowner. Some conceptsrepackage old ideas, some arise from new information about how forest systemswork, and some reflect societal priorities. Regardless of the source, in the futureall landowners will likely be urged to factor such considerations into theirmanagement activities. Some programs, such as endangered speciesprotection, may determine which activities will or will not be allowed on yourland.
We have tried to point out some of these concerns throughout this guide, but wealso strongly urge you to keep abreast of new programs and ideas. Weencourage you to be sensitive to your critically important role as steward of anenvironment shared and depended upon by many forms of life.
v
Introduction
F orests are one of Wisconsin’smost important natural
resources. They provide economic,recreational and aesthetic benefitsand make up nearly 15 millionacres (43%) of the state’s total landarea.
Many woodlands are publiclyowned, especially in northernWisconsin. Others are controlledby corporations or industry. But atleast 370,000 private citizens ownwoodlands in Wisconsin. Theirholdings make up about 60% of thestate’s forested habitat.
Forests provide a refuge for manykinds of wildlife. In the past, mostwildlife management programshave been directed toward public lands. But because most land in Wisconsin isprivately owned, landowners are nowencouraged to develop and maintain wildlifehabitat on their land. University of Wisconsin-Extension, the Wisconsin Department ofNatural Resources (DNR), and many privategroups all share a common interest inpromoting wise resource management onWisconsin’s private lands. This guide is aproduct of that interest.
Wisconsin’s forests range from small isolatedwoodlots surrounded by agricultural lands inthe southeast, to large stretches of conifersand hardwoods in the north. Many wildlifespecies depend on some form of woodyvegetation. A few, such as black bears andtimber wolves, need many square miles offorested habitat; others, such as squirrels, canlive in small woodlots. Some species preferdeciduous forests, others coniferous. Somebirds require uniform expanses of maturetrees for nesting, while ruffed grouse andwoodcock prefer a mix of young and middle-aged woods. Forests of every size, type andage provide habitat for some kind of wildlife.
Most wildlife management is actually habitatmanagement. A management strategy maybe simple, such as erecting a bluebird nestbox, but more often it involves manipulatingvegetation. Maintaining a forest in a maturestate is good management for some wildlife,whereas removing timber enhances habitat forothers. Your decisions about woodlandmanagement should be influenced by manyfactors, including your land’s potential, yourgoals, and the conservation of Wisconsin’sresources. This guide will help you exploremanagement alternatives.
Remember to temper your expectations.Wildlife management is often more art thanscience. Variations in location, topography,weather, natural events and wildlifepopulations make it difficult to predict theexact results of any management effort.Nevertheless, this guide offers some proventechniques for benefiting wildlife on yourproperty.
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vi INTRODUCTION
Focus on the ruffed grouseThe ruffed grouse (or partridge) is featured inthis publication for several reasons. As themost popular game bird in Wisconsin, grouseoffer a challenge to hunters and are alsoattracting increasing attention fromphotographers and others who simply enjoywildlife. Although ruffed grouse are commonthroughout much of Wisconsin, DNRresearchers expect populations to decline ifaspen and oak acreage continue to decrease.Here is an obvious opportunity for thewoodland owner to maintain habitat for thispopular species.
A great deal of research has been done on thebiology, habitat requirements, and populationecology of the ruffed grouse. That researchprovides a sound basis for the habitatmanagement practices described here.
Ruffed grouse management need not beexclusive. Good grouse habitat also benefitswoodcock, rabbits, deer, and manysongbirds, as well as wildlife predators. Thebasic principles outlined in this guide can beused to benefit all Wisconsin’s wildlife species.Your primary management goals—preservation, timber, wildlife, or recreational—along with your land's native vegetation, willultimately determine the wildlife species foundon your property.
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vii
The Wisconsin private non-industrial woodland owner: a profile1
• Private woodland owners inWisconsin account for an estimated9,082,000 woodland acres (218,000private non-industrial woodland, orPNIF, ownership units). At least370,400 people (12% of the state’spopulation 20 years of age or older)have an ownership interest in thisland.
• The average size of woodlandholdings is 42 acres, with propertyranging from 1 to 9,000 acres.
• Eleven percent of the woodlandowners control 50% of the PNIFacres.
• Nearly one-third of Wisconsinwoodland owners acquired theirwoodland within the past ten years.
• Forty-two percent of woodlandownerships are part of an activefarm. About one-third farm as theirprimary occupation.
• The education and income ofwoodland owners are similar toWisconsin’s population as a whole.
• Woodland owners cite a widevariety of reasons for owning theirwoodlands. Most list “scenicenjoyment” (69%) and “wildlifehabitat” (74%) as most important.The smallest proportions of ownersgive “motorized recreation” (7%) or“investment,” the potential to sell fora profit (18%), as important reasonsfor owning their own woodlands.“Timber production” (30%) ranksseventh among the ten mostimportant reasons for owningwoodlands—fourth, if considered onan acreage basis. Most ownersreport multiple reasons for owningtheir own woodlands.
• Department of Natural Resources(DNR) county foresters, SoilConservation Service (SCS)personnel and UW-Extension countyagents are the most popular sourcesfor professional advice aboutwoodland management.
• Only one of every three woodlandowners (37%) obtained outsidemanagement advice in the past
decade. For those who solicitedsuch advice, the main purpose wasfor timber production, harvesting ormanagement information. Althoughlarge proportions of owners ratewildlife habitat and scenic enjoymentas important reasons for owningwoodlands, very few have obtainedmanagement advice on thesesubjects over the past decade.
1Highlights from Roberts, J.C., W. G. Tlusty and H.C. Jordahl, Jr., 1986. The Wisconsin private non-industrial woodland owner: a profile. Wisconsin Coop.Ext. Serv. Occas. Paper Series No. 19. 128 pp.
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• Relatively small proportions (3% to10%) of woodland owners haveparticipated in the forestmanagement assistance programsthat are available. The proportionsof woodland owners who say theyare aware of the programs’existence ranges from 21% to 41%.
• The highest ranked recreationalactivities—“viewing nature,”“hiking,” “hunting” and“berrypicking”—are enjoyed eachyear by over half of all woodlandowners.
• Woodland owners report that awide variety of public incentivescould induce them to undertake orcontinue a woodland managementprogram. Property tax reductionand free or low cost trees(incentives now available but notwidely used) are consideredessential by most woodland owners.While not deemed essential by amajority, they also felt that state andfederal tax credits, low costeducational programs, taxreductions, and assistance inmarketing timber and preparingmanagement plans would also beimportant.
• About half (51%) of woodlandowners say they are not interestedin developing and carrying out amanagement plan for timber, scenicbeauty or wildlife habitat. About onein four (26%) are interested indeveloping such a plan. Sixtypercent of those interested wouldrequire a tax reduction as anincentive; 40% would not.
• Approximately 8.6 million acres(95%) of privately owned woodlandsare open to public access, butpermission is required on two-thirdsof these lands.
• Twenty-five percent of owners whoclose their land indicate they haveproblems with trespass. Hunting isthe most significant problem for thisgroup of owners.
• The mean size of harvest area fortimber sales was 23.3 acres.Twenty-seven percent of the salesranged from 1 to 9 acres.
• Approximately two thirds (68%) ofthe owners have never harvestedwood products to sell. This groupcontrols 4.2 million acres or 46% ofall private non-industrial woodland.More than 70% of all woodlandowners agreed that the benefits ofthe Woodland Tax Law (WTL) orForest Crop Law (FCL) programsshould be made available to thosewho choose to emphasize wildlifehabitat, scenic beauty andrecreation in addition to woodproduction.
• Making the benefits of the ForestCrop Law or the Woodland Tax Lawgroups available to those whochoose to emphasize otherpurposes in addition to woodproduction would not in itselfencourage a large number ofowners to enroll. The majority ofowners (52%) didn’t know if such achange would cause them to enrollin FCL; 41% didn’t know if such achange would cause them to enrollin WTL.
• About two thirds (68%) ofwoodland owners plan to keep alltheir woodlands for the next 10years. “Low available volume,” “ruinscenery,” and “desire to leave theirwoodlands as a legacy” were thereasons most frequently given fornot harvesting and selling woodproducts.
• Owners of larger woodlandacreages are more likely to harvestand sell wood products sometime inthe future than are those withsmaller acreages.
• Landowners who currently do notintend to harvest or sell woodproducts indicated that activitieswhich benefit other forest resourceneeds (such as wildlife andscenery) or personal financial needswould influence them to changetheir attitude toward harvesting andselling wood products.
• Almost nine out of ten woodlandowners in the Forest Crop Law(FCL) or Woodland Tax Law (WTL)reported the property tax reductionas being a very important reason forparticipating in the program.Deferring property tax and accessto technical assistance were mostoften called unimportant reasons.
• Lack of information about FCL orWTL, the public accessrequirement, and the notion thatjoining is too much trouble, were themost often given reasons for notenrolling in the FCL or WTLprograms.
• The FCL’s public hunting andfishing access requirement waslisted by 28% of woodland ownersas a major reason they did notenroll. However, 28% also indicatedthat the requirement was not asignificant factor in their decisionnot to enroll.
• About two-thirds (64%) ofWisconsin woodland ownersindicated they harvested woodproducts, either for sale or for theirown use; 70% of these harvestingowners cut firewood for themselves.
NOTE: Since this survey was conducted, the Managed Forest Law (MFL) has replaced the FCL and WTL (see Tlusty and Rodgers,1987). However, it offers many of the same incentives to landowners.
viii A PROFILE
Before you begin your managementprogram, it is absolutely essential that you
understand fundamental forest and wildlifeecology.
Wildlife needsAll animals need food, water, cover and livingspace to survive and reproduce. Wild animalsvary in the kinds of food they eat. The blackbear is a generalist that feeds on berries,roots, nuts, leaves, fish, small mammals andcarcasses of deer and other carrion. An adultwoodcock is a specialist because 90% of itsdiet is composed of earthworms. The ruffedgrouse is both a generalist and a specialist atdifferent times of the year. In summer, grouseeat leaves, seeds and berries in addition toinsects and otherinvertebrates.Throughout the fall,twigs, buds, nuts andfruits make up thegrouse diet. Duringwinter, grousespecialize on buds,particularly from aspen
trees. They depend on this high-protein fooduntil spring.
All animals need water, which is usually readilyavailable in Wisconsin. Wildlife can getmoisture from standing water, dew-ladenplants, and juicy foods such as berries.Ruffed grouse apparently do not needstanding water; they get most of their waterfrom food and dew.
Cover is also crucial. Your management canimprove its quality. Cover serves manypurposes for wildlife: It offers protection frombad weather, provides a refuge from predatorsand affords a secure nesting site.
Cover and food often go hand in hand—especially for ruffedgrouse. A mixture ofdifferent age classes ofaspen and other treesprovides breeding,nesting and escapecover, while alsosupplying food in theform of buds, twigs,catkins and leaves.
11
CHAPTER 1
A forest ecosystem primer
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Animals with a broad diet are calledgeneralists, while those that eat onlyspecific food items are known asspecialists.
There are many factors to consider whenmanaging land for a particular form of wildlife.A species’ home range is one such factor.The home range of a gray squirrel may be onlya few acres, whereas a white-tailed deer orwild turkey might range over hundreds ofacres.
As part of their home range, many animals,particularly birds, have territories they defendfrom others of the same species and sex. Forruffed grouse, the territory reserves a breedingarea. In spring, adult males (commonly knownas drummers) defend 6 to 10 acres of suitablecover for breeding. To a large extent, the sizeof your property (relative to a species’ spacerequirements) determines both the presenceand abundance of wildlife on your land.
Habitat is simply the place, with all itsenvironmental influences, in which a specieslives. A suitable habitat fulfills the four wildlifeneeds for food, water, cover and living space,and permits individuals to survive, reproduceand maintain the population.
For species which can adapt to differenthabitats, suitable dwelling places often varywidely in different geographic areas. Forexample, within limits, deer in Wisconsin thriveequally well in southern farm lands, largecentral Wisconsin marshes, and northernforests. This indicates that an area’s capacityto fulfill wildlife needs, and not the land’sappearance, determines its habitat value.
Wildlife management principlesManaging wildlife means applying yourknowledge of ecology to animal populationsand their habitats. You can make an impacton wildlife when you observe ecologicalprinciples or consult resource professionalsabout managing your land.
Aldo Leopold emphasized the view thatwildlife is a product of the land and the habitatit provides. He also believed that habitatmanagement is the art of producing asustained yield of wildlife. As a landowner,you can create the necessary habitat andmaster this art.
Thoughtful wildlife management, based onecological principles, often uses thetechniques of forestry to attain its goals. Chiefamong these is silviculture, which involvesmanipulating forest establishment,composition and growth. Healthy wildlifepopulations are one of the many benefits ofgood forest management.
Your property may have enough water, coverand space to support ten animals. But if thereis only enough food for six, you will only havesix. This is the limiting factor principle: Thescarcest basic requirement limits thepopulation. Of course, inadequate food,water, cover and living space are not the onlythings that limit animal populations. Disease,parasites, predators (including hunters), andadverse weather can also reduce populations.Yet these so-called mortality factors usually
2 CHAPTER 1
Home range describes theamount of space an individualanimal uses throughout a seasonor year. As a rule, the homerange is large enough to satisfyan animal's requirements forfood, water and cover.
Territories reserve something foran animal’s use, such as anesting site, food supply orbreeding area.
Aldo Leopold, the first Universityof Wisconsin professor of wildlifemanagement, is considered thefounder of modern wildlifeecology.
have less impact in good habitat that meetsthe basic needs of wildlife.
Wildlife management, like most management,attempts to achieve an objective—such asincreasing grouse or other wildlife populations.In the example above, increasing foodquantity or quality will allow your land tosupport ten or more animals, but eventuallyanother shortage will limit further populationgrowth. In theory, wildlife managementattempts to remove these limiting factors untilwildlife population goals are reached.
When you improve poor grouse cover, youincrease your land’s carrying capacity—andthis should result in more grouse. If youcontinue to remove limiting factors to improvethe carrying capacity of your land, will wildlifepopulations increase forever? No. Eachhabitat has certain limits for sustaining awildlife species. For example, the type of soilmay limit food supply, or an inherent speciescharacteristic may prevent unlimited growth.With ruffed grouse, the territorial requirementsof breeding males will eventually prohibitfurther population growth, even in idealhabitat.
Because of territoriality, ruffed grousepopulations rarely outgrow the carryingcapacity of their habitat. When wildlife doesoutgrow the land’s carrying capacity, asoccasionally happens with white-tailed deer,resources are soon exhausted and wildlifedensities decline, or in extreme cases, crash.
This may be due to decreased reproduction,increased mortality, emigration, or acombination of these factors. Whenenvironmental pressure eases, the populationincreases, until it limits itself once again. As aresult, population size fluctuates around orsomewhat below carrying capacity.
The border between a forest and a fieldcreates an edge effect that attracts specieslike the ruffed grouse. Wildlife may beabundant in these areas. Many small-gamehunters follow edges, such as the borderbetween upland aspen and lowland alder, tofind grouse and woodcock.
The width of this edge, or ecotone, can varyfrom the sharp break described above, to agradual transition from one type to another.Generally, the transition type of edge effectsupports more wildlife species. In fact, thereare certain transitional species, such as thesong sparrow, brown thrasher and housewren, that have specifically adapted to theseareas.
Also consider the “Law of Interspersion”proposed by Aldo Leopold. Leopoldconcluded that the more edge per unit area,the higher the game production. We knowtoday that this is true for some species inareas with greater interspersion (fig.1).
Yet the need to develop edge andinterspersion differs among habitats andlocation. When managers create small
FOREST ECOSYSTEM PRIMER 3
Carrying capacity refers to thenumber of animals of one speciesthat can be maintained in ahabitat at a given time (oftenwith the condition that habitatdamage does not occur). It iscommonly used as a measure ofhabitat quality, although judgingby animal density alone can bemisleading, because of seasonalvariations in animal populationsand the land’s ability to supportthem.
The edge effect is anotherprinciple of wildlife management.The edge where two or morevegetation types meet (known asan ecotone) often supports agreater abundance and diversityof wildlife than either type alone.
Habitat fragmentation is thebreaking up of large tracts ofcontiguous habitat into smallerand smaller fragments. It isoften a result of humandevelopment.
openings in the heavily forested tracts ofnorthern Wisconsin, the areas often exhibitincreased wildlife use. On the other hand,much of the forested habitat in southernWisconsin is already broken up into islands ofwoodland surrounded by large open areas.Some wildlife species can’t use such smallparcels of habitat. This phenomenon, knownas habitat fragmentation, is now viewed as aproblem by wildlife managers. If you own alarge wooded tract in southern Wisconsin, youshould consider preserving this uniquecommunity.
As a rule, evaluate the available edge in termsof the wildlife needs discussed here. If theedge barely meets a species’ habitatrequirements, try to increase its size.Increasing the amount of edge can sometimesbe counterproductive because it reduces thearea of forested habitat.
If you do decide to manage your land forruffed grouse, there is another factor toconsider—the ten-year population cycle.Ruffed grouse populations rise and fallnaturally, with peaks and troughs occurringabout every ten years throughout much of theirrange (fig. 2). Other northern forest species,such as snowshoe hares, also exhibit this so-called “ten-year cycle.” The reasons for thecycle are complex and involve interactions
between the quality and quantity of criticalwinter foods, predators, severe winterweather, disease and parasites. Still, studieshave shown that even in low years, grousenumbers remain higher in quality habitat. Themore acres of good habitat you can provide,the greater your chances of maintaininggrouse populations on your property.
Predator control is often suggested as asolution for increasing some wildlifepopulations, and it is used in certainsituations. However, predator control isexpensive, often illegal, and usually effectiveonly in the short-term, if at all. Predators arean integral part of the natural world, and it isimportant to remember that the ruffed grouseand its enemies, such as the goshawk, haveevolved together. As mentioned earlier,severe losses from predators usually indicateinadequate habitat. Over the long run,improvements in habitat quality and quantityshow the most potential for enhancing grousepopulations.
Forest succession: the growth of awoodland2
We often think of forests as permanent fixtureson the landscape, existing until they are cutdown. But forces which operated long beforechainsaws were invented act to change forestvegetation. Various stages of forestdevelopment, such as the pole stage, aresometimes treated as separate entities, butforest succession is a continuous process inwhich one stage gradually becomes another.The process takes place over a period of time.Decades pass before an abandoned fieldbecomes a mature forest (fig. 3).
4 CHAPTER 1
FIGURE 2. Ruffed grouse numbers can fluctuate widely. Insome parts of their range, the population highs and lows arecyclic, occurring every 9 to 11 years.
RUFFED GROUSEPOPULATION CYCLE
2Forestry terms in boldface are defined in Appendix A.
▲ Poor interspersion and edge effect
▲ Good interspersion and edge effect
FIGURE 1. INTERSPERSIONThe four habitat types (A-D) meet 9 timesmore often, while each type’s total arearemains the same.
A B
C D
A B C DC D A B
A B C DC D A B
5 YEARS 10 15 20 25 30
10 YEARS
LOW
H
IGH
If a farmer plows the “back forty” in the springand then for some reason abandons it, annualweeds quickly establish themselves on thebare soil. The weedy field doesn’t look muchlike a forest, but succession has begun.Perennial plants invade the field, and becausethey can outcompete annuals for nutrients andspace, they will eventually dominate. Shrubsand tree seedlings that grow well in directsunlight establish themselves next. Hawthorn,aspen, cherry, birch and white pine areamong the field pioneers.
After several decades, aspen and other sun-loving trees have reached maturity and the 40-acre field is now a woodlot. Species thatoriginally dominate a field are fast growingand do not tolerate shade; their seedlingscannot grow when the ground is shaded.Young aspen will not survive in the shade ofolder aspen, but shade-tolerant species willprosper. Oaks and hickories usually survive inpartial shade, but in southern Wisconsin these
trees are eventually replaced by more shade-tolerant beech, basswood and sugar maple.When the forest is dominated by trees that canreproduce under the shade of their owncanopy, the so-called climax stage is reached.For example, beech and maple seedlingsgrow in the shade of their parents; as an oldtree dies, a young one grows to replace it.
The tree species that make up the climaxforest on a particular site are largelydetermined by the soil and water conditionsthat influence tree growth. Because of this,oaks may be the climax species on a dry ridgetop or south facing slope, while maple andbeech replace oaks along bottomlands or onnorth facing slopes. Climatic factors, such aswind, temperature, and length of growingseason are also involved, so that hardybalsam fir, white spruce or white birch mayreplace sugar maple as the climax species ofboreal forests along the Great Lakes. A forestwill proceed toward its climax stage unless
FOREST ECOSYSTEM PRIMER 5
FIGURE 3. FOREST SUCCESSION AND ITS EFFECT ON SONGBIRDSForest succession proceeds in stages from bare field to annuals, grasses, shrubs, shade-intolerant trees,
and finally shade-tolerant trees—the climax stage. The climax forest remains until fire, wind, disease, cutting,or some other factor disturbs it and sets the forest back to an earlier stage of succession.
Different wildlife species adapt to different stages of forest succession. Songbirds illustrate this well.Some (cowbirds, rose-breasted grosbeaks) can live in several stages of succession; others (song sparrows,cardinals) occupy two stages. Still others (bobolinks in grasslands, acadian flycatchers in mature woods) arespecialized to one particular stage. Killdeer can be found around marshes, but will feed and nest in bare fields.
BAREFIELD
ANNUALS ANDPERENNIALS
SHRUBS
3-20 25-100 150+2
SHRUBS AND SHADE-INTOLERANT TREES
(ASPEN, CHERRIES, ETC.)
SHADE TOLERANT TREESCLIMAX FOREST
(OAKS, HICKORIES, BEECH)
1
KILLDEER
MEADOWLARKBOBOLINK
SONG SPARROWCATBIRD
CARDINAL
COWBIRD
ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK
WOOD THRUSH
OVENBIRD
SCARLET TANAGER
ACADIAN FLYCATCHER
6 CHAPTER 1
some disturbance (fire, windstorm, disease orlogging) changes it. Because these eventshappen so often during the hundreds of yearsit takes for a forest to mature, a true climaxforest rarely evolves.
Forest succession is an important concept inwildlife management because it predicts thewildlife species you can expect to find in anygiven stage of forest development (fig.3).Some animals are adapted to live and breedin old fields, some in young forests, and othersin mature woods.
There is usually some overlap in the habitat ofeach species. For example, cottontail rabbitsinhabit fields, shrubby areas or youngwoodlots with dense understories. Somespecies have very general habitatrequirements while others are morespecialized. But few species, if any, thrivethroughout all of the forest’s successionalstages.
How does this relate to grouse management?Ruffed grouse are usually associated with theearly stages of forest succession. Tomaximize grouse populations, forests thathave grown beyond the early successionalstage must be cut, burned or disturbed insome way—then allowed to grow back. Thus,succession necessitates a basic managementdecision. Do you want to manage your landfor ruffed grouse, woodcock and other earlysuccessional stage wildlife? Do you want toemphasize older stages that provide habitatfor species of mature forests, such as pileatedwoodpeckers? Or do you want to try (if yourproperty is large enough) for a mixture ofboth?
Managing the forest as anecosystemA forest is a biological community dominatedby trees and other woody vegetation. Anecosystem includes all the environmentalelements, both living and non-living, thatcontribute to a community. A forestecosystem encompasses the animals, trees,understory growth, leaf litter, soil, rainfall,groundwater and all the other componentsthat make up a forest. Wildlife is a part of theecosystem in which it lives, and each speciesis influenced by all facets of the ecosystem.
Managing natural resources wisely is ofteninterpreted as using resources to benefit thesite, the landowner, or the public—dependingupon which interests are being considered.
There is nothing really wrong with thisphilosophy. Nevertheless, many ownersoverlook a woodland’s many potential valuesby narrowly defining use and restricting theirmanagement schemes. Thus, woodlots areoften managed only for timber production,watershed, wildlife or recreation. But everyforest is a watershed because some rain fallson it . Every forest has some wildlife,aesthetic, conservation and recreational value.The impact of these values varies amongwoodlands and among woodland owners.
As the manager of your woodland, you decidewhich uses to favor. One option is to producetimber on land that is managed for wildlife; infact, timber and wildlife management oftencomplement each other. Some tradeoffsbetween various land uses will always benecessary. Sawtimber management mayrequire you to compromise ruffed grousehabitat. Likewise, managing for grouse,woodcock and deer may adversely affectspecies that require large tracts of matureforest. If your property is large, you may havemore flexibility for managing diverse habitats.But you will need to establish priorities andrealize that you cannot support everything inthe same woodlot. Vegetation, soil, water andwildlife are all interrelated; conserving them isthe concern of forest ecosystem management.
At this point, you may be wondering about thepotential conflict between managing anecosystem and managing for a single species.After all, isn’t this guide primarily aboutmanaging young forests specifically for ruffedgrouse? Yes, but you must exercise cautionwith single species management. All theapplied management disciplines—forestry,agriculture, soils, as well as wildlife, fisheries,and range management—have been criticizedfor manipulating natural systems withoutregard for their complex interrelationships.But a healthy ecosystem provides all of thedifferent forest types necessary to support itsnative flora and fauna.
In this time of wildfire control and hugeacreages of middle-aged forests, both ruffedgrouse and old-growth songbird enthusiastshave reason for concern. As the manager ofyour own land, sensitivity to your woodland asan ecosystem will allow you to accomplishyour goals, while still protecting the manyvalues that make forests such a unique part ofour world.
7
CHAPTER 2
The natural zones of Wisconsin
On the basis of vegetation alone, northernWisconsin with its mesic forest types
requiring moderately moist soils, differs fromsouthern Wisconsin with its combinedelements of prairie and eastern deciduousforest types. The Tension Zone (fig. 4a)divides these two regions. The TensionZone’s exact location represents the densestconcentration of individual plant range limits(see Curtis, 1959).
Beyond this simple two-fold division,Wisconsin can be further separated into five
natural zones or ecotypes (fig. 4b): NorthernForest (including the Lake Superior lowland),Eastern Deciduous Forest on the shore ofLake Michigan, Western Upland (includingmostly the Driftless Area), Central SandCounties, and Oak Savanna/Prairie (nowmostly farmland) of southeastern Wisconsin.These zones differ in local geology,topography, soils or vegetation. Althoughmost management techniques apply to thefirst four zones, be aware that specialproblems or unique situations occur in each.
FIGURE 4b. WISCONSIN’S FIVE NATURALZONES.
A subdivision of Wisconsin into five natural zones:Northern Forest, Eastern Deciduous Forest,Western Upland, Central Sand Counties and OakSavanna/Prairies.
FIGURE 4a. THE TENSION ZONE
The Tension Zone (shaded area) representsthe densest concentration of individual plantrange limits. For example, balsam fir is nottypically found south of the Tension Zone,but partridge pea, a southern legume, is notfound north of it.
Northern Forest
Western Upland
Central Sand Counties
Oak Savanna and Prairies
Eastern Deciduous Forest
Tension Zone
Since this guide focuses on woodlands, wewill not discuss the Oak Savanna/Prairie zone.Initiating a habitat management program insoutheastern Wisconsin depends on woodlotsize, type and management potential. But youcan still manage for pheasants, quail, rabbits,squirrels, songbirds or other wildlife typical ofagricultural land.
The Northern ForestThe Northern Forest is a conifer-hardwoodforest in the heavily glaciated northern third ofthe state. This land is owned by privatecitizens, industry, Native Americans, counties,and state and federal governments. All of the1.5 million acres of National Forest inWisconsin lie within this zone. Agriculturalland is widely scattered and devoted to dairyfarming and cash crops. Upland forestsinclude pure or mixed stands of northernhardwoods, aspen (popple), fir and birch. Themajor forest product is pulpwood, followed byfuel wood and sawlogs.
Some of the best ruffed grouse habitat islocated in northern Wisconsin where aspen isone of the major forest species. In many
areas nearly two-thirds of the upland forestconsists of aspen—offering opportunities toconsider grouse habitat when developing pulpand timber management plans.
In the last 60 years, aspen acreage hasdecreased by about 1% per year, due tonatural succession in the face of fire controland weak aspen markets. If you areinterested in managing for ruffed grouse,aspen should be maintained where feasible.This may be difficult on sites wherecompetition with balsam fir or northernhardwoods exists. Although small clumps ofbalsam fir provide excellent winter cover, fircan dominate some areas and reduce habitatquality. Likewise, northern hardwoods willeventually succeed aspen if stands are notclearcut periodically. Unfortunately, larger-sized cuts of over 40 acres are more commonin the Northern Forest, which reduces potentialgrouse response. Keeping clearcuts to 5 or10acres will increase age-class diversity andmaximize grouse and deer populations.
8 CHAPTER 2
Northern hardwoods.
Wis
cons
in D
NR
NATURAL ZONES OF WISCONSIN 9
The Eastern Deciduous ForestExtensive groves of sugar maple, basswoodand elm characterize the Eastern DeciduousForest. Additionally, American beech reachesits western range limit in this region. TheGreen Bay and Lake Michigan glacial lobescame out of the northeast to completely coverthis area of southeastern Wisconsin. Post-glacial revegetation was dominated by theEastern Deciduous Forest advancing fromsouth and east of Wisconsin.
This area is the most densely populated of thefive natural zones described. It includes thecities of Appleton, Fond du Lac, Milwaukee,Oshkosh and Sheboygan. Much of the maple-dominated forest has been cleared fordevelopment and agriculture; however, agreat deal of both publicly and privatelyowned wooded land still exists. Wetlands,including tamarack swamps, are alsoimportant in this part of the state.
Notice that the Tension Zone (fig. 4a) dipssharply to the south in the area of LakeWinnebago. This leaves the Door CountyPeninsula and Lake Michigan shorelinecounties with plants and animals found in theNorthern Forest as well as the southern forestcommunity. The Eastern Deciduous Forest ismarked by glacial features such as drumlinsand kettles, including the well-known “KettleMoraine” areas. Ruffed grouse managementis not a common practice, but deer andwaterfowl management are important. Wildturkeys are also expanding in range andnumbers.
The Central Sand CountiesThe Central Sand Counties, with their finesands and silt loams, are dominated byaspen, jack pine and northern pin (scrub) oak.Immortalized in Aldo Leopold’s A Sand CountyAlmanac (1949), this area contains a mosaicof cover types. Agricultural developmentranges from cranberry bogs to intensivecenter-pivot irrigation for truck crops.Prominent wetlands composed of spruce ortamarack swamps, sedge marsh, or alderoccupy 50% of the landscape in some areas.Uplands are interspersed with fallow fields,crop lands and many shrubs including hazel,blueberry, huckleberry and sweet fern.Plantations stocked with white, red and jackpine are common. Some bottomlandhardwoods (silver maple, white ash and river
birch) grow along major drainages. However,uplands dominated by aspen or mixtures ofaspen and oak or pine provide the bestgrouse habitats.
This area is composed of industrial forests,extensive public land under county and stateownership, and a variety of private lands.Industrial forests are managed for wood fiberwith some consideration for recreation andwildlife; public lands are managed for multiplepurposes. Management effort for timber orwildlife on private lands varies. If you convertaspen stands to red pine, the preferredpulpwood producer, you’ll need to makespecial efforts to avoid excessive damage towildlife habitats.
Managing aspen for grouse in this region isoften hampered by poor pulpwood marketsand wet conditions that make logging difficult.Many stands eventually convert to low gradehardwoods or white pine. Yet aspen is still thepreferred Central Sands grouse habitat, andyour management plans should emphasize it.Just recognize that management recom-mendations may be harder to implement.You’ll probably find a poor market for yourtimber and poor stocking densities. Largertimber sales in cooperation with yourneighbors, or improving access through roadconstruction, may increase logger interest.The aspen management guidelines found inChapter 5 include suggestions to improvestocking.
The Western UplandRugged, wooded hillsides characterize theWestern Upland (or Driftless Area) ofWisconsin. Intensive ridge top and valleycultivation supports beef and dairy operations.A dry southern hardwood forest of white, redand black oaks dominates the zone. Othermajor tree species include hickory, bur oak,sugar maple, basswood, white ash, ironwoodand black cherry. Trembling and bigtoothaspen are less common species.
The oak-hickory type dominates the DriftlessArea, covering about half of the commercialforest acreage. These forests are relics ofearlier days, when recurring fires favored oakregeneration. Northern hardwoods willeventually outcompete the oak-hickory type onthe area’s rich heavy soils. On lighter soils,succession favors white pine.
Because of these trends and economicfactors, foresters may encourage you toconvert to northern hardwoods or pine afterharvesting mature oak-hickory woodlands.This will probably diminish grouse, deer,squirrel and turkey populations. Nevertheless,by working carefully with your forester, youmay be able to maintain oak as an importantspecies in your woodlot.
Aspen grows less commonly throughout theWestern Upland, particularly in the northerncounties along the St. Croix River. Yet largeblocks of aspen, such as occur in theNorthern Forest, are rare.
Rather than attempting to convert large areasto aspen, consider expanding the aspen youdo have to improve ruffed grouse winter foodsupplies. You can then concentrate on
developing common local species (such asblackberry, hazel, prickly-ash, sumac, locustand young oaks) into the dense vertical coverneeded by grouse.
Grouse may make good use of conifers in theDriftless Area, where good roosting snow israrely available. Plant conifers with low-growing, brushy branches that provide wintercover. Good choices are eastern red cedar(juniper) on dry sites, white spruce on mediumto moist sites, and eastern arborvitae (whitecedar) on wetter sites.
10 CHAPTER 2
11
CHAPTER 3
Designing a habitat management plan
You should consider several things beforebeginning a habitat management program
for your woodlands. One of the first and mostimportant is your time, because a successfulwildlife management program requires severalyears’ commitment. This does not mean thatyou have to work every day for many years toimprove habitat, but it does mean that youmust be willing to follow through with yourmanagement efforts.
It can take a long time to alter the vegetationand detect a wildlife response to the changes.Don’t be discouraged—your efforts will besteadily rewarded in small ways. Each timeyou hear a ruffed grouse drumming from anew corner of your land, or when songbirdsuse snags (dead trees) you have preserved ora nestbox your children built, you will reapbenefits from your labors.
Abundant wildlife can cause problems. Athigh populations, some species become peststhat compete with other land uses. A goodgrouse management program will also attractdeer to your woodlot. Deer can, and do,
cause considerabledamage inWisconsin. Yourwoodland couldprovide sanctuaryfor a deer herd thatraids a neighbor’sorchard orcornfields. Deermay make it nearlyimpossible toestablish some ofyour own plantings,such as Christmastrees or fruitingshrubs. You mayneed to protectgardens and berrypatches fromcertain species.
Quality wildlife habitat can also attractpotential users of wildlife—especiallyhunters—who may create safety and trespassproblems. But before you close off the wildliferesource by posting your land, remember thatwildlife belongs to everybody. The DNR’s“Project Respect” offers one option to help youdeal with trespass, while providing forregulated public access. Also, Wisconsin’srecreational use statute, revised in 1984, limitsthe injury liability of private landowners (seeAppendix E for an explanation of the statute).
The basics are behind us. Let’s get going witha management plan for your land.
Step 1
Set management objectivesOnce you have decided to manage yourwoods for wildlife, plan your approach.Establish your goals and decide what youwant from your woodland. Are you primarilyinterested in grouse, woodcock and deer, orwould you also like to have thrushes, warblersand woodpeckers breeding on your property?Do you hunt squirrels and rabbits as well asgrouse? Do you plan to sell some pulpwoodto help defray your management costs? Doyou harvest fuel wood for your own use orincome? Do you enjoy gathering wild berriesand nuts? There are many things to thinkabout!
You are not restricted to one goal. You canhave several primary objectives (such asmanaging for ruffed grouse and pulpwoodsales), plus secondary objectives. Secondaryobjectives could include encouraging rabbitsby building brushpiles, providing squirrels withnest boxes, and saving snags for cavity-nesters such as woodpeckers. Jot down yourideas and objectives and keep track ofreferences and literature that will aid yourmanagement efforts. You may want to keep ajournal, including field notes and natureobservations. This will be a helpful andW
isco
nsin
DN
R
interesting record of your progress andexperiences.
Now is a good time to do a little research onforestry techniques and the habitat needs ofwildlife species you wish to encourage. Somegood publications can be found inREFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING (seeAppendix D). Background knowledge onwhat it will take to achieve your goals will helpyou evaluate your land and communicate withprofessionals.
Step 2
Inventory and evaluate your landWith some objectives inmind, you can begin toinventory the wildlife,vegetation andphysicalfeatures ofyour land.Take yourjournalalong and
write down anyinformation thatpertains to your
objectives. In what successionalstages are your woodlands? Whattree, shrub, and herbaceousspecies are present? What is theacreage of various stands ofconifers, oaks, aspens and mixedhardwoods? If your land is hilly,record the slope and exposure(northwest, southeast, etc.) of eachstand. Take special note of anysnags, large acorn-producing oaks(wolf trees) and berry patches. Apair of binoculars and some of thefield guides listed in the referenceswill help you make an accurateinventory. You may find a newhobby, a new species for yourcounty, or even a new championtree!
While examining your own land,observe your neighbor's property,too. Are mature forests, youngshrubby woodlands, or old fieldsnearby? Locate and estimate theacreage of adjacent croplands.Evaluate neighboring land for habitatcomponents you cannot provide, andfor their effect on wildlife movement.
Contiguous habitat strips provide travel lanes,while a wide field may be a barrier. You mayeven want to talk to your neighbors aboutforming a cooperative habitat managementplan. It takes additional planning, but thelarger acreage involved may be worth it,especially for such contemporary interests as“trophy deer management.”
Collect enough information to delineate thesize, type and successional stage of differenthabitats. For example, to manage for ruffedgrouse, record the number and ages of anyaspen plus the location and acreage of berry-producing shrubs, alder thickets, smallopenings in the forest, grape tangles andyoung conifers. A lack of some of these covertypes tells you where to begin yourmanagement.
12 CHAPTER 3
FIGURE 5. PROPERTY COVER MAP.
ASPEN-HARDWOODS
LINDSTEN ROAD
FARM
AG
. LA
NDM
ACD
ONA
LD R
OAD
CORN(5 ACRES)
SHARECROPPINGALFALFA(7 ACRES)
SHARECROPPED CORN(15 ACRES)
PROPERTY COVER MAP
SNAGS
MIXED HARDWOODS(25 ACRES)
FEET
BRUSH
PROPERTYBOUNDARY
HA
RDWOODS
SHIOC CREEK
TRACTOR ROAD
AS
PENPA
STURE
CORN
DEADSNAGS
SHADETREES
WOLFTREE
45-YEAR-OLD(10 ACRES)
OPEN OAKWOODLOT(8 ACRES)
20-YEAR-OLDASPENS
(20 ACRES)
OLDPASTURE
(10 ACRES)
BOTTOMLANDHARDWOODS
ALDER
ALDER(5 ACRES)
Once you’ve had a good look at what you (andyour neighbors) own, begin sketching a mapof your property. Aerial photographs,available at the local Agricultural Stabilizationand Conservation Service (ASCS) office, andtopographical maps from the U.S. GeologicalSurvey (USGS) are very useful. Start withobvious landmarks (buildings, driveways,fencelines, roads, trails, streams and ponds)and use them as reference points. Next,sketch in property boundaries and the locationand approximate size of major timber stands(any similar, identifiable groups of trees).
For example, you may have 15 acres of 10- to12-year-old aspen, 22 acres of 25+ year-oldaspen, 23 acres of mature northernhardwoods and 20 acres of red and black
oaks in your 80-acre woodlot. If you cannotestimate the ages of the trees, the size (DBHor height) will do. You need not measureevery tree in the forest, just enough to get asense of the stand. Then add in the fields,clearings and any patches of shrubby cover.Note the location of snags, dens, wolf trees,berry patches, grape tangles, and otherunique habitats, such as springs, rockoutcrops or kettles. Don’t forget to make noteof the habitat types on adjacent lands. Finishyour map with a north-pointing arrow anddistance scale (fig. 5). This map and yourinventory will form the basis of your wildlifemanagement plan.
Step 3
Seek professional assistanceNow that you have a journal with your
objectives, inventory, field notes,references and a cover map, consultwildlife and forestry professionals.Each Wisconsin county has a DNRwildlife manager and forester, a UW-Extension agent, a Soil ConservationService district conservationist, andLand Conservation Department countyconservationist. UW-Extension wildlifeand forestry specialists and groupssuch as the Ruffed Grouse Society orAudubon Society can also help.Private consultants and industrialforesters are available in some areasfor a fee; they are a good choice ifyou desire extensive hands-onassistance.
Do not hesitate to consultprofessionals from various disciplinesor agencies; each offers a differentperspective. Consultants are mostvaluable when you get their advice onthe probable outcomes of variousmanagement alternatives.
Once you have found an advisor withwhom you are comfortable, reviewthe journal and discuss your goals.The advisor can determine if yourobjectives are realistic relative to thelocal ecosystem, existing vegetation,and financial considerations. Ideally,the professional should survey yourland with you. He or she can defineareas that have good managementpotential, help you identify plants andimprove your map. Use the
opportunity to ask questions and
HABITAT MANAGEMENT PLAN 13
SNAGS
FIGURE 6. HABITAT MANAGEMENT MAP.
LINSTEN ROAD
FARM
AG
. LA
NDM
ACD
ONA
LD R
OAD
CORN(5 ACRES)
SHARECROPPINGALFALFA(7 ACRES)
SHARECROPPED CORN(15 ACRES)
KEY FOR HABITAT MANAGEMENT MAP
(1995) - YEAR OF ASPEN CLEAR-CUT
ALDER STRIP CUTS
CONIFER PLANTINGS
FEET
BRUSH
PROPERTYBOUNDARY
HA
RDWOODS
PAS
TURECORN
SHADETREES
OPEN OAKWOODLOT(8 ACRES)
BOTTOMLANDHARDWOODS
ALDER
(2000)(1995)
LOG LANDING
(2005)
(2000)
(2005)
(1995)(2000)
(2000)
CUT
T.S.I.PRESERVEWOLF TREES& SNAGS
(1995)
BRUSH PILES
SNAGWOLF TREE
AS
PENLOG
LANDING
14 CHAPTER 3
discuss concerns previously recorded in yourjournal. If you cannot arrange a professionalvisit to your property, set up an officeconsultation. Your journal and cover mapshould provide enough information to planyour management program.
After the professional assesses the wildlifepotential of your property, settle on your finalobjectives and sketch out a habitatmanagement plan based on your cover map(fig. 6). If logging is needed, a forester canprovide information on timber marketingpractices, sawlog and pulpwood prices,locations of the nearest mills and names ofreliable timber operators and harvestcompanies.
Step 4
Finalize your management planYour habitat management plan is nearlycomplete. You should have the following: aninventory of wildlife and plant species; adescription of timber stands includinglocation, size and composition; additional fieldnotes; references, addresses and phonenumbers of the local wildlife manager andtimber harvesting contractor; a completecover map and a map showing areas to bemanaged.
The final step is to draw up a work schedule.Include the primary type of work to be done(for example, clearcut 5 acres of 35-year-oldaspen), secondary jobs (use the slash tobuild two brush piles), the job location and an
approximate timetable forcompletion. Be realistic. Don’texpect to clearcut five acres orplant 1,500 conifers by yourself ona Saturday afternoon. A workschedule will help keep you oncourse and provide a record ofaccomplishments (fig.7). Considerenlisting the help of volunteergroups (scouts, 4-H, seniorcitizens, or conservation clubs) inyour area. Take the opportunity toshare the joys and responsibilitiesof land stewardship.
FIGURE 7. SAMPLE WORK SCHEDULE FORHABITAT MANAGEMENT
Schedule for Habitat Management
I. Aspen Management1. Construct log road and landings2. Clearcut 1/2 of 45-year-old aspen in 19953. Clearcut 8 acres of 20-year aspen in 19954. Sell for pulpwood5. Cut second half of 45-year aspen in 20006. Cut 3 more patches of 20-year aspen in
20007. Make final 2 aspen cuts in 2005
II. Alder Management1. Make initial strip cuts in 19962. Follow-up with additional strip cuts in 1998
III. Hardwood Management1. Begin T.S.I. in 1995 - cut enough for 10 cords
(4 for home use, 6 to sell)
IV. Miscellaneous1. Seed logging trail and landings with white
clover2. Plant conifer patches between 1993-19983. Build brush piles; in north 1994; in south 19964. Construct 6 bluebird boxes and place
around house by 1995
15
CHAPTER 4
Managing young forests for grouse and other wildlife
As mentioned earlier, you should familiarizeyourself with the life history and habitat
requirements of ruffed grouse, or any speciesof interest, before starting your managementprogram.
Some publications that can provide moreinformation are: The Ruffed Grouse (Gullion),Ecology of the Ruffed Grouse (DeStefano et.al., 1984), Ruffed Grouse (Madson, 1969), andRuffed Grouse (Atwater and Schnell, 1989).Many publications on wildlife-related topicsare included in A Bibliography of CooperativeExtension Service Literature on Wildlife, Fishand Forest Resources (Ruff et al. 1993).Details on these and other helpful publicationsare found under REFERENCES FOR FURTHERREADING.
Evaluate your land’s potentialIf your property lacks wooded cover, you maywant to check the references in this guide forfarm wildlife management tips on waterfowl,ring-necked pheasants, gray partridge,cottontails, fox squirrels, bobwhite quail orgrassland songbirds. Remember to targetthose species whose ranges overlap yourproperty.
Property consisting mainly of open fields maybe better suited for re-establishing nativeprairie, while low pastures might be restoredas wetlands. Restoration can be a particularlysatisfying way of regaining some ofWisconsin’s lost natural communities, and willattract wildlife unique to these habitats.
Ste
phen
DeS
tefa
no
Good ruffed grouse habitat is a combination ofall the cover types that grouse requirethroughout the year: dense young woods,brushy thickets, and small natural openingsmixed with mature food trees. Although aspenhas the best potential for grouse, the key inany forest type is to maintain a mixture ofyoung and middle-aged stands. Mostmanagement involves preventing successionto a mature forest stage with an understorythat is too open to support ruffed grouse.
As a rule of thumb, you need at least 40 acresfor successful ruffed grouse management.Smaller parcels have considerably lowerpotential, although 20 acres of aspen, oak andshrubs amid neighboring woods can bemanaged to support a drummer or two in thespring, perhaps a summer brood, and somegrouse in the fall. Even 50 acres of primehabitat may be barren of grouse if it issurrounded by crop land. Such an island ofwoods may be used by woodcock and otherwildlife, but is often too isolated to support agrouse population.
University of Minnesota research has shownthat properly managed aspen stands, withassociated shrubs, can fulfill the year-roundneeds of the ruffed grouse. Prime grousehabitat includes a mix of three age-classes ofaspen. Stands less than five years old areimportant as brood habitat for hens and youngchicks, and may also attract some drummers.Aspen stands are most productive for grouseduring the next growth stage (6-25 years)because they provide excellent cover fordrummers, nesting hens and wintering adults.Stands older than 25 years provide the budsand catkins needed for winter food and caninclude attractive nesting and brood-rearingcover, depending on the shrubs andherbaceous food plants present. It is notsurprising that the ranges of aspen and ruffedgrouse closely overlap (fig. 8). Some of thehighest grouse numbers are found inWisconsin, Michigan and Minnesota whereaspen is common.
You can also manage other forest types forgrouse habitat. Lacking aspen, you cancreate similar structure (the horizontal andvertical arrangement of your vegetation). Themost crucial component appears to be stemdensity. Dense vertical stems protect theconspicuous drummer from avian predators.If you can develop stands with at least 2,000stems over 5 feet tall per acre (fig. 9), within300 feet of a good food supply, you should beable to attract drummers and support grouseyear round. This can be done with manyvegetation types—it’s just easier with aspen.In northern Wisconsin, grouse habitat mayinclude young balsam fir or spruce mixed withbirch, red maple, alder and hazel. In thecentral and southern range, dogwood, alder,hazel, prickly-ash, wild grape, oak or redmaple may provide food and cover.Tamarack bogs or aspen growing on wet sitesmay support some grouse, but densities areusually far below those of upland forests.
16 CHAPTER 4
FIGURE 8. RUFFED GROUSE AND ASPEN RANGES INTHE UNITED STATES.The ranges of ruffed grouse and aspen closely overlap inNorth America.
Ruffed grouse range
Aspen distribution
Tom
Mar
tins
on, L
ittl
e M
arai
s, M
N(U
W-E
xten
sion
ruf
fed
grou
se s
lide
set
)
Aspen managementTwo aspen (popple) species grow in NorthAmerica: trembling (also called quaking)aspen and bigtooth aspen (fig. 10). As itsname implies, bigtooth aspen has large teethon its leaf margin, while trembling aspen hassmaller teeth and flattened leaf stems thatallow the leaves to tremble in a breeze.Trembling aspen is the most widespread treein North America. Bigtooth, which prefersdrier sites, is limited to eastern North America.Trembling aspen provides somewhat higherquality food and cover for ruffed grouse, butmanagement strategies for both species aresimilar. The two types will be treated togetherin these guidelines. Also in REFERENCESFOR FURTHER READING see the DNR’sbulletin Aspen Management on Your Land.
Aspen provides the major source of pulpwoodin the Great Lakes states, while well-formedmature trees are sold as sawlogs or veneerbolts. Fast-growing and short-lived, aspensurvive from 70 to 100 years on the best sites.As pioneer species, they grow best in opensunlight and poorly where shaded by othertrees. They are unable to reproduce under an
MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS 17
• Use a tape, rope or stickto estimate a 1/100 acreplot (11’9” radius).
• Count the number of livestems over 5’ tall andmultiply by 100.
Sco
tt R
. Cra
ven
FIGURE 9. ESTIMATING STEM DENSITY.
5’ tall
Dead snag - don’t count
11’9” radiusSingle-stemmedCount only once
Too short - don’t count
overhead canopy, except along forest edgesor steep hillsides where sufficient sunlightreaches the ground.
As a forest ages, aspen eventually die out dueto competition from shade-tolerant species.Nevertheless, the aspen in your woodlot canbe maintained indefinitely—if you regenerateby clearcutting to allow the sun to reach theground. Removing mature aspen produces avigorous growth of young shoots, or suckers,that sprout from the older root stocks to starta new forest. Suckers commonly sprout inuniform stands, often at densities of up to70,000 stems per acre! These stands providethe dense vertical cover required by grouse;first as brood cover, later, after about fiveyears of natural thinning, for drummers.Surprisingly few aspen are needed to provideadequate regeneration following clearcutting.
Admittedly, there is some irony in cutting aforest to preserve it. What many consider tobe the exploitative cutting of mature forests inmountainous regions of the country has givenclearcutting a bad name. Huge clearcuts insuch areas often result in severe erosion,and the slow regeneration of these forestscreate at least the impression ofecological devastation. Yetalmost all aspen originates withsome form of forestdisturbance—either fromnatural causes such as fire andwindstorm, or logging. If youremember that cutting anaspen leaves behind avigorous root system, it iseasy to draw a parallelwith the gardener, who mustperiodically cut back rosebushes to keep themblooming. This strategy
would not work for all trees or bushes, but foraspen and roses it works well. Small, well-planned aspen clearcuts on Wisconsin’srelatively flat terrain are quite safe, and theyquickly resprout without planting. Growth issurprisingly rapid, so there is no long-termdenuded landscape to look at (fig. 11).Cutting your aspen at maturity provides themultiple benefits of excellent grouse habitat,aspen maintenance, and income from yourland.
Removing all trees and saplings (includingother species) over 1-inch DBH shouldregenerate a dense stand of aspen on mostsites. This allows suckers to develop withoutoverhead shading to hinder their growth.Remember, you can always make exceptionsfor a favorite white pine or oak (see the sectionon reserve trees).
Specify the 1-inch DBH limit in the loggingcontract, or make arrangements for treatmentafter the sale. Otherwise most operators will
not take the time to cut submerchantabletrees, such as small red maples or
conifers, leaving you the back-breakingjob of removing these aspen
competitors. Don’t worry about theslash left behind aftercutting aspen or conifer
stands. Aspen andconifer slash breaks
down within a few yearsand will not hampergrouse movement asother hardwood slash
does. If you have alot of small hardwoodsleft lying on the site, youcan burn them or inviteyour friends to cut them
up for firewood.
18 CHAPTER 4
FIGURE 10. FEATURES OF TREMBLING AND BIGTOOTH ASPEN.
BIGTOOTH ASPEN
CATKIN
GROWTH FORM (SIMILAR IN BOTH SPECIES)
TREMBLING ASPEN
On poor or wet sites, common in the CentralSand counties, you may have troubleobtaining good regeneration. Preparing thesite after clearcutting will improve aspen andshrub densities. Scarifying the site (disturbingthe soil) through full-tree logging or loggingwhen the ground is not frozen will improvesuckering. Both methods increase surfacedisturbance, the former from the rake-likeaction of dragging a full tree out of the woods;the latter from the logging equipment thatchews up the unfrozen ground.
Burn the logging slash where it lies, ratherthan in piles. This allows the sun to warm thesoil and will also stimulate suckering. Seekprofessional help before attempting to burnslash since the potential for danger exists inany venture involving burning. To encouragethe best regeneration, harvest timber only fromAugust to April. During this time, foodreserves needed to stimulate sprouting arestored in the roots, protected from loss due tologging.
Now you know how to regenerate aspen.Next, you must provide the three age-classesof aspen needed by grouse within 6 to 10acres—the approximate size of a drummingmale’s territory. Remember the Law ofInterspersion! The more copies you cancreate of this basic unit—a drumming territoryproviding most of the year-round needs ofruffed grouse—the greater your potentialgrouse population. The easiest way to do thisis to cut your aspen in small blocks on arotation basis, producing a mix of age classesthroughout your property.
Follow these four steps when setting up anaspen rotation:
1. Determine the rotation age. Forestersrecommend a rotation age of 40 years onpoor sites (site index less than 50), 50 yearson medium sites (site index 50-60), and 55 to60 years on the best sites (site index over 60).Your forester can determine the rotation agefor your aspen; this period then becomes thetime frame in which you should plan yourgrouse habitat rotations.
2. Select a cutting pattern. You can usevarious cutting patterns to attain a mixture ofage classes. Researchers have experimentedwith a number of checkerboard designs, using
MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS 19
FIGURE 11. An aspen clearcut quickly returnsto its original mature forested state.
Tom
Bah
ti
20 CHAPTER 4
clearcuts of various sizes (fig. 12). Thispattern encourages a good age-classdistribution, and its efficient use of space willmaximize the potential number of drummingterritories in a given area. Unfortunately, manypeople find these regular patterns unattractiveand artificial. An alternative is to modify yourcuts to meander through the landscape andconform to the topography (fig. 13). Such apattern can simply follow natural stands, or belaid out to mimic their appearance. Thispattern can reduce erosion in hilly country.
FIGURE 12. ASPEN CUTTING PRESCRIPTIONS FOR TWO DIFFERENT 20-ACRE TRACTS.(All cuts are clearcuts. See Gullion, 1972, for more details.)
FIGURE 13. STRIP CLEARCUTS.Strip clearcuts with scalloped edges are an alternative tosquare cuts with straight edges. Leaving vegetatedbuffer strips along stream banks protects the banks andthe stream. When possible, strip cuts should be arrangedin a north-south direction to maximize sunlight reachingthe ground.
20-YEAR-OLDASPEN
45-YEAR-OLDASPEN
FIRST YEAR.NW CORNER CUT.
FIRST YEAR.ASPEN CLOSE TOMATURITY.HALF CUT.
5 YEARS LATER.2ND HALF CUT.
IN 5 MORE YEARSASPEN IS FULLYREGENERATED.SW CORNER IS CUT.
IN 5 MORE YEARS, SOMEEXCELLENT COVER FORGROUSE.HALF OF THE 10-YEARASPEN CAN BE CUT, WHILETHE 1-YEAR ASPEN CAN BEALLOWED TO MATURE TOPROVIDE BUDS.
5 YEARS LATER.NE CORNER CUT.
5 YEARS LATER.SE CORNER CUT.
AND 5 YEARS LATER.SW CAN BE CUT IN 10YEARS.
25-YEAR-OLDASPEN
30-YEAR-OLDASPEN
5-YEARASPEN
5-YEARASPEN
5-YEARASPEN
5-YEARASPEN
15-YEARASPEN50-YEAR
ASPEN
10-YEARASPEN
10-YEARASPEN 10-YEAR
ASPEN
5-YEARASPEN
15-YEARASPEN
10-YEARASPEN
5-YEARASPEN
35-YEARASPEN
CLEARCUT
WOODEDHILL
CLEARCUT
BUFFER STRIP
BUFFER STRIP
3. Determine your block size. How bigshould you make your clearcuts? If you areusing natural stands, you already know,although you can lump or split them. Smallcuts are best: 5 to 10 acres is ideal, butloggers may demand 10 to 20 acres. Youmight convince a logger to cut in 5-acreblocks, however, if your total sale acreage issufficient. For example, a commercial loggermay agree to log your property if he or shecan take 20 acres of aspen. Instead ofclearing a contiguous 20-acre patch, two 10-acre blocks or four 5-acre blocks could becut. Loggers may agree to this arrangement ifthey don’t have to move their equipment toofar between work areas. Providing goodaccess will make a logger more willing to cutsmall blocks. Managing Northern Forests forWildlife (Gullion, 1984) has special patterns foruse on large properties where clearcuts over20 acres may be necessary.
4. Calculate your cutting cycle—the intervalbetween one cut and the next. Divide youraverage block size into the total aspenacreage; then divide this into the averagerotation age of your aspen. This will tell youhow often you must cut to complete a rotationin the available time frame. For example, 5-acre blocks divided into 40 acres of aspenwith a rotation age of 50 equals 8 clearcuts tomake in 50 years, or a cutting cycle of 6.25years. On larger properties, multiple blockswill have to be cut during each cycle tocomplete a rotation on time. The cutting cycleis flexible. You can adjust it to take advantageof good pulp markets or to accommodate alogger’s schedule.
Laying out an aspen rotation is not ascomplicated as it seems. Foresters do itroutinely, and they can set up a rotation thatwill reflect your specific goals and timbersituation. For example, cutting prescriptionsoften require adjustments, depending on theage and condition of the stand. If your standis 10 to 15 years older than rotation age,deterioration (blowdowns, disease or dyingtrees) may force you to take immediate action.You may have to make larger cuts in a shorterperiod of time than you’d like. If most of theaspen is very old, a complete clearcut may benecessary, and age-class development willhave to wait.
Oak-hickory managementOak-hickory woodlots are a valuable asset towildlife in Wisconsin. In addition to producingacorns and nuts (mast), they provideexcellent sites for wildlife dens, nests androosts. The value of this forest type for grouseis directly related to the quantity and quality ofunderstory vegetation. Oak and hickory areattractive to drummers, nesting hens andbroods when mixed with low conifers, tallshrubs, and herbaceous food or cover plants.
Oaks are widely adaptable, but grow best onmoist, well-drained uplands. Seven speciesgrow in Wisconsin, usually lumped into twogroups: the white oaks (white, swamp white,chinquapin and bur oak) and the red oaks(northern red, black and northern pin oak, alsoknown as jack, scrub, or Hill’s oak). Oaks,especially young black and northern pin oaktrees, retain many of their leaves throughoutthe winter, which provides insulation forgrouse and other wildlife.
Oaks begin to bear fruit at about 25 years ofage; older trees with a large DBH and crownare the best producers. The white oak group’sacorns mature in one season, while those ofthe red oak group require two years. Acornsfrom the white oak group are sweeter andwildlife seems to prefer them, thoughproduction from the red oak group is moreconsistent. Acorn production variesconsiderably from year to year and from treeto tree within the same stand, with some of thefluctuation caused by late spring frostdamage. Complete acorn failures sometimesoccur.
Hickories (primarily shagbark) usually grow inmixed stands with oak, and because theirneeds are similar, are often included in oakmanagement plans. They are not as commonas oak and generally mature more slowly.Hickory provides one of our best fuel woods.It has some timber value, and its nuts arevaluable to wildlife. Management as mast andtimber trees may favor species other thanruffed grouse, but hickories are an asset toany woodlot.
As with aspen, regeneration is a primaryconsideration in managing oak-hickory forests.Clearcutting or shelterwood cutsencourage oak regeneration. To succeed,these cuts require sufficient advancereproduction of oak (oak sprouts orseedlings at least 4.5 feet tall) growing in the
MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS 21
understory to successfully compete with othertree species once the oak overstory is cut.Since many of our oak stands originated whenrepeated wildfires gave them an advantage,regeneration may be difficult with modern firecontrol.
The oak site quality of your stands will stronglyinfluence your success. If the soil is dark andrich, oak site quality is likely to be high (siteindex 75+). Without fire, oaks are ecologicallyunstable in this environment, and any attemptto regenerate them will likely fail. The slow-growing oaks get choked out by all the othervegetation that thrives on these rich sites. Nomatter what you do, these stands tend toconvert to northern hardwoods (maples, elms,basswood and beech), which can surviveunder shade but are less desirable as ruffedgrouse habitat. Any oak cutting will just speedup the process. This leaves you two choices:1) harvest your oak at maturity and then switchto northern hardwoods management; or2) dedicate your land to wildlife and allow theoak to live out its natural life.
On average sites (site index 55-74) oakmaintenance is more feasible, and oak canusually be maintained using a series ofshelterwood cuts, gradually removing the oakcanopy to encourage advance reproduction.But competing hardwoods can still be aproblem. In this case, you may have to use anearlier rotation period (50 to 60 years insteadof the usual 60 to 80 years) for oaks. Cuttingoaks at a younger age should reduceconversion to northern hardwoods. Shortoak rotations reduce the time available fornorthern hardwoods to establish themselves inthe understory, and younger oaks are betterstump sprouters. Thin these short rotationstands to increase growth rates andencourage advance oak reproduction.
On poor, sandy sites (index 40-54), oak isrelatively stable and may be managed byclearcut or shelterwood treatments to stimulateadequate reproduction. Unfortunately, oaktrees may be unprofitable on poor sites. Theygrow slowly, and less valuable black ornorthern pin oak predominate. Considerconverting the site to pine if income isimportant. If it is not, these oak stands makeexcellent wildlife habitat. Clumps of red orjack pine for income, surrounded by buffers ofoak for wildlife and fuel wood, might be agood compromise.
Regardless of site quality, there are two basicprinciples for regenerating oak: 1) the oakadvance reproduction must be wellestablished to compete successfully with otherwoody vegetation in the new stands; and 2)the number of oaks in the new stand will beproportional to the oak advance reproductionbefore the cut. In other words, if there wasgood oak reproduction in the stand before thecut, there will be good regeneration after thecut.
You’ll need at least 400 stems per acre of well-distributed oak advance reproduction toregenerate the oak type, and you may needmore on better sites where competition fromother species is severe. Plentiful stumpsprouting from cut trees can make up forinadequate seedlings. The red oak group issuperior to the white oak group in this respect,and as mentioned previously, young treesusually sprout better than old ones. Yourforester will take stump sprouting potential intoaccount when assessing advancereproduction.
Inadequate advance reproduction may requireexpensive oak planting or weeding outcompetitors to maintain oak. On largeacreages, prescribed burning will favor oak byreducing competition and exposing themineral soil preferable for oak germination.Burning is difficult and potentially dangerous,however, so be sure to get professional help.
As you can see, maintaining the oak-hickorytype is a tricky business—even for foresters.Still, oaks and hickories are valuable timbertrees and most foresters will support adecision to manage for this type if at allfeasible. If you are committed to maintainingoak-hickory on your property, be sure toobtain professional advice.
Try to maintain a mixture of oak species andother mast producers in your woodlot. Forexample, if you make a shelterwood cut in awoodlot that has 6 hickories, 15 red oaks, 30white oaks, and 90 black oaks, you shouldleave the hickories and red oaks, take a few ofthe white oaks, and harvest mainly black oaks.Because acorns from the white oak groupmature in one year, if a late spring frostcauses a poor white oak acorn crop, theprevious season’s red and black oak acorns,which are just maturing, can supply mast. Thefollowing year, the white oaks will likelyproduce again, and can help make up for the
22 CHAPTER 4
red oak acorn crop showing the effects of thefrost. Likewise, hickories or other mastproducers can help compensate for a totaloak mast failure due to insects or othercauses.
Whenever a mast species is eliminated from awoodlot, whether by cutting without regard forregeneration, or by disease (for example, thenationwide chestnut blight), the wildlife foodsupply becomes less dependable. Bymaintaining a variety of species, you imitatenature’s way of supporting life by providingdiverse food resources.
Oak wilt can be a concern in southwesternand central Wisconsin, but this diseaseprogresses slowly and its effects are usuallylocalized. Red oak is more susceptible to wiltthan white oak. Preventing wounds to thebark, and logging or pruning only fromOctober through March reduces the chance ofinsects spreading the oak wilt fungus to yourwoodlot. Once trees in your woodlot havebeen infected, you must cut the rootconnections between infected and healthytrees to prevent the disease from spreading.Be sure to disinfect your tools with alcoholafter working on an infected tree.
MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS 23
Wisconsin Oak management guidelines*This short outline will help you make management decisions about your oak. Starting at level 1, select one of the choices (1a or 1b) and you will be led to a management recommendation or directed to another choice. Continue choosing the statementthat best describes your oak stand until you reach a management recommendation. A forester can help you determine whichalternative best describes your oak stand.
IF... THEN...
la. Oak site index is 75 or greater ☛ Go to 2a or 2b.
lb. Oak site index is less than 75 ☛ Go to 4a or 4b.
2a. Stand is mature Harvest oak and convert to northern hardwoods, or dedicate to old-growth management.
2b. Stand is immature ☛ Go to 3a, 3b or 3c.
3a. Stand basal area is 2/3 or more in oak Manage for oak or mixed oak and northern hardwoods.
3b. Stand basal area is between 1/3 and 2/3 in oak Manage for best quality, fastest growing trees, regardless of species.
3c. Stand basal area is 1/3 or less in oak Manage for northern hardwoods.
4a. Oak site index is 65-74 Manage for oak or mixed oak and northern hardwoods.☛ Go to 6a or 6b.
4b. Oak site index is less than 65 ☛ Go to 5a or 5b.
5a. Oak site index is 55-64 Manage for oak or mixed oak and pine. ☛ Go to 6a or 6b.
5b. Oak site index is less than 55 Manage for pulp or convert to pine or leave as non-economic stand for recreation, fuelwood and wildlife.
6a. Stand is mature ☛ Go to 7a or 7b.
6b. Stand is immature Thin or wait.
7a. Oak advanced reproduction is adequate (at least Harvest.400 stems/acre, 4.5 ft. or taller)
7b. Oak advanced reproduction is inadequate Establish oak advanced reproduction.
* Adapted from Sander, I.L. 1977. Manager’s Handbook for Oaks in the North Central States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC - 37, North Cent.For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul. 35 pp.
Conifer managementThe quickest way to start an argument amongruffed grouse biologists is to whisper the wordconifers. There seems to be universaldisagreement about how much grouse useconifers, whether they need conifers, and theeffect they have on grouse mortality.
With this as an introduction, here is asuggestion: Use them or not as you and yourconsultant see fit. Conifers (pines, balsam fir,spruce and cedar) will diversify your woodlotand provide cover for ruffed grouse, deer,rabbits and songbirds throughout the year.Dense patches or clumps of conifers insulategrouse during the cold months. They arepleasing to the eye, especially in winter whenthey offer some relief from a uniform white andgray landscape.
The quality of coniferous cover varies byspecies and age. Tall pines and otherconifers that have high crowns and lack lowerbranches provide perfect perches for grousepredators such as hawks and owls. This isespecially true during the winter, when a baredeciduous tree would expose a predator’ssilhouette. In contrast, young spruce or cedarwith branches close to the ground providegrouse good protection from predators.
White pine or balsam fir, common understorytrees in oak and aspen stands, may contributeto good grouse habitat depending on density
and distribution. Wildlife benefits most whenconifers grow in small clumps or strips, ratherthan distributed throughout a stand. Researchindicates that small conifer patches (less thanone acre) distributed throughout otherwise thincover will improve grouse habitat, thoughconifers should not exceed 30% of the stand.Clearcutting can reduce excessive conifers inthe understory. This encourages aspen,shrubs and other beneficial plants.
Many foresters favor red pine plantations forwood fiber production on poor to mediumsites, and there is generally a strong marketfor red pine products. Most coniferplantations are not very productive for wildlife,however, although young stands providecover for grouse, rabbits and deer. In standsolder than 20 years, shading and pruningremove lower branches and the understoryusually becomes too open for wildlife.
You can prevent this, however, by increasingtree spacing, reducing basal area, andcreating a more open canopy. If you plant at7 X 9-foot spacing (or greater) instead of theusual 7 X 7-foot spacing, and thin as soon aseconomical to a basal area of 60 to80 square feet per acre, you will increasetimber growth. This strategy allows enoughsunlight to reach the ground to support smalltrees, shrubs and herbs for wildlife habitat.Additionally, we recommend that you keepconifer plantations to 10 acres or less, spaced600 to 900 feet apart for optimum wildlife use.
24 CHAPTER 4
Conifer plantations provide poor wildlife habitat.
Rob
ert R
uff
Still, from a wildlife standpoint, convertinglarge areas to pine plantations should beavoided, especially if the pines replace highquality aspen or oak habitat. If you arecontemplating a new conifer plantation, besure to consider the costs for planting,herbicides, pruning and thinning—relative tonatural stands of aspen, oak or jack pine—when making your decision.
Northern hardwoodsmanagementNorthern hardwoods include a variety ofspecies—sugar maple, red maple, basswood,yellow birch, beech and elms. These trees areoften found together in a single stand; hence,they are commonly known as mixedhardwoods. Major northern hardwood speciesare generally long-lived and moderately tovery shade tolerant. Sprouting ability varies,but sugar maple, red maple, beech,basswood, ash and elms are prolificsprouters. The early growth and structure ofmaple and birch stands resemble those ofaspen. Red maple can be clearcut to resproutlike aspen and provide cover for grouse andwinter browse for deer.
Large tracts (40 acres or more) of northernhardwoods with sparse understory growthgenerally provide poor ruffed grouse habitat.Foresters often recommend long rotationsawtimber growth, which reduces oreliminates habitat for ruffed grouse and otherwildlife that prefer early successional stages.But if left uncut, or managed through selectionmethods, this habitat can attract many matureforest species. Be sure to see Chapter 5 onmanaging mature forests.
Timber Stand Improvement (TSI)techniques can produce some wildlifebenefits. TSI removes some lower qualitytrees to allow better growth and overall standquality, similar to weeding and thinning avegetable garden. The small openings in thecanopy created by removing selected treespermit sunlight to reach the forest floor,allowing shrubs and ground cover to prosperfor several years. Mast-producers often yieldbetter crops due to less competition for space,sunlight, water and nutrients.
Concentrate cutting for TSI on the mostcommon tree species or where overall growthis suppressed. Be sure to leave den trees,shrubs, vines and other plants valuable to
wildlife. If den or wolf trees are competingwith valuable timber trees, they can be girdledand left standing to provide homes andinvertebrate food for wildlife. Pole-timberstands should usually be thinned every 10 to15 years; a forester can makerecommendations for your woods. Cost-sharing for TSI is available in most counties(see Chapter 6).
Alder managementAlder can provide feeding areas for woodcockand excellent drumming, brood and year-round habitat for ruffed grouse. Like aspen,alder benefits from occasional cutting toregenerate the stand. If your alder isbeginning to thin out, with many downed orhorizontal stems present, deterioration issetting in and you should consider a cuttingprogram. A Landowner’s Guide to WoodcockManagement in the Northeast (Sepik et. al.,1981) provides helpful information about aldermanagement.
The vast majority of alder found in Wisconsingrows in almost pure stands on relatively wetsites, often with a dense ground layer of grassor sedge. Such stands often maintainthemselves because the alder has acompetitive advantage over most other shrubsand trees. Alder stands seldom warrant anyspecial management consideration.
Alder also grows in shrub form with tremblingaspen. This occurs especially where the soilis moist throughout much of the year. Wherethis happens, the alder understory should beregenerated at the same time the aspenoverstory is harvested. This may beaccomplished by severing the stems from thestump, either by simply running them over withlogging equipment when the ground is frozen,or by cutting them with a chainsaw. Aldersprouts will grow from the stump and add tothe overall stem density of the regeneratingstand.
Another opportunity to maintain this importanthabitat component exists where pure standsof alder have invaded and establishedthemselves on abandoned agricultural fields.These sites often support earthworm densitiessubstantially greater than surrounding landswith no agricultural history, making them veryattractive to woodcock. Such stands can bemaintained on a 15-20 year rotation by cuttingor mowing 1-2 acre patches or strips every
MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS 25
few years. This pattern of staggeredregeneration treatments will ensure thatnumerous age classes are present at anygiven point in time, thereby providing acontinuous supply of quality habitat for ruffedgrouse and especially woodcock.
The highest ruffed grouse drumming counts inWisconsin have been recorded in mixedaspen-alder stands. Where aspen occurs withalder, make sure you clearcut all alder with theaspen. Otherwise, the alder will shade out theaspen and you will lose this excellent mixedtype for grouse and woodcock.
ShrubsShrubs are very important to wildlifethroughout much of Wisconsin. The densityand quality of understory vegetation largelydetermines the potential of non-aspen foresttypes as ruffed grouse habitat. If you canraise the density of tall shrubs above 2,000stems per acre, you should be able to attractgrouse—even under northern hardwoods orconifers.
If you have cattle in your woodlot, the first stepis to get them out, or at least limit grazing to 25animal days per acre annually. Overgrazingreduces shrub density, erodes and compactssoil, and destroys the advance reproductionneeded to maintain healthy forests.
Shrubs thrive following any disturbance,particularly after clearcutting, shearing (non-commercial tree removal), or burning.
26 CHAPTER 4
FIGURE 14. Some common Wisconsin shrubs providing food and cover for ruffed grouse.
COMMONWINTERBERRY
SPECKLED ALDER
PRICKLY-ASH
RED-OSIER DOGWOOD
HAZELNUT
Dogwood, alder, hazel, winterberry, prickly-ash, raspberry and blackberry respond withvigorous growth following treatment (fig. 14).TSI or selectively harvesting marketable treesto increase sunlight penetration will improveshrub growth in mature stands.
Food and cover plantingsUpland habitat can often be enhanced byplanting berry-producing shrubs and trees.The additional food and winter cover willincrease the carrying capacity of your land.Native shrubs and trees such as hawthorns,dogwoods, viburnums, mountain ash orchokecherry are good choices for Wisconsin.For wildlife plant sources, consult Chapter 6and Appendix C. Gullion’s Shrub and TreePlanting for Ruffed Grouse gives valuableplanting information.
Shrub planting, because it is expensive andlabor-intensive, should generally be limited toareas where food and coverare inadequate. In most ofnorthern Wisconsin, it ismore important topreserve herbaceousopenings than to plantadditional woodyvegetation.
Leaving food patches ofagricultural grains is notnecessary for grouse,but will benefit songbirds,deer, squirrels, quail andturkeys—and draw themto an area where you caneasily observe them. Plantfood patches near goodwildlife escape or restingcover, such as a densewoods or cattail marsh. Cornis the best all-around grain forwinter food plots, becauseit will dependably hold itslarge, nutritious seeduntil used. Mixed grainand forage sorghumplots are also goodchoices. Seed mixesare available fromseveral wildlifenurseries in Wisconsin (seeAppendix C).
Reserve treesWhile marking an area to be cut, note specifictrees that have high value for wildlife or otherreasons. Reserve these trees until economicor other considerations strongly outweigh theirwildlife value. Although this may require smallconcessions in ruffed grouse managementplans, you will improve the overall health andstability of the forest ecosystem.
In southern Wisconsin, a big black cherry is agood example of a reserve tree; primespecimens are rare and their fruit is eaten bymany birds and mammals. In the north,extraordinarily tall white pines (known assuper-canopy or sentinel trees) are oftenreserved as nest or perch trees for eagles andospreys. Any den or mast-producing tree is agood candidate to reserve, as is just aboutany uncommon species. You can re-evaluatereserve trees periodically, finally cutting themwhen their valuable wood will be lost to injuryor decay, or when they begin to seriouslydamage forest regeneration or timberproduction.
The wolf tree is one of the best reservetrees. It is a large, mature tree with aspreading crown and far-reaching branches.A wolf tree may be older than your woodlot,having grown up in the open and later beensurrounded by younger forest. Wolf trees mayalso develop in understocked woods.
Wolf trees were named by foresters for theirpredatory nature; they tend to crowd outsurrounding vegetation and stunt thegrowth of nearby trees. Though reservingwolf trees may mean sacrificing sometimber production, these trees are among
the best mast and den producers.
While wolf trees arevaluable to wildlife,you can have toomuch of a good thing.Years of past high-grading (commonly
known as “tieing-off,” because redoak was soughtfor railroad ties),in which only the
best timber trees werecut, has left manysouthern Wisconsin
MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS 27
LUPINE
woodlots loaded with large wolftrees. Because they have somany limbs, wolf treesoften have little timbervalue except asfirewood.
Landowners commonlysee these large trees asmoney in the bank, withthe mistaken idea thatthey are sitting on avaluable timberresource. Foresters,however, see poor-quality trees and anunderstocked woods.Without management tocorrect past abuses, it maybe generations beforenatural processes restore thetimber-producing capabilities of suchland. Taking a forester’s advice for TSI inthese woodlots will open up the canopy toimprove sawtimber stocking and growthrates, and also increase shrub densities forgrouse and deer for many years. By leavingone or two wolf trees per acre, you can strike anice balance between wildlife and timberproduction. Such use of reserve trees fits inwell with Aldo Leopold’s ideas on landstewardship—resorting neither to maximumeconomic production nor total preservation,but giving primary consideration to the overallvalues of your land.
PreservationWisconsin possesses some unique habitatsthat should be preserved because they arefragile or essential to certain species. Forexample, in the southwestern part of the state,“sandblows” provide excellent reptile habitat.Other sites that warrant preservation includethe patches of wild lupine inhabited byendangered Karner blue butterflies, or thedense stands of mature forest in southernWisconsin, where rare Worm-eating Warblersdwell.
There is a place for preservation, even in landactively managed for timber production. Alarge white pine, used for roosting by wildturkeys or valued simply for its beauty, is agood example. Fruit-producing vines andshrubs may also be protected. Although mostwill vigorously resprout if their root systems arenot torn out during logging, it may take quiteawhile before they grow large enough to
dependably supply food.Preserving thick grapevines
or large-crownedhawthorns will tide wildlifeover until your woodlotresponds to the increased
sunlight with a flush ofnew shrub growth.
Snag trees thatprovidenestingcavities and
insect food arealso an asset to
your woodlot. InWisconsin at least65 bird andmammal speciesuse snags for nest
or den sites.Some excavatetheir own cavities
in the snags; others use naturalcavities or take over the
abandoned homes of others. Try to leave atleast five snags of various sizes per acre. Thenice thing about snags is that they need notbe left at the expense of timber production.Unsaleable trees growing too close tovaluable timber can simply be girdled and leftstanding, providing valuable snags whilereducing competition for nutrients andsunlight.
Diversifying your woodlotYou can improve overall wildlife habitat byencouraging a mix of tree species in woodlotsthat are mostly one type. A few good mast-producing oak trees, or small clumps of oaks,scattered throughout a large aspen clearcutwill provide food for squirrels, deer and otherwildlife. Another option, which minimizesshading, is to leave a single small stand ofoaks (one acre or less) within each clearcut.Likewise, small aspen clones within or at theedge of a large oak stand may be expandedto improve winter food supplies for grouse.Jack pine is another good species to mix in,particularly on poor soils in central Wisconsin.The mixed aspen-oak-jack pine standscommon to this area may be the mostproductive all-around forest type for wildlife inWisconsin.
When planning any cutting, even clearcuts ina checkerboard pattern, do not lay outperfectly straight borders. Design
28 CHAPTER 4
MANAGING YOUNG FORESTS 29
meandering edges between the cut area andadjacent woods, and leave some trees andshrubs standing along the cut-line (See fig.13). Leaving uncut buffer strips, known asriparian corridors, along stream banks willprovide travel lanes and mature lowlandtimber habitat for wildlife. These corridors alsoprevent erosion, reduce stream siltation, andkeep water from becoming too warm. (SeeThe Benefits of Well-managed StreamCorridors by Craven et. al., 1987.) This isoften important for trout streams, but be sureto check with your local DNR fish manager.
On many cold northern streams, it is better tokeep the actual stream bank clear of woodyvegetation since shade blocks the growth ofaquatic algae essential to stream productivity.Brushing back overhanging vegetation, orcreating meadow openings will usually suffice.Leave the remaining woody vegetation toprovide the benefits mentioned earlier.
Another consideration when dealing withforest management adjacent to streams is thepresence of beavers. Beavers can bebeneficial but they may also cause significantdamage to roadways, culverts, trout streamsand standing timber. There are many factorsto consider when managing beaver. For anexcellent summary of landowner rights,responsibilities and options in beavermanagement refer to the DNR’s bookletBeaver Damage Control.
Do-nothing cover typesSometimes the best management is nomanagement. Many areas provide somecover for ruffed grouse but are not worth thetime, effort or expense required to improvethem. Management input would be far greaterthan the benefits. Good examples are trees orshrubs growing under very wet, marsh-likeconditions. Dense grass or sedge associatedwith alder, willow, bog birch and other wet-area shrubs often offer valuable winter cover,but efforts to improve these areas are usuallyunnecessary and expensive.
Aspen usually grows on fairly well-drainedsites, but so-called “offsite aspen” grows onpoorly drained, wet sites, often associatedwith sedges or grasses. These stands arebest left as winter food trees. Offsite aspenproduces low volumes of merchantable woodand regeneration is sparse and slow-growing.If the stand originated during a drought, aspenmay even fail to resprout following harvest.Unlike upland aspen, some self-propagation
occurs in these stands; as older aspen die,young saplings replace them.
Odd areasYour property may be providing valuable foodand cover to wildlife in ways you neverrealized. Don’t overlook such areas aslowland hardwoods along creek bottoms,sumac groves, wild grape and other shrub,vine and tree associations, hedgerows,ravines and any odd corners not undercultivation. Encourage the growth andwildness of these areas for wildlife habitats.
OpeningsOpenings in shrub thickets are good additionsto grouse habitat, and woodcock use them asfeeding and singing grounds. Northern Forestopenings constructed by the DNR are heavilyused by deer. Such openings increase smallmammal and songbird diversity and producegood berry crops. Vegetation responds poorlyto openings made on very dry, sandy soils,however, and we don’t recommend them.
Logging trails and trail junctions, or loglandings (where logs are piled and loaded),may be maintained as excellent smallopenings. Seeded to white clover andtimothy, or left to develop into natural mixes ofwild strawberry and other local herbs andgrasses, these openings will provide valuableearly spring and late fall food for deer andgrouse. Annual mowing or light cattle grazingwill help keep larger clearings open. Usethese methods after August 1 to avoiddisturbing ground-nesting birds.
You can also use herbicides, but check withthe local DNR wildlife manager or foresterbefore you do. Herbicides can damagenearby trees by moving through root systems.If you or your friends and family enjoy a littlephysical labor on a cool weekend, cuttinginvading vegetation with a chainsaw orbrushhook is a much better method. On smallacreages, annual brushing should not becometoo burdensome. Use the opposite of thestrategy recommended for aspenregeneration—brush during the growingseason when nutrients are above ground toreduce resprouting.
Brush pilesProperly constructed brush piles
can provide cover for rabbits,woodchucks, song and
game birds for manyyears. Large pileslast 10 to 15 years
and provide moreprotection than small
ones, but just about anybrush pile will be used by some
form of wildlife. Ruffed grouse often use brushpiles for cover during the coldest winter days.Once again there are tradeoffs; brush pilesmay also provide homes for grouse predatorssuch as skunks and foxes.
To construct a long-lasting brush pile, placethe heaviest logs on the bottom and lighterbranches on top. Start with at least a 6-foot-square base of hardwood logs piled 4 feethigh in log-cabin fashion. Fit branches intothe base at different angles to lock themtogether, and continue to place morebranches around and over the base. Anoccasional heavier branch or log will help holdthe brushy branches in place. You can makea living brush pile by cutting part-way througha wide-crowned tree and pushing it over,preferably into a dense stand of prickly ash orblackberry. A truckload of discardedChristmas trees also makes an excellent brushpile—providing a home for wildlife instead offilling up a landfill.
AccessEvaluate your access needs with yourconsultant. You can then build suitablelogging roads or skid trails to improve loggingefficiency. Take advantage of current access,dry ridge tops, or uplands and be sure toconsider other uses such as skiing, hiking,hunting, birdwatching or berry picking.
Except for large operations, most landownersare happy with skid trails for logging access.They require less land and expense, are lessnoticeable (especially to trespassers), and areacceptable for most logging if used only inwinter. While most owners prefer to maintainaccess after logging, you can also plant theroads or allow shrubs to grow on them. Thiswill restore your woodlot’s natural appearancewithout seriously impeding future loggingaccess.
When planning access, don’t forget anoccasional observation site, such as aLeopold bench (fig. 15), blind, or even a smalltower or platform overlooking a valley orwetland. A corduroy trail (boardwalk) througha marsh provides access and doubles as aclose-up observation platform, although it mayalso be used by nest predators such asraccoon and mink. Consequently, hip bootsor an old pair of sneakers might be a betterway to explore a marsh, but anyone who hastried to watch birds while nose-deep in cattailsappreciates the advantages of a boardwalk!
30 CHAPTER 4
FIGURE 15. ALDO LEOPOLD BENCH.
Materials for one bench:*1 2” x 6” x 33”*1 2” x 10” x 30”*1 2” x 8” x 10’ (use about 108”)6 3⁄8” x 3-1⁄2” carriage bolts with washer and nut12 3⁄8” x 3-1⁄2” # 12 or 14 flathead wood screwsUrethane varnish*Douglas fir preferred
33” Outside
2819⁄32”
2 x 82 x 10 x 30” =17˚
3 3⁄8” x 31⁄2” carriage bolts
3 31⁄2” flathead wood screwseach end (#12 or #14)
3- 31⁄2” flathead woodscrews (#12 or #14)
2 x 6
1519⁄32” 18”
33”
33” 63⁄4”
21 ⁄8”
60˚ 60˚ 60˚ Ron MIlesUW-Madison
side
31
CHAPTER 5
Managing mature forests and their wildlife
Many wildlife species share woodlandswith ruffed grouse. As we have seen,
woodcock, deer, rabbits and many songbirdsdirectly benefit from ruffed grouse habitatmanagement. By making minor changes inyour management plan, you may be able toaccommodate other forms of wildlife as well.This section describes how to incorporateprocedures for other species into yourmanagement plan. Mature-forest wildlifehabitat suffers when logging or naturaldisturbances disrupt forest succession. Formore information, be sure to consultpublications such as Woodlands and Wildlife(Hassinger et al., 1979), Enhancement ofWildlife Habitat on Private Lands (Decker andKelley, 1982) or Enhancing Wildlife Habitats:A Practical Guide for Forest Landowners(Hobson et al., 1993).
What is a mature forest?In the section on succession, we discussedhow forests proceed from young to maturespecies (aspen vs. maple), types of forests(aspen-birch vs. northern hardwoods), andforest communities (pioneer vs. climax). To aforest ecologist, terms such as young ormature describe a successional stage.Ecologists concern themselves withdescriptive terms such as “new-growth,”“second-growth,” or “old-growth,” which referto a forest’s origin and form. These termsoften carry specific implications for speciesdiversity, community stability, or some othercharacteristic.
In contrast, foresters use the terms“immature,” “mature” and “overmature” to
describe individual trees or homogenousstands as they relate to some commercialstandard (for example, rotation age anddiameter class). These terms describe a treeor stand’s current condition relative to itsdesired condition for harvest—regardless ofthe state of succession.
For example, a typical pioneer forest, such asaspen managed under a short-term rotation, isharvested when trees or stands are maturefrom a forestry perspective because they havereached the desired age (rotation age) or sizefor their intended use. Conversely, when aclimax northern hardwoods stand is managedfor sawtimber by selection methods, only afew select trees are cut during each cuttingcycle. The majority of the trees in the standwill be left because they are still immature—they do not yet meet the strict criteria forharvest.
As if things were not complicated enough,wildlife biologists or managers often use theseterms literally, referring only to the age or formof a tree in relation to that generally expectedof its species. To them, a young or immature
forest is simply not very old or developed forits type, while large, full-grown trees are theprimary component of a mature forest.Though many foresters groan at such a casualassessment of age or development, theemphasis here is not on succession oreconomic condition, but on describing thegeneral value of forests of differing ages forwildlife; for example, mature oaks tend to begood mast and den producers. In assessingthe value of a tree to a community, relative tothe potential of its species, wildlife managersincorporate the connotations of both theecologist and the forester. It’s easy to seehow wildlife management got its reputation forborrowing terms from other disciplines!
When heard in context, the differentinterpretations of these terms cause fewproblems. If a professional advises you:“Harvest stand 3, northern hardwoods atmaturity,” you know that he or she is speakingin a technical forestry sense, and that criteriafor assessing maturity will follow. Problemsare more likely to arise when people withdifferent perspectives try to resolve acontroversial issue, such as harvest plans onpublic forests.
When foresters use the term overmature, theyare describing a tree or stand that is no longerincreasing in economic value at a ratesufficient to justify its space and nutrientdemands. They are warning that a valuabletimber resource is beginning to deteriorate.To a forest songbird enthusiast, however,these stands are not overmature at all, but old-growth. They bristle at the implicit valuejudgment in the term overmature, failing torealize it represents the technical demands ofthe timber market, and not necessarily theforester’s opinion of songbirds!
Almost every kind of forest is valuable to sometype of wildlife, while only certain forestproducts please the demanding commercialmarket. Consequently, the wildlife manager’sdescription of forest age or development maynot carry the value judgment that the forester’suse does (although when used in associationwith a particular species of wildlife, such asyoung forests being good for grouse, it oftendoes). As a forest landowner, or as aparticipant in planning for public forests, youmust decide which type of forest suits yourinterests or ethics, or is best for the situation,society and the environment.
32 CHAPTER 5
Pau
l Sie
vert
The value of mature forestsIn the remainder of this chapter, we willdiscuss mature forests comprised of large,full-grown, older trees—the wildlife manager’sdefinition. Mature forests are among the moststructurally diverse ecological communities inthe world. They provide a three-dimensionalhabitat (forest floor, understory layers andcanopy), rather than the relatively flat anduniform landscape of early successionalstages. Therefore, these forests are home tomore bird species than a field or young forestof comparable size. The more layers youdevelop in a mature woods, the more placeswildlife can live and forage for food. Don’toverlook the value of snags and fallen logswhen developing the layered structure of yourwoods.
The increased plant and animal diversity ofmature forests has a price, however.Abundance of any particular species oftendeclines as diversity increases, resulting in alower potential yield to humans, whetherhunter, berry-picker, or logger. To illustratesome management techniques beneficial tomature forest communities, we have selectedseveral popular wildlife species found in thishabitat.
Turkeys
By the late 1800s, wild turkeys (once native toWisconsin), had disappeared from the statedue to habitat loss, overhunting and possiblydisease. Thanks to the 1976 reintroduction ofwild Missouri birds obtained in trade forWisconsin grouse, we once again have wildturkeys in the forests and woodlots of southernand central Wisconsin. The return of healthywild turkey populations ranks as one of theDNR’s outstanding recent achievements.
Turkeys love to roam, and usually requirehundreds of habitat acres. Mast, seeds,insects, agricultural grains and forage such asclover, grasses and sedges are major foods.Blackberries, dewberries and strawberries arealso important. Turkeys drink standing water;one source per square mile is a minimum. Agood turkey range includes seeps and spring-fed streams that remain open throughout thewinter, providing water as well as plant andinsect food during periods of deep snow.Hens nest and rear broods in openings andbrushy old fields. Turkey poults spend muchof their time in agricultural fields and grassy orweedy forest openings as small as 1/4 acre,eating the high-protein insects and seeds theyneed for rapid growth.
Mixed hardwood stands managed for maturetimber provide good turkey habitat. Flocksprefer woodlots of at least 100 acres, althoughwooded corridors connecting smallerwoodlots may make them acceptable toturkeys. If you have a smaller woodlot, becontent to harbor turkeys for part of theirannual cycle—you will not hold a flock year-round on 40 acres. If you are interested inhunting, providing nesting habitat to attracthens, and consequently gobblers, mayimprove your chances.
Turkeys prefer to roost in scattered tall trees,including conifers, that rise above thesurrounding canopy. A variety of oaks,hickories, cherries, beech and ash supply asteady source of mast. Selective cuts made inthese stands to remove overstory willencourage dogwoods, viburnums, hawthorn,grapes and other food-producing shrubs.Planting these and other species, such asapples, may also help attract local turkeys.
If wild turkeys have yet to becomereestablished in your area, be patient. Focusyour efforts on producing good turkey habitatand wait for natural dispersal to populate yourwoodlot. Please do not stock game-farmturkeys. Hybridization and disease from semi-domesticated turkeys could jeopardize theeffort to maintain this majestic bird inWisconsin.
Squirrels
Gray, fox and flying squirrels live in mature,deciduous woods, while the small redsquirrels of northern Wisconsin prefer a mix ofconifers and deciduous trees. Squirrels feedmainly on mast and tree seeds so squirrelpopulation size is proportional to mastproduction. Squirrels also need tree cavitiesfor breeding, resting and winter cover. If thereare not enough suitable cavities, squirrels willbuild leaf nests high in the trees, but leaf nestsare not as secure as tree dens.
To ensure a sufficient mast supply, you’ll need15 to 25 large oaks or hickories per acre. Redor black oaks tend to produce food moreconsistently, but white oaks provide moredens, so strive for a mixture. Save as manyhickories as you can. Hickories often make upless than 10% of the overstory in Midwesternforests, and squirrels are particularly fond oftheir nuts. To minimize the impact on squirrelpopulations, keep your clearcuts smaller than20 acres and less than 200 yards wide. Try toretain 40% to 60% of the stand in a mast-producing stage.
MANAGING MATURE FORESTS 33
A typical gray or fox squirrel den has anopening about 3 inches in diameter, a cavitydiameter of 6 to 7 inches and a depth of 16inches. Dens of flying and red squirrels areusually smaller. Den formation usually takes 8to 30 years, depending on the tree species.Black oak, sugar maple, basswood,cottonwood, beech and elm over 24 inchesDBH all produce excellent dens. Artificial nestboxes are easy to build and erect, and areuseful in sapling and pole timber stands wherea lack of den sites limits squirrel populations.See Shelves, Houses and Feeders for Birdsand Mammals (Barquest, et.al. 1982) orEnhancement of Wildlife Habitat on PrivateLands (Decker and Kelley, 1982) forconstruction and placement instructions.
Woodpeckers, wood ducks and othercavity-users
In addition to squirrels, raccoons and othermammals, about 85 North American birdspecies feed, nest, or roost in dead ordecaying trees (Appendix D and Table 1).
Non-game birds are integral members of theforest community and many are economicallyimportant. For example, researchers havefound that woodpeckers help control epidemicinsect populations. To manage for thesespecies you must preserve snags andpotential snags. When harvesting timber, useuneven-aged cutting; that is, cut some treesand leave others to grow beyond rotation age.These old trees will eventually degrade andform snags. A one-fifth acre clump ofpermanently uncut trees within each 5 acres ofregeneration cut will provide many species
with snags of proper size (generally greaterthan 9 inches DBH and 6 feet tall; seeAppendix D and Table 1). Leaving uncutbuffer strips on both sides of a streamenhances woodpecker populations andcontrols stream erosion. Many cavity-nesterswill also use properly sized nest boxes.
The wood duck is one of our most popularforest cavity nesters, and research shows thataspen is an important cavity-producer for"woodies." It takes aspen about 50 years toform a cavity—which unfortunately is theaspen rotation age on most sites. Nestingcavities should be within one-half mile of awater source with good brood-rearingpotential—generally, a wetland with protectivevegetation.
To benefit wood ducks: • Set aside two or three acres of aspen or
northern hardwoods within one-half mile ofwater with emergent cover.• Extend the aspen rotation age for as long aspossible without losing the type, and useuneven-aged management on the hardwoodsto promote cavity formation. • Build wood duck boxes in addition toprotecting trees with natural cavities. [SeeWoodlands and Wildlife (Hassinger et. al.,1981) for instructions].
Songbirds
Most bird communities can handle somehabitat change, such as moderate timberharvesting. Notable exceptions are thespecies that require undisturbed forests:wood thrush, scarlet tanager, pileated
34 CHAPTER 5
Table 1. Characteristics of territories and nest trees of some woodpeckers1
Species Time used Territory size (ac) Min. no. snags used Average DBH (in) Average height (ft)
Downy All year 10 4 8 20Flicker Breeding 40 2 15 30Hairy All year 20 4 12 30Pileated All year 175 4 22 60Red-bellied All year 15 4 18 40Red-headed Breeding 10 2 20 40
Winter <1 1 20 40
1 From Evans, K.E., and R.N. Conner. 1979. Snag management. Pages 214-225 in DeGraaf, R.M., and K.E. Evans, eds. Management of NorthCentral and Northeastern Forests for Nongame Birds. USDA For. Serv. Workshop Proc., Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-51. 268 pp.
woodpecker, vireos and many species ofwarblers and raptors. Your overall habitatmanagement plan should consider thesespecies.
Birds that breed in undisturbed forests shareseveral important characteristics. They areobligate inhabitants of forest interiors—that is,they need an undisturbed forest for breedingand will not reproduce anywhere else.Opening the forest interior exposes thesespecies to predators and cowbird nestparasitism. While many of the species thatreproduce on forest and field edges raise twoor more broods per year, forest interiorspecies raise only one.
If you have a stand of mature northernhardwoods, aspen-birch, oaks, or mixedconifers and hardwoods, try to preserve asmuch uncut forest and undergrowth aspossible. Work with your neighbors to protectlarge blocks of mature, undisturbedwoodlands.
If you do harvest:• Extend the rotation period whereeconomically feasible.• Cut a single large tract, preferably along anexisting edge or corner, rather than severalsmall ones in the interior.• Preserve snags on the cut edge.• Build brush piles with the slash to harbor theinsects on which songbirds feed.• Plant conifers in the cut area or surroundingyour woods for added diversity.
Mammals
Forests and woodlots with well-developedunderstories provide habitat for manymammals. Small mammals, such aschipmunks and white-footed mice, may spendtheir whole lives within an acre of woodland.In contrast, many furbearing predators (mink,skunk, raccoon and fox) travel widely insearch of food. Brushy stream borders,ravines, fencelines and hedgerows connectingwoodlots, fields and wetlands provide theseanimals with travel corridors and huntingterritory.
When logging or cutting firewood, leave anyhollow sections lying on the ground. You can’tsell them as sawtimber, and their value asfirewood is small compared to that as dens orshelter for ground-dwelling mammals.Depending on their diameter, these logs maybe used by anything from the smallest shrewto the largest black bear.
Reptiles and amphibians
Forest-dwelling herps (reptiles andamphibians) live in forest wetlands, under leaflitter or loose bark, and in holes and crevices.Most woodland species depend on the moist,humid conditions found under the closedcanopy of mature forests. Preserving orcreating shallow ponds is one way to attractherps to your property.
Many woodland amphibians breed intemporary ponds. Shallow ponds are best,but make sure they are deep enough to retainwater until mid-August to allow larvae todevelop completely. Permanent ponds willattract wetland species, such as bullfrogs andleopard frogs, that live in or near water year-round. Having both temporary and permanentponds on your property will reducecompetition between the larvae of woodlandand wetland species and increase herpdiversity.
If you have no permanent ponds on yourproperty, you can build one. You can createsmall ponds by digging out springs orpotholes or by building a weir (small dike ordam) in woodland ravines. On sandy soils,you must line the basin of an artificial pondwith clay or sheet plastic.
Although dugout ponds no longer qualify forcost-sharing, if your land is more than one-halfmile from a permanent water supply, mostcounty ASCS offices will approve assistancefor a low-head dike in a natural drainage.Amphibians, deer, turkeys and waterfowl willall use the resulting pond, especially if it isbuilt in or near wooded cover. However, ifbeaver are common in your area (as they areacross much of the state), don’t build animpoundment (manmade body of water) nearany timber that you can’t afford to lose. Whatthey don’t cut down, beavers might flood asthey try to improve on your flowageengineering.
Leaving unmerchantable logs to rot away onthe forest floor also benefits herps. They livein or under logs and feed on invertebratessupported by the decaying wood. Rottinglogs also provide a moist seedbed for mosses,fungi, ferns and trees such as cedar andhemlock. Mortarless stone walls set off roador fence corners nicely, and will providehomes for many herps and small mammals.Any little hiding place located near water isparticularly good.
MANAGING MATURE FORESTS 35
36
CHAPTER 6
Financial considerations
F orest management can be expensive,especially if concessions for wildlife
reduce your timber harvest. Consider thefollowing when planning your woodlandmanagement program.
Marketing timberProfessional advice is never more importantthan at harvest time. You may harvest timberonly once in your lifetime on some stands, andcorrecting mistakes is often impossible.Unless you’re very experienced, please takeadvantage of the readily available professionalhelp. Lake States Woodlands: MarketingTimber (Martin, Potter-Witter and Lapidakis,1985) suggests that you harvest only inaccordance with your long-term managementplan (incorporating a sale contract and severalbidders). Also, you should know how variousharvest strategies will affect your income taxes.
If you have never harvested timber before, youshould visit a current logging site as well asother stands in various stages of regeneration.This will give you an idea of what to expectfrom a logging operation.
Seven steps to successful timberharvesting
1. Inventory what you have and what shouldbe cut. The management plan you haveprepared will help you decide what and how toharvest your timber to benefit wildlife, what toleave for later harvest, and special trees thatshould be protected. Your forester can usethis information to clearly mark trees or standsto be cut, to minimize chances of mistakesduring logging.
2. Plan any new logging roads, skid trails andlog landings, and sketch them on yourmanagement map exactly where you wantthem. You can build them yourself or have the
logger construct them as part of the contract orfor a fee. Note: In 1994, the Wisconsin DNRBureau of Forestry will make available a set ofdetailed Best Management Practices (BMPs).These will provide guidelines for forestrypractices (including road building andequipment management) designed to protectwater quality.
3. Prepare and distribute a sale prospectus topotential buyers. It should include a map anddescription of the area to be harvested, alisting of species and volumes of wood to becut, a copy of the timber sale contract, biddingmethod, bid form with closing date, specialconsiderations for wildlife or aesthetics, bidopening time, and down paymentrequirements. Most landowners sell theirstumpage (standing trees) on a lump-sumsealed bid basis.
4. Select a buyer on the basis of bid andreputation.
5. Complete a timber sales contract (seeAppendix F for a sample contract) with thesuccessful bidder, including sale terms,performance guarantees, liability and otherconcerns.
6. You or your forester should check loggingoperations to ensure compliance.
7. Plan post-harvest activities such as slashdisposal, TSI, site preparation and possiblyplanting.
Cost-sharing programsThere are many programs available to forestlandowners, and those detailed here areavailable as of 1994. However, keep in mindthat programs often change. Let’s start withthose currently offered by the federalgovernment.
FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 37
The Agricultural Stabilization and ConservationService (ASCS) administers the AgriculturalConservation Program (ACP) through offices ineach county. ACP offers cost-sharing of up to75% for approved conservation practices.Those of interest to Wisconsin woodlot ownersinclude:
• timber stand improvement.• site preparation for natural regeneration.• forest tree plantation establishment.• permanent wildlife habitat improvements
(including impoundments, tree and shrubplanting, and woodlot fencing to preventovergrazing).
The Soil Conservation Service providestechnical advice for those installing thesepractices.
The Forestry Incentives Program (FIP) alsocost-shares with private nonindustrial forestowners for tree planting (including sitepreparation if necessary), and timber standimprovement. This program is generally forlarger scale forest operations (10 to 1000acres), and may only be available in countieswith significant forest economies. The ASCSprovides cost-share funding of up to 75%, and
the DNR provides installation and technicaladvice. You can receive cost-shares of up to$10,000 annually, and can agree to fund long-term practices for 3 to 10 years.
Since the 1985 Food Security Act (Farm Bill),the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) hasoffered annual rental payments for eligiblelands taken out of production for ten years. Tobe eligible, land must have been in commoditycrops (such as corn or alfalfa) at least two ofthe five years prior to signup, meet erodibilityrequirements, and be currently available forcrop production. Tree and shrub planting forwindbreaks or wildlife habitat is a qualified useof set-aside lands and will be cost-shared upto 50%. Permanent grass cover also qualifiesand may complement your woodlands byproviding nesting cover for pheasants, turkeysand songbirds. Provisions also allow for filterstrips along streams and ponds and make iteasier to qualify if you agree to plant trees. Itis uncertain whether this program willcontinue, so check with your ASCS office forcurrent information on the status of CRP.
In the past, a Tree Planting Program, part ofthe Farm Bill, has been offered to provide upto 3,000 free trees to farmers who have an
38 CHAPTER 6
approved soil erosion plan or live in a countywith an approved plan. The currentadministration is revising this, but there willlikely be some sort of tree planting incentive inthe years to come. Your county LandConservation Department (usually located inthe county courthouse, sometimes under thename Soil and Water ConservationDepartment) can provide you with currentinformation about the programs available.
Another source of nursery stock is wildlifepackets, consisting of 100 conifers and 200wildlife shrubs, available free from the DNR forparticipating in the Acres for Wildlife program.Similarly, 500 trees or shrubs are offered as anincentive for participation in the DNR ProjectRespect program. A limited supply of suchwildlife packets of nursery stock is alsoavailable for a small fee if you are notinterested in these programs. For moreinformation, contact your local DNR wildlifemanager. You can also buy trees and shrubsfrom the DNR or private nurseries (seeAppendix D).
The latest incentive for landowners is calledthe Forest Stewardship Incentives Program(SIP). Similar to other programs, SIP cost-shares (50-75%) with non-industrial privateforest owners for the following objectives:
• developing a stewardship managementplan.
• conserving water quality, soil and otherrelated natural resources.
• controlling erosion and sedimentation fromforest land.
• enhancing the timber, wildlife, fish,recreational, aesthetic and environmentalbenefits of properly managed woodlands.
Top priorities for the SIP includeriparian/wetland protection and improvementand wildlife habitat enhancement. To see ifyour management practices qualify forfunding, contact your county ASCS office.
Tax considerationsTaxation of woodland enterprises can be verycomplicated. The long-term nature ofwoodland investment makes it crucial toconsider taxes in all phases of your operationto assure favorable treatment. Some helpfulsources are listed in the REFERENCES FORFURTHER READING section, but be sure toconsult a tax advisor before making any largeinvestments in (or harvests from) yourwoodland.
Sales taxes apply to most forestry-relatedpurchases, although growing Christmas treesas a business is classified as farming andparticipants qualify for sales tax exemption.The DNR allows farmers to purchase statenursery stock tax-free by completing aFarmer’s Exemption Certificate. More thannominal use of trucks, tractors, saws or otherequipment purchased under the farmingexemption for forestry requires payment of ause tax.
Several state programs may help you loweryour woodland property taxes. The ManagedForest Land law reduces taxes for woodlandproperty owners who follow an approvedmanagement plan. If you own at least 10contiguous acres of wooded property (at least80% of which must be capable of producing20 cubic feet per acre per year ofmerchantable wood) within a singlemunicipality (civil township) you may beeligible for the program. The contract periodis 25 or 50 years. Eligible acreage is taxed ata fixed annual rate (85 cents per acre in1993). In return, you agree to manage yourland for wood fiber production under anapproved plan. The plan may alsorecommend practices for wildlife, watershed,recreational or aesthetic benefits. The landsmust be open to non-motorized public access,though landowners may choose to close up to80 contiguous acres by paying an additional$1.15 in tax on each closed acre. The 85-centand $1.15 rates will be adjusted in 1997 andevery five years thereafter. At harvest, you willpay a 5% yield tax on the stumpage value ofall timber products cut.
The Managed Forest Land Law replaces theprevious Forest Croplands Law and WoodlandTax Law, though existing contracts under the
former laws will remain in effect untilexpiration. The Wisconsin FarmlandPreservation Law is designed to protectfarmland from urban development, throughpreservation plans or exclusive agriculturalzoning. Along with traditional farming, mosttowns and counties allow forest and wildlifemanagement on agricultural land. While notlowering property taxes directly, participationearns state income tax credits for eligiblefarmers enrolled in local preservationprograms. You must make more than $6,000in gross farm income to qualify. For moreinformation, contact your county LandConservation Department.
As noted in the Extension bulletin WisconsinWoodlands: Income Tax Considerations forForestland Owners (Stier et al., 1984), several
provisions of the federal tax code could affectwoodland owners. These include the potentialto claim an investment tax credit on the costsof planting trees, the recovery of certainmanagement costs as annual deductibleexpenses, and the possibility of treating theproceeds of timber sales as capital gains.
Tax laws change constantly, and Wisconsinincome tax law does not conform exactly tofederal law. Be sure to consult your taxadvisor for specific provisions that may affectyou.
See REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READINGfor a list of reference guides and tax recordsystems.
FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 39
Tom
Bah
ti
Conclusion
40
Management plans for grouse, or anywildlife, vary depending on location. For
example, overgrazing in woodlots and lack ofwinter cover may be a concern in the DriftlessArea; proximity to pulpwood markets isimportant in the Central Sands; and convertingaspen to hardwoods or balsam fir is the majormanagement concern in the North Woods.Planning and professional assistance will helpyou tailor your management plan to yourproperty. Remember the sequence:objectives, inventory, professional assistance,goals and work schedule.
Resist the temptation to focus on only oneaspect of woodland management forsimplicity’s sake. Try to keep multiple-useconcepts in mind—a management goal aimedat producing high quality timber need not
ignore songbirds. Forests are diverseecological communities that provide a place tolive for many species; they all deserveconsideration. The emphasis can, and does,vary among landowners. You may be anardent grouse and woodcock hunter while oneneighbor is an avid birdwatcher and another isprimarily interested in wood production.However, a carefully planned jointmanagement effort can benefit everyone.
We tend to think of land only as something toown and use, forgetting how much we dependon it. Consider yourself not only a propertyowner and manager but a concerned stewardof the land. Aldo Leopold summed up thisphilosophy in the foreword to his Sand CountyAlmanac essays:
Aldo Leopold
“We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong,
we may begin to use it with love and respect.”R
ober
t A. M
cCab
e
References for further reading
41
Prices, where given, are subject to change. Appendix B on page 45 tells where these references are available.
Woodland wildlife management
Craven, S.R. 1981. Wisconsinwoodlands: wildlife management.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv., G3097.8 pp.
Craven, S.R., and R. Ellarson. 1986.Landscape plants that attract birds.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv., G1609.
Craven, S.R., G. Jackson, W. Swensonand B. Webendorfer. 1987. Thebenefits of well-managed streamcorridors. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.,G3404.
Decker, D.J., and J.W. Kelley. 1982.Enhancement of wildlife habitat onprivate lands. Info. Bull. 181. NYSColl. of Ag. and Life Sci., Cornell U.,Ithaca. 40 pp. $4.95
Decker, D.J., J.W. Kelley, T.W. Seamans,and R.R. Roth. 1983. Wildlife andtimber from private lands: alandowner’s guide to planning. Info.Bull. 193. NYS Coll. of Ag. and LifeSci., Cornell U., Ithaca. 56 pp. $4.95
Gill, J.D., and W.M. Healy. 1974. Shrubsand vines for northeastern wildlife.USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-9. Northeastern For. Exp. Sta., UpperDarby, Pa. 180 pp.
Gullion, G.W. 1983. Managing woodlotsfor fuel and wildlife. Ruffed GrouseSociety, Coraopolis, Pa. 16 pp.
Gullion, G.W. 1984. Managing northernforests for wildlife. Ruffed GrouseSoc., Misc. J. Series Publ. 13442,Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta., St. Paul.72 pp.
Gullion, G.W. Shrub and tree planting forruffed grouse. Ruffed Grouse Society,Coraopolis, Pa. 10 pp.
Gullion, G.W. Improving ruffed grousehabitat with proper planting. RuffedGrouse Society, Coraopolis, Pa. 8 pp.
Gullion, G.W. Integration of wildlifeproduction into Great Lake States’forestry programs. Ruffed GrouseSociety. Scientific J. Series Publ. No.11,879, Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta., St.Paul. pp. 231-238.
Gutierrez, R.J., D.J. Decker, R.A. Howard,Jr., and J.P. Lassoie. 1984.Managing small woodlands for wildlife.Inf. Bul. 157. NYS Coll. of Ag. and LifeSci., Cornell Univ., Ithaca. 32 pp.
Hassinger, J., L. Hoffman, M.J. Puglisi,T.D. Rader, and R.G. Wingard. 1979.Woodlands and wildlife. Penn. St.Univ., Univ. Park, PA. 68 pp. $2.00
Hassinger, J., C.E. Schwarz, and R.G.Wingard. 1981. Timber sales andwildlife. Pennsylvania GameCommission. 13 pp.
Henderson, C.L. Woodworking forwildlife. Minn. Dept. Nat. Resources.Nongame Wildlife. Program. 47 pp.
Henderson, C.L., Landscaping forwildlife. Minn. Dept. Nat. ResourcesNongame Wildlife Program, 47pp.Kubisiak, J.F. 1987. Oak forests:a management opportunity for ruffedgrouse and other wildlife. RuffedGrouse Society, Coraopolis, PA. 18 pp.
Hobson, S.S., J.S. Barclay, and S.H.Broderick. 1993. Enhancing wildlifehabitats: A practical guide for forestlandowners. Northeast RegionalAgricultural Engineering Service,Ithaca. 172 pp. $20.00
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson.1951. American wildlife and plants.Dover Publications, Inc., New York.500 pp.
McCaffery, K.R., J.E. Ashbrenner, andJ.C. Moulton. 1981. Forest openingconstruction and impacts in northernWisconsin. Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour.Tech. Bull. 120.41 pp.
Ruff, R.L., D.F. Covell, J.A. Nosek, and S.R. Craven, 1993. A bibliography ofCooperative Extension Serviceliterature on wildlife, fish, and forestresources. Dept. of Wildlife Ecology,Coop. Ext. Prog., Univ. ofWisconsin–Madison. 116 pp.
Sepik, G.F., R.B. Owen, and M.W.Coulter. 1981. A landowner’s guideto woodcock management in thenortheast. University of Maine, LifeScience and Ag. Exp. Sta., Misc. Rep.253. 23 pp.
Ruffed grouse ecology
Atwater, S. and J. Schnell, eds. 1989.Ruffed grouse. Stackpole Books,Harrisburg, Penn. 370 pp.
Bump, G., R.W. Darrow, F.C. Edminsterand W.F. Crissey. 1947. The ruffedgrouse—life history, propagation,management. New York Conserv.Dept., Albany. 915 pp.
DeStefano, S., S.R. Craven, and R.L. Ruff.1984. Ecology of the ruffed grouse.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3252.
DeStefano, S., R.L. Ruff, and S.R. Craven.1983. A grouse in the hand.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3227.
Dorney, R.S. 1959. The relationship ofruffed grouse to forest cover types inWisconsin. Wis. Conserv. Dept. Tech.Bull. 18. 32 pp.
Edminster, F.C. 1947. The ruffedgrouse—its life story, ecology andmanagement. MacMillan Co., NewYork. 385 pp.
42 REFERENCES
Gullion, G.W. The ruffed grouse. RuffedGrouse Society, Coraopolis, Pa.4 pp.
Johnsgard, P.A. 1973. Grouse andquails of North America. Univ. ofNebr. Press, Lincoln. 553 pp.
Kubisiak, J.F. 1978. Broodcharacteristics and summer habitats ofgrouse in central Wisconsin. Wis.Dept. Nat. Resour. Tech. Bull. 108. 11 pp.
Kubisiak, J.F. 1985. Ruffed grousehabitat relationships in aspen and oakforests of central Wisconsin. Wis.Dept. Nat. Resour. Tech. Bull. 151.22 pp.
Kubisiak, J.F. 1985. Ruffed grouseharvest levels and populationcharacteristics in central Wisconsin.Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour. ResearchRep. 136. 24 pp.
Kubisiak, J.F., J.C. Moulton, and K.R.McCaffery. 1980. Ruffed grousedensity and habitat relationships inWisconsin. Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour.Tech. Bull. 118. 15 pp.
Madson, J. 1969. Ruffed grouse.Winchester Press, Olin MathiesonChemical Corp., East Alton, Ill.103 pp.
Robinson, W.L., ed. 1984. Ruffed grousemanagement: state of the art in theearly 1980’s. North Cent. Sec. Wildl.Soc. 181 pp.
Rue, L.L. 1973. The world of the ruffedgrouse. J.B. Lippincott Co., Phil. andNew York. 160 pp.
General wildlife
Anon. 1990. Beaver damage control.Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour. 30 pp.
Barquest, G., S. Craven, and R. Ellarson.1982. Shelves, houses and feedersfor birds and squirrels. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G2091. 32 pp.
Craven, S.R., and G.J. Knudsen. 1982.Snakes of Wisconsin. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3139. 8 pp.
Craven, S.R., and R.L. Ruff. 1982. Birdfeeding: tips for beginners andveterans. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3176. 12 pp.
Dumke, R.T. 1982. Habitat developmentfor bobwhite quail on private lands inWisconsin. Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour.Tech. Bull. 128. 49 pp.
Gregg, L. 1984. Population ecology ofwoodcock in Wisconsin. Wis. Dept.Nat. Resour. Tech. Bull. 144. 51 pp.
Gromme, O.J. 1963. Birds of Wisconsin.University of Wisconsin Press,Madison. 236 pp.
Jackson, H.H.T. 1961. Mammals ofWisconsin. University of WisconsinPress, Madison. 504 pp.
Les, B.L. 1979. The vanishing wild:Wisconsin’s endangered wildlife andits habitat. Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour. 36 pp.
Leopold, A. 1933. Game management.Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.481 pp.
Leopold, A. 1949. A sand countyalmanac. Oxford Univ. Press, NewYork. 226 pp.
Liscinsky, S.A. 1972. The Pennsylvaniawoodcock management study. Penn.Game Comm., Harrisburg. 95 pp.
Vogt, R.C. 1981. Natural history ofamphibians and reptiles of Wisconsin.Milwaukee Pub. Mus. 208 pp.
Field guides
Borror, D.J., and R.E. White. 1970. Afield guide to the insects. PetersonField Guide Series, Houghton MifflinCo., Boston. 404 pp.
Bull, J., and J. Farrand, Jr. (eds.). 1977.The Audubon Society field guide toNorth American birds - eastern region.Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 784 pp.
Burt, W.H., and R.P. Grossenheider.1980. Field guide to the mammals.Peterson Field Guide Series, HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston. 289 pp.
Courtenay, B., and J.H. Zimmerman.1972. Wildflowers and weeds. VanNostrand Reinhold Co., New York.144 pp.
Fassett, N.C. 1976. Spring flora ofWisconsin. University of WisconsinPress, Madison. 413 pp.
Hamerstrom, F. 1972. Birds of prey ofWisconsin. Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour.64 pp.
Murie, O.J. 1975. A field guide to animaltracks. Peterson Field Guide Series,Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 375 pp.
Peterson, R.T. 1980. A field guide to thebirds. Peterson Field Guide Series,Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.384 pp.
Petrides, G.A. 1972. A field guide totrees and shrubs. Peterson FieldGuide Series, Houghton Mifflin Co.,Boston. 428 pp.
Robbins, C.S., B. Bruun, and H.S. Zim.1966. Birds of North America. GoldenField Guide Series, Golden Press, NewYork. 340 pp.
Forestry and woodlandmanagement
Anon. 1977. Tree planting in Wisconsin.Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour. 15 pp.
Anon. 1988. Aspen management onyour land. Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour.PUBL-WM-162.
Beaufeaux, M., and G. Cunningham.1984. Wisconsin woodlands: pineplantation management. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G1983. 4 pp.
Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation ofWisconsin, University of WisconsinPress. Madison. 657 pp.
Harris, L.D. 1984. The fragmentedforest. Univ. of Chicago Press,Chicago. 211 pp.
Hauge, C., S. Hovde, and E. Steigerwaldt.1985. Wisconsin woodlands:Christmas tree shearing. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3268. 4 pp.
Huebschmann, M., and J. Martin. 1986.Wisconsin woodlands: estimating andinterpreting site index. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3361. 4 pp.
Huebschmann, M., and J. Martin. 1987.Wisconsin woodlands: intermediatecuttings in forest management.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3398.6 pp.
Kozlowski, T.T. 1984. Wisconsinwoodlands: how forest trees grow.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3277.7 pp.
Lindberg, R.D., and H.J. Hovind. 1986.Wisconsin’s forests - an assessment,1985. Wis. Dept. Nat. Resour. Pub.FR-041. 86 pp.
Lorimer, C.G., and C.T. Locey. 1983.Wisconsin woodlands: managingnorthern hardwood stands. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3229. 6 pp.
Martin, J. 1985. Wisconsin woodlands:measuring trees and estimatingvolume. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3332. 7 pp.
Martin, J. 1986. Wisconsin woodlands:estimating stocking conditions in yourtimber stand. Wisconsin Coop. Ext.Serv. G3362. 8 pp.
Perala, D.A. 1977. Manager’s handbookfor aspen in the North Central States.USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-36, North Cent. For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul.30 pp.
Reinke, M.E. Management of aspen.Packaging Corp. of America. RuffedGrouse Society. 4 pp.
REFERENCES 43
Robson, T.F., and G.R. Cunningham.1979. Wisconsin woodlands: forestryterms. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3018. 10 pp.
Sander, I.L. 1977. Manager’s handbookfor oaks in the North Central States.USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-37, North Cent. For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul.35 pp.
Smith, W.B. 1986. Wisconsin’s fourthforest inventory: area. USDA For.Serv. Resour. Bull NC-97, North Cent.For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul. 48 pp.
Steele, T., and G. Cunningham. 1983.Wisconsin woodlands: buying a safechainsaw. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3206. 4 pp.
Tubbs, C.H. 1977. Manager’s handbookfor northern hardwoods in the NorthCentral States. USDA For. Serv. Gen.Tech. Rep. NC-39, North Cent. For.Exp. Sta., St. Paul. 29 pp.
Wooden, A.L., C. Locey, and G.Cunningham. 1990. Lake stateswoodlands: aspen management.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3162. 6 pp.
Wisconsin woodlands: safe treeharvesting. Wisconsin Coop. Ext.Serv. G3205.
Wisconsin woodlands: protectiveclothing for chainsaw operators.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3177.
Controlling wildlife damage
Craven, S.R. 1981. Controllingwoodpecker damage. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3117. 2 pp.
Craven, S.R. 1983. Protecting gardensand landscape plantings from rabbits.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G1654.8 pp.
Craven, S.R., and S. Hygnstrom. 1986.Controlling deer damage in Wisconsin.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3083.12 pp.
Craven, S.R., and F. Iwen. 1980. Bats:information for Wisconsinhomeowners. Wisconsin Coop. Ext.Serv. G3096.
Hygnstrom, S., and S.R. Craven. 1986.Controlling: hawk and owl damage.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. 4 pp.
Financial considerations
Barrows, R. 1984. Wisconsin’s farmlandpreservation program. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G2890. 4 pp.
Barrows, R., A.J. Klingelhoets, T.Krauskopf, and D. Yanggen. 1980.Mapping to preserve agricultural land.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. A3038.20 pp.
Gerleman, T.G., and D. Last. 1985.Wisconsin’s recreational use statute -limiting the liability of privatelandowners. Wisconsin Coop. Ext.Serv. G3326. 3 pp.
Last, D., and T.G. Gerleman. 1984.Wisconsin’s trespass law —controlling the use of private land.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3296.2 pp.
Martin, A.J., K. Potter-Witter, and J.Lapidakis. 1989. Lake stateswoodlands: marketing timber.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. G3297. 6 pp.
Lapidakis, J., A. Wooden, and G.Cunningham. 1981. Wisconsinwoodlands: the Woodland Tax Lawand the Forest Crop Law. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G1549. 4 pp.
Stier, J.C., R.E. Denney, and J. Lapidakis.1984. Wisconsin woodlands: incometax considerations for forestlandowners. Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv.G3298. 3 pp.
Tlusty, W.G., and G.W. Rodgers. 1987.Wisconsin woodlands: the ManagedForest Law Program. WisconsinCoop. Ext. Serv. G3413. 6 pp.
USDA For. Serv. 1982. A guide tofederal income tax for timber owners.Agr. Handbook 596. U.S. Gov. Print.Off., Wash., D.C. $4.75.
Yanggen, D., and R. Barrows. 1980.Zoning to preserve agricultural land.Wisconsin Coop. Ext. Serv. A3038. 14 pp.
Tax guides
Bowlby, V.L. 1989. The Christmas treetaxation manual (ninth ed.). $52.Available from:Bowlby Publishing Co., Inc.310 N.W. Fifth St., Suite 103Corvallis, OR 97330
Haney, H.L. Jr., and W.C. Siegel. 1988.Federal income tax guide for timberowners. Free.Available from:USDA Forest ServiceSouthern Forest Experiment Station701 Loyola Ave.New Orleans, LA 70113
Hoover, W.L. 1989. Timber taxmanagement for tree farmers. $20.Available from:American Forest Council1250 Connecticut Ave., N.W.Suite 320Washington, DC 20036
Hoover, W.L., W.C. Siegel, G.A. Mylesand H.L. Haney, Jr. 1989. Forestowners’ guide to timber investments,the federal income tax, and taxrecordkeeping. USDA AgriculturalHandbook No. 681. USGPO Stock#001-000-4540-7. $5.Available from:Superintendent of DocumentsU.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, DC 20402-9325
Record systems
Bowlby, V.L. 1986. Christmas treetaxation bookkeeping system. $35.Available from:Bowlby Publishing Co., Inc.310 N.W. Fifth St., Suite 103Corvallis, OR 97330
Haney, H.L., Jr. 1985. A guide to incometax records for tree farmers. VirginiaCooperative Extension ServicePublication 420-090. Single copiesfree.Available from:Cooperative Extension ServiceVirginia Tech. UniversityBlacksburg, VA 24061
Myles, G.A., T.A. Sedbrook and D. Casey.1985. Woodlands account book.Single copies free.Available from:State ForesterMaryland Forest, Park and WildlifeServiceTawes State Office Building580 Taylor Ave.Annapolis, MD 21401
Blumenstock, B. 1981. Yankee woodlotjournal. Single copies free.Available from:Cooperative Extension ServiceUniversity of MaineOrono, ME 04469
Stier, J.C. 1989. Financial record bookfor timber growers (second ed.). $5.Available from:Department of ForestryUniversity of Wisconsin1630 Linden Dr.Madison, WI 53706
44
Advance reproduction: Young treesat least 4.5 feet tall that cansuccessfully compete for light andnutrients after the overstory isremoved.
Block: Any group of trees that ismanaged as a unit; oftensynonymous with a stand.
Bolt: A short log or a squared timbercut from a log up to 8 feet in lengthand at least 8 inches in diameter atthe small end.
Clearcut: A harvesting andregeneration technique that removesall the trees (regardless of size) on anarea in one operation. Clearcutting isusually used with species like aspenthat require full sunlight to reproduceand grow well. Produces an even-aged forest stand.
Climax forest: The final or self-perpetuating successional stage in aforest.
Conversion: Change from one foresttype to another, either naturallythrough disturbance or succession,or artificially through harvesting andreforestation.
DBH: The tree Diameter at BreastHeight (4.5 feet above the ground).
Forest Type: A group of tree speciesthat, because of their environmentalrequirements and tolerances,commonly grow together. Treeexamples of forest types are thesugar maple-basswood type, theoak-hickory type, and the aspen-paper birch type.
Herbaceous plants: Plants that dieback annually to the ground level, asdistinct from woody shrubs and trees.
Mast: The nuts, seeds and fruitsproduced by forest trees and shrubs.
Mature tree: A tree that has reachedthe desired size or age for itsintended use. Size or age will varyconsiderably depending on thespecies and intended use.
Merchantable: Timber for which amarket exists because it meetsspecifications for species, size,freedom from defect, etc.
Mesic: This describes a habitat sitewith intermediate soil moisturecontent, as opposed to xeric (dry) orhydric (wet).
Old-growth: A stand made up of treesthat are older than the normal rotationage.
Overmature: A tree that has passedthe desired size or age for itsintended use and is beginning todecline in value.
Plantation: An artificially reforestedarea established by planting or directseeding.
Pole-timber: A stand of trees withdiameters ranging from 4 inches toapproximately 8 to 12 inches.
Regeneration: The process of forestreplacement or renewal. This may bedone artificially by seeding orplanting; or naturally by sprouting ornatural seeding.
Reproduction: Young trees that willgrow to become the older trees in thefuture forest.
Rotation Age: The number of yearsrequired to establish and grow treesto a specified size, product orcondition of maturity.
Sapling: A small tree, usually between2 and 4 inches DBH.
Sawlog: A log large enough toproduce a sawn product—usually atleast 10 to 12 inches in diameter atthe small end.
Sawtimber: A stand of trees withdiameters greater than 10-12 inches.
Seedling: A tree, usually less than 2inches DBH, that has grown from aseed.
Seed-tree cut: Removing all treesfrom the harvest area at one timeexcept for a few selected trees left toprovide seed to establish a newforest stand.
Selection cut: Harvesting individualtrees or small groups of trees atperiodic intervals (usually 8 to 15years) based on their physicalcondition or degree of maturity.Produces an uneven-aged stand.
Shearing: The non-commercialremoval of unmerchantable trees,using a chain saw or a bulldozer witha sharpened (KG) blade. Also refersto shaping of Christmas trees.
Shelterwood cut: Removing treesfrom a harvest area in a series of twoor more cuttings so new seedlingscan establish and grow in the partialshade and protection of older trees.Produces an even-aged forest.
Site: 1. A tract of land with reasonablyuniform soil and climatic factors. 2.An area evaluated as to its capacityto produce a particular forest or othervegetation based on the combinationof biological, climatic and soil factors.
Site index: An expression of forestsite quality based on the height of thedominant trees at a specified age(usually 50 years in the easternU. S.).
Slash: The brush accumulated from acutting operation.
Sprout: A tree growing from the base,stump or root of another tree.
Stand: Any identifiable group of trees—by age, species, height, site,origin, stocking, management, etc.
Thinning: Generally, a cutting in animmature forest stand to reduce thetree density and concentrate thegrowth potential on fewer, higherquality trees resulting in larger treeswith faster growth.
TSI (Timber Stand Improvement):The thinning of timber stands byremoving inferior trees to improvestand quality and/or speciescomposition.
Some common forestry terms
APPENDIX A
45
Sources of publications
Cornell Cooperative Extension PublicationsDistribution Center C7 Research ParkCornell UniversityIthaca, NY 14850
Department of ForestryUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison1630 Linden DriveMadison, WI 53706
Forest Resources ExtensionPennsylvania State UniversityBox 6000University Park, PA 1680
North Central Forest Experiment StationU.S. Forest Service1992 Folwell AvenueSt. Paul, MN 55108
Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering ServiceCooperative Extension152 Riley-Robb HallIthaca, NY 14853-5701
The Ruffed Grouse Society451 McCormick RoadCoraopolis, PA 15108-9327
University of Wisconsin-Extension Cooperative Extension PublicationsRm. 24530 N. Murray StreetMadison, WI 53715(608) 262-3346
Wisconsin Department of Natural ResourcesBureaus of Research, Endangered Resources, Forestry, or Wildlife ManagementBox 7921Madison, WI 53707
APPENDIX B
46
Sources of wildlife plants
In addition to free nursery stockavailable to Project Respect and Acresfor Wildlife participants, DNR nurseriesin Hayward, Wisconsin Rapids andBoscobel also sell stock suitable forwildlife plantings. Most counties alsodeliver orders from state nurseries.You can obtain a Tree and Shrubapplication form and delivery detailsfrom your local DNR office beginning inOctober or November. These treesoften sell out early, so submit yourorder for the spring as quickly aspossible. If you miss out on these,many county Land ConservationDepartments take orders forconservation trees beginning in latewinter.
You can also obtain nursery stock fromprivate nurseries that deal in nativegrasses, forbs, aquatics, and woodyplants for prairie and wetlandrestoration or wildlife plantings. Thefollowing nurseries requested to beincluded on a DNR list of tree sourcesfor the Conservation Reserve Program.(This list is based in part on an inquirysent to all licensed nurseries in thestate, but does not represent acomplete list of native or wildlife plantnurseries in Wisconsin. Forinformational use only, it does not implyendorsement of specific products orservices, nor criticism of nurseries notlisted, by the authors, UW-Extension, orthe Wisconsin DNR.)
IowaCascade Forestry ServiceRt. 1 Cascade, IA 52033(319) 852-3042
MinnesotaChippewa FarmsRt. 1, Box 246 Brandon, MN 56315(612) 524-2244
Itasca Greenhouse, Inc.Box 273 Cohasset, MN 55721(800) 538-8733
Spruce Pine FarmsHwy. 52 Fountain, MN 55935(507) 268-4466
MissouriForrest Keeling NurseryElsberry, MO 63343 (314) 898-5571
WisconsinBrehm’s Wonder Creek FarmRt. 2, Beaver Dam, WI 53916
Gress Evergreen Inc.W7035 Hwy 64, Bryant, WI 54418(715) 623-6167
Borkenhagen Evergreen AcresW6472 Lake Ellen Dr., Cascade, WI53011 (414) 528-8872
Stumpf’s Trees, Inc.340 Horns Corners Rd., Cedarburg, WI53012 (414) 375-1554
Lindsey Nursery8832 County V, Chili, WI 54420(715) 676-3681
Arneson NurseryRt. 3 Box 1263, Clintonville, WI 54929(715) 823-6784
Trees for Tomorrow, Inc.Box 609 611 Sheridan, Eagle River, WI54521 (715) 479-6456
Lowes Creek Tree Farm311 Eisenhower St., Eau Claire, WI54701 (715) 834-7664
Bruce J. Miller InternationalBox 66, Germantown, WI 53022(414) 255-4360
Ron Williams Nursery2310 Elmwood, Green Bay, WI 54313(414) 434-2847
WALI NurseryRt. 9 Box 9089, Hayward, WI 54843(715) 462-3565
Wolfrath’s NurseryN2988 Hwy 45, Hortonville, WI 54944(414) 779-6493
Bruce J. Miller Nursery & Seeds3187 Bark Lake Rd., Hubertus, WI53033 (414) 255-4360
Nursery Tree FarmW1659 County S, Kaukana, WI 54130 (414) 766-3110
Glen Flora NurseryRt. 1, Kiel, WI 53042 (414) 773-2493
Lake Mills Nursery, Inc.W7628 Conservation Rd., Lake Mills,WI 53551 (414) 648-2034
Silver Creek Nurseries Inc.Box 2114, Manitowoc, WI 54220 (414) 684-1225
Northern Christmas TreeGrowers and NurseryHwy. 12 Box 19, Merrillan, WI 54754(715) 333-2661 or 5441
Schmeling NurseryS76W12723 McShane Dr., Muskego, WI 53150
Clear Lake Nursery1296 Clearlake Rd., Milton, WI 53563(608) 868-4226
APPENDIX C
SOURCES OF WILDLIFE PLANTS 47
Sand Creek NurseryRt. 2 Box 271, New Auburn, WI 54727
Detlor Tree FarmBox 6, Plainfield, WI 54966(715) 335-4444
Laura’s Lane NurseryBox 232, Plainfield, WI 54966(715) 366-2477
Windfall504 S. East St., Plainfield, WI 54966(715) 335-6725
Suthers Moundview Nursery30746 Hwy 151, Platteville, WI 53818(608) 348-8991
Nepco Lake NurseryNekoosa Papers Inc.,Port Edwards, WI 54469(715) 887-5301
Insti Trees7014 Fire Tower Rd. Box 137,Rhinelander, WI 54501(715) 282-5247
Krueger’s Northwoods Nursery3682 Limberlost Rd.,Rhinelander, WI 54501 (715) 369-3959
Wis-Con-Trees809 Keenan St., Rhinelander, WI54501 (715) 362-3364
Northern Woodsman ProductsW1177 Washington Rd.,Rubicon, WI 53078 (414) 474-4098
St. Croix Valley Trees458 Rice Lake Rd.,Sommerset, WI 54025 (715) 247-5500
West Wisconsin Nursery &Christmas TreesRt. 4 Box 141, Sparta, WI 54656 (608) 272-3171
Evergreen Nursery Co., Inc.5027 County TT, Sturgeon Bay, WI 54235 (414) 743-4464
Pony Creek NurseryBox 16, Tilleda, WI 54978(715) 787-3889
Betthauser’s NurseryRt. 3, Tomah, WI 54660 (608) 372-4317
Lodholz North Star Acres420 Hwy. A, Tomahawk, WI 54487(715) 453-2976
Westfork Walnut NurseryRt. 3, Viroqua, WI 54665(608) 637-2528
Birnamwood Nursery603 Sturgeon Eddy,Wausau, WI 54401(715) 842-8719
Paradise Gardens Nursery1848 Hwy 33 East,West Bend, WI 53095 (414) 338-8316
Sigourney’s Tree and Nursery1080 Cooke Ave.,Wisconsin Rapids, WI 54494(715) 423-4465
T he following is a list of sources forseeds, tubers and plants of native
Wisconsin vegetation. It was compiledby landscape architect JohnDiekelmann and Drs. Evelyn Howelland John Harrington of the UW-Madison Department of LandscapeArchitecture. (This list is forinformational use only and does notconstitute endorsement by thecompilers or the authors.)
IllinoisLafayette Home Nurseryc/o Jock Ingalls, Lafayette, IL 61449
Windrift Prairie Nurseryc/o Dorothy & Doug Wade, Rt. 2,Oregon, IL 61061
MinnesotaOrchid GardensRt. 1, Grand Rapids, MN 55744
Prairie Restorationsc/o Ron Bowen, Rt. 3,Princeton, MN 55371
WisconsinBoehlke’s Woodland GardensW140 N1089 Country Aire Rd.,Germantown, WI 53022
Great Lakes Wild FlowersBox 1923, Milwaukee, WI 53201
Prairie Ridge Nurseryc/o Joyce Powers, Rt. 2, OverlandRoad, Mount Horeb, WI 53572
Prairie Seed Sourcec/o Robert Ahrenhoerster, Box 83,North Lake, WI 53064
Kester’s Wild Game FoodNurseriesBox V, Omro, WI 54963
Strand Nursery Co.Osceola, WI 54020
Wildlife NurseriesBox 2724, Oshkosh, WI 54903
Little Valley FarmRt. 1, Box 287,Richland Center, WI 53581
Prairie Nurseryc/o Neil DibollBox 116, Rt. 1, Westfield, WI 53964
48
*Adapted from Tubbs, C.H., R.M. DeGraaf, M. Yamasaki and W.M. Healy. 1987. Guide to wildlife tree management in New England northernhardwoods. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-118. Broomall, PA:USDA, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, 30 pp.
E = Excavator: 1 = Primary excavator; digs
own cavity2 = Secondary excavator; uses
existing cavities
T = Type:L = Live treeD = Dead tree (snag)
DT = Diameter of tree in inchesFD = Floor dimensions of cavity in
inches
DC = Depth of cavity in inchesED = Entrance (hole) diameter in
inchesEF = Entrance height above floor of
cavity in inchesHG = Cavity height above
ground in feet
KEY
Cavity-using birds of Wisconsin*
APPENDIX D
Species E T DT FD DC ED EF HG Habitat
Wood Duck 2 L 16 12x12 24 4.0 19 6-40 Bottomland hardwoods < 0.5 mile from water
Common Goldeneye 2 L 23 12x12 24 4.5 19 6-40 Hardwoods adjacent to northern lakes
Hooded Merganser 2 L 20+ 10x10 24 4.0 19 20+ Wooded, clear-watered streams and lakes
Common Merganser 2 L 20+ 10x10 35 4.7 20 Hardwoods near cool, clear waters
Turkey Vulture 2 D 20+ Most forest types, use forest openings
Peregrine Falcon 2 20+ Open country along waters
Merlin 2 20+ Open stands of hardwood forests
American Kestrel 2 L 12 8x8 14 3.0 11 10-30 Brushy borders and open or semi-open country
Common Barn Owl 2 L 20+ 10x18 17 6.0 4 12-18 Forests, barnyards, marshes and fields
Eastern Screech Owl 2 L 12 8x8 11 2.5 9 12-20 Widely spaced tree with grassy open spaces
Northern Hawk Owl 2 L 20+ Northern forests with openings and bogs
Boreal Owl 2 D 12 10-25 Conifer-hardwood mixed forests
Northern Saw-whet Owl 2 L 12 6x6 11 2.5 9 12-20 Deep northern forests
Chimney Swift 2 L 20+ Woody & open areas & man-made structures
Common Flicker 2 D 15 7x7 17 2.5 15 6-20 Near large trees in open woodlands a& fields
Pileated Woodpecker 1 D 22 8x8 20 4.0 11 12-60 Extensive mature forest areas
Red-bellied Woodpecker 1 L 18 6x6 13 2.5 11 12-20 Common in southeastern forests
Red-headed Woodpecker 1 D 20 6x6 14 2.0 11 12-20 Open areas —farm yards, field edges
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 1 D 12 5x5 10 1.5 12-20 Along streams in mixed conifer-hardwood
forests
Hairy Woodpecker 1 L 12 6x6 14 1.5 11 12-20 Open woodlands and forests
Downy Woodpecker 1 D 8 4x4 9 1.2 7 6-20 Open woodlands, orchards and urban
areas
CAVITY-USING BIRDS 49
E = Excavator: 1 = Primary excavator; digs
own cavity2 = Secondary excavator; uses
existing cavities
T = Type:L = Live tree D = Dead tree (snag)
DT = Diameter of tree in inchesFD = Floor dimensions of cavity in
inches
DC = Depth of cavity in inches.ED = Entrance (hole) diameter in
inches.EF = Entrance height above floor of
cavity in inches.HG = Cavity height above
ground in feet.
KEY
Species E T DT FD DC ED EF HG Habitat
Black-backed Woodpecker 1 D 12 5x5 10 2.0 7-15 Northern conifer forests
Great-crested Flycatcher 2 L 12 6x6 9 2.0 7 8 -10 Forests and forest-field edge areas
Tree Swallow 2 D 12 5x5 6 1.5 3 10-15 Usually near water in open areas
Purple Martin 2 D 12 6x6 6 2.5 1 15-20 Open areas and cutover forests
Black-capped Chickadee 1 D 4 4x4 9 1.1 7 5-15 Brushy borders and forests
Boreal Chickadee 1 D 4 4x4 9 1.1 7 5-15 Northern forests of spruce, fir and aspen
Tufted titmouse 2 D 12 4x4 9 1.2 7 6-15 Eastern deciduous woodlands
White-breasted Nuthatch 2 L 12 4x4 10 1.2 7 5-20 Deciduous woodlands
Red-breasted Nuthatch 2 D 12 4x4 10 1.2 7 5-15 Conifer-aspen woodlands
Brown Creeper 2 D 12 Coniferous forests
House Wren 2 L 12 4x4 7 1.0 3 6-10 Brushy borders and edge habitat
Winter Wren 2 L 8 4x4 7 2.0 5 5-10 Forest brushpiles and thick undergrowth
Bewick’s Wren 2 L 4x4 7 1.0 3 6-10 Farmyards, brushlands, fencerows and suburbs
Carolina Wren 2 L 4x4 7 1.1 3 6-10 Forests with thick undergrowth
Eastern Bluebird 2 D 8 5x5 8 1.5 6 5-10 Brushy borders around open areas
European Starling 2 6x6 17 2.0 15 10-25 Parks, suburbs and farms
Prothonotary Warbler 2 D 8 4x4 8 1.5 5 4-7 Swamps and deciduous forests near water
House Sparrow 2 4x4 9 1.5 7 4-12 Cities, suburbs and farms near humans
50 APPENDIX E
In 1984, the Wisconsin legislature revised therecreational use statute. The new law limitsproperty owners’ responsibility for people whouse their land for recreation.
Except for some special situations describedelsewhere, landowners do not have a legalobligation to: 1. keep their property safe for recreationalactivity;2. inspect their property; or3. give warning of an unsafe condition, use oractivity on their property.
The law also eliminates liability of propertyowners for injuries to a person engaged in arecreational activity when the injuries arecaused by another recreational user or a wildanimal.
EXAMPLE 1: Grant Door receives permissionto hunt on Florence Clark’s property. Whilehunting, Grant is accidentally shot by anotherhunter. Florence Clark is protected by thestatute. She is not liable for Grant Door’s injury.
This publication provides a summary andinterpretation of the key provisions of the newlaw. Persons wishing more information on thissubject should consult an attorney or get acopy of the statute from a library or courthouse(Wis. Stats. 895.52).
What is a recreational activity?The state statute defines recreational activityas "any outdoor activity undertaken for thepurpose of exercise, relaxation or pleasure,including practice or instruction in any suchactivity.” The statute specifically lists 30examples which fall within this generaldefinition.
Wisconsin’s new recreational use statutedefines recreational activity as “any outdooractivity undertaken for the purpose ofexercise, relaxation or pleasure, includingpractice or instruction in any such activity.”The statute specifically lists the followingexamples of such activity:
hunting, bird-watching, ballooning, hiking,sleigh riding, snowmobiling, skating,sightseeing, animal training, outdoorgames, bicycling, motorcycling, hanggliding, camping, sledding skiing, watersports, cutting/removing wood, outdoorsports, outdoor education, horsebackriding, fishing trapping, tobogganing,picnicking, exploring caves, nature study,rock-climbing, climbing observation towers,harvesting the products of nature.
Under what circumstances arelandowners liable?The state’s recreational use statute describescertain circumstances in which an owner maybe liable for an injury to a person using hisproperty. For example, the law does not limitor eliminate liability if a land owner sponsors aspectator sport since “organized team sport”is specifically excluded from the definition ofrecreational activity in the statute.
EXAMPLE 2: Langlade Richland sponsors asoftball tournament on land he owns. Duringthe tournament, a foul ball hits and injuresRock St. Croix. Richland is not protected bythe recreational use statute. St. Croix mayinitiate a lawsuit against Richland.
A private property owner’s liability likewise isnot limited if that owner receives more than$2,000 annually from those using his property
Wisconsin's Recreational Use Statute
Limiting the injury liability of private landownersThomas G. Gerleman and Donald Last
APPENDIX E
RECREATIONAL USE STATUTE 51
for recreation. These payments may be in theform of money or an equivalent amount ofgoods or services and must have beenreceived during the year in which the injurytook place. Commercial recreationalbusinesses therefore may be liable for injuriesto guests or clients.
However, individuals may collect no more than$5 per person per day for permission to gatherproducts of nature, may receive paymentsfrom the government or nonprofit groups forthe management/conservation of theproperty’s natural resources, and may receivea share of the harvested products of naturefrom a recreational user. Such payments arenot included in the $2,000 payment ruledescribed above.
EXAMPLE 3: Forest Sawyer charges a dailyuser fee to skiers and snowmobilers. His totalreceipts are more than $20,000 annually.Forest Sau!yer’s injury liability is not reducedby the recreational use statute.
EXAMPLE 4: Douglas Dodge sometimesreceives a share of the fireplace wood cut andremoved from his woodlot by PierceMarquette. Dodge is not liable if Marquette isinjured uhile engaged in this activity.
The law does not limit liability for an injury to arecreational user if the injury is caused by themalicious failure of the owner (or the owner’semployee or agent) to warn the user about anunsafe condition known to the owner.
EXAMPLE 5: A group of teenagers receivepermission from Price Taylor to operatemotorized three-wheelers on his land. Taylor atthe time was aware that a recent tornado hadscattered broken glass and nails in the areathe group planned to ride. He deliberatelywithholds this information because he “wantsto teach the kids a lesson.” One of the teenswas injured by the broken glass. ln anysubsequent lawsuit, if Taylor’s malicious intentis proved, he is not protected by therecreational use statute.
EXAMPLE 6: Lincoln Adams receivedpermission to hunt on Monroe Washington’sland. Adams asks Washington if there isanything to watch out for. Washington says“no” because he is unaware that a recentheavy rain has washed out part of a pathway.Adams later stumbles in the washout andbreaks his leg. Because Washington was notaware of the hazard, he is protected by thestatute.
A property owner may be liable for an injury toa social guest who is expressly andindividually invited for the occasion duringwhich the injury occurs, but only if the injurytook place: 1) on platted land (generally landthat has been developed); or 2) on residentialproperty (a building designed and used as aprivate dwelling, and the land around thebuilding within a 300-foot radius); or 3) onproperty which is within 300 feet of a buildingor structure that is legally classified formercantile or manufacturing use.
EXAMPLE 7: Vernon Sauk has a tennis courtnext to his home. Sauk invites Ashland Burnettto play a game of tennis. Burnett is injuredwhile jumping over the net. Burnett can sueSauk because the injury occurred within 300feet of his home. Vernon Sauk invites CalumetWood to ride one of his newly purchasedhorses. The horse bolts and Wood injures ahip in falling off. Because the accidenthappened several hundred yards from Sauk’shome and outbuildings, Sauk is protectedfrom a lawsuit by Wood.
A property owner is liable for injuries toemployees if they are acting within the scopeof their duties. Therefore, this statute does notprevent an employee who sustains an injurywhile on the job from suing an employer.
EXAMPLE 8: Juneau Dunn owns two dairyfarms located several miles from each other.Dunn’s farmhand, Walworth Green, sometimesuses a motorbike to travel between farms.Green skids in loose gravel one day and isinjured. Because Green was acting within thescope of his employment, the recreational usestatute does not protect Dunn from liability.Another Dunn farmhand, Barron Brown, invitesseveral friends to ride dirt bikes on his day off.While riding on Dunn’s land, Brown is thrownfrom the bike and cracks a collarbone. Eventhough Brown is Dunn’s employee, therecreational use statute limits Dunn’s liabilitybecause the dirt-bike riding is outside thescope of Brown’s responsibilities as a farmemployee.
SummaryWisconsin’s recently revised recreational usestatute protects private (as opposed tocommercial) property owners by limiting theirlegal responsibility for persons who may beinjured while using that owner’s land forrecreational purposes. A recreational activityis defined as nearly every outdoor pursuitexcept organized team sports.
In general, property owners are not liable forinjury to a recreational user that is caused bythe natural conditions of the land, by otherrecreational users, or by wild animals. Ownersmay be liable for injuries to recreational usersof their land if they fail to warn about a hazardknown to them, or if they have a maliciousintent to injure the user. There are othersituations in which landowners may be liable,such as when an injury occurs to an invitedguest near the home or near a building usedfor selling or making something, or when theowner receives a substantial payment for therecreational usage.
Wisconsin’s recreational use statute serves toclarify the legal responsibility of propertyowners who allow others to use their land foroutdoor exercise, relaxation or pleasure.People who use an owner’s land withoutpermission are Trespassing. They are subjectto arrest and conviction under another sectionof state law. This law, as recently amended, isexplained in a publication entitled Wisconsin’sTrespass Law, available from countyUniversity of Wisconsin-Extension offices.
52 APPENDIX E
This Contract is entered into by and between of (Seller),
and of (Purchaser).
The Seller hereby authorizes the Purchaser to enter upon the following described lands, (the Premises); for purposes of cutting andremoving timber marked or otherwise designated by the Seller.
Those Premises are further described on the map(s) or diagram(s) attached to and made a part of this Contract.
FOR AND IN CONSIDERATION of the following terms and conditions the Seller and the Purchaser mutually agree:
CONTRACT PERIOD AND TERMINATION
1. Time is of the essence, therefore, the Purchaser shall cut all timber or forest products described in paragraph 6 and complete all otherperformance described herein with reasonable diligence so performance is completed no later than . The periodof this contract commences upon its signing by both parties and the Purchaser providing the owner with all required bonds and certificatesof insurance.
2. The Seller or Agent shall notify the Purchaser in the event of a breach of any condition of the Contract at which time all operations shallimmediately cease, and continued occupancy on the Premises shall be a trespass. Upon notification, operations may not be resumed normay timber be cut or removed without written authorization from the Seller.
3a. The Purchaser has deposited cash, a surety bond, a certified check, or other form acceptable to the Seller in the amount of $ as aperformance bond, to assure proper performance and to be held until the completion of all conditions of the Contract to the satisfaction ofthe Seller.
b. Upon breach of any condition of this Contract, the performance bond shall be applied to actual damages incurred by the Seller.
c. If timber or other forest products not specifically described in this Contract or designated by the Seller for cutting are cut, damaged orremoved by the Purchaser, the Seller may pursue any and all remedies for the unlawful use of the Seller’s property and the cutting, damageor removal of property without consent, including the seeking of criminal or civil charges for theft, timber theft or criminal damage to propertyin addition to its Contract remedies for breach.
d. The Seller’s damages upon the Purchaser’s failure to perform this Contract include, but are not limited to: (1) The Purchaser’s bid value oftimber not cut and removed under this Contract. (2) Double the mill value, as determined by the Seller, for timber cut, removed or damagedwithout authorization under or in violation of this Contract. (3) All costs of sale area cleanup, restoration or completion of performance notcompleted by the Purchaser. (4) All costs of resale of timber not cut and removed as required under this Contract.
e. Additional damage provisions:
4. No forest products may be removed from the Premises until the products are paid for by the Purchaser or guarantees for paymentsatisfactory to the Seller are provided.
5. Title to any forest products cut under this Contract shall remain with the Seller until payment is received.
PRODUCTS TO BE REMOVED
6. The Purchaser is authorized and shall cut, remove and pay for the following timber or forest products during the period of this contract:
53
Sample Timber Sale Contract
APPENDIX F
54 APPENDIX F
PAYMENTS
7a. LUMP SUM SALE:
(a) The Purchaser agrees to pay Seller an amount of $ to be paid under the following schedule:
(b) The Seller is not obligated to return the payment in part a, or any portion of it in the event the Purchaser fails to remove all timber or forestproducts authorized for removal.
b. SCALE PRODUCTS SALE: (As an alternative to a lump sum payment, the payment may be designated by price per cord or MBF perspecies with an estimate of forest products available.) Payment to the Seller shall be made based upon the following and as furtherdescribed herein:
TOTALESTIMATED PRICE PER UNIT ESTIMATED
SPECIES PRODUCTS VOLUME MBF FT CORD VALUE
TOTAL
8. Log and tree volumes shall be determined by the Scribner Decimal C system.
9. Cord means a standard measure of piled wood 4’ x 4’ x 96” to 100”. Cord products of other dimensions shall be converted to standardcords.
UTILIZATION
10. Maximum stump height shall not exceed stump diameter, and for stumps of diameter less than 10 inches it shall not exceed 10 inches.
11. Timber or forest growth, whether mature or not, may not be damaged through careless operations or unnecessary equipment use.
12. The Purchaser agrees to complete all operations as described herein without waste or nuisance on the premises.
13. Additional equipment and operation requirements:
NOTICE OF INTENT TO CUT AND COMPLIANCE WITH LAWS
14. The shall make and file a written declaration to the county clerk of his or her intention to cut forest products pursuant to section26.03, Stats., and comply with all other notice requirements and laws and ordinances with respect to work under this Contract.
SLASH AND DEBRIS DISPOSAL
15. Slash falling in any lake or stream, in a right-of-way or on land of an adjoining landowner shall be immediately removed from the waters,right-of-way or adjoining land. Tops from felled trees may not be left hanging in standing trees. All trees shall be completely felled and notleft leaning or hanging in other trees.
16. Other slash disposal requirements:
17. The Purchaser shall remove, to the satisfaction of the Seller, all solid waste, trash and debris generated by the Purchaser.
ROADS, CAMPS, SURVEY CORNERS
18. Location, construction, and use of logging roads, mill sites and camp sites is subject to advance approval by the Seller. All such areasor facillties used or constructed by the Purchaser must be operated, maintained and restored prior to termination of the Contract in a mannersatisfactory to the Seller. Purchaser shall repair damage to existing roads .
19. Logging roads that intersect town, county, or state roads or highways must have the intersections approved by the proper authoritiesprior to construction and cleared of all unsightly debris at the time of construction.
20. The Purchaser agrees to pay for the cost of repair or replacement of property or any land survey monuments or accessories which areremoved or destroyed or made inaccessible.
21. Other restoration requirements (i.e., seeding, gravel, rutting, culvert removal, etc.):
22. Erosion control requirements:
LIABILITY
23. The Purchaser agrees to protect, indemnify and save harmless the Seller and the Seller’s employees and agents from and against allcauses of action, claims, demands, suits, liability or expense by reason of loss or damage to any properly or bodily injury to any person,including death, as a direct or indirect result of timbering operations under this contract or in connection with any action or omission of thePurchaser, who shall defend the Seller in any cause of action or claim. In addition, the Purchaser agrees to furnish the Seller with acertificate of insurance of current coverage under the Worker’s Compensation Law, Chapter 102, Stats., and public liability insurance for theperiod of logging operations on the Seller’s property in the amount of:a. Personal injury: $300,000 single limit liability or $100,000 bodily injury per person and $300,000 per occurrence. b. Property damage: $100,000.
GENERAL
24. The Purchaser is an independent contractor for all purposes including Worker’s Compensation and is not an employee or agent of theSeller. The Seller agrees that the undersigned Purchaser, except as otherwise specifically provided herein, shall have the sole control of themethod, hours worked, time and manner of any timber cutting to be performed hereunder. The Seller reserves the right only to inspect thejob site for the sole purpose of insuring that the cutting is progressing in compliance with the cutting practices established under thisContract. The Seller takes no responsibility for supervision or direction of the performance of any of the harvesting to be performed by theundersigned Purchaser or of its employees. The Seller further agrees that it will exercise no control over the selection and dismissal of thePurchaser’s employees.
25. The Seller agrees to initially designate the timber to be sold and may make inspections for the purposes of ascertaining whether thetimber has been cut and the Contract has been complied with. All work shall be performed in a workman-like manner. Work shall beperformed in accordance with the requirements of the contract. The parties stipulate that in fulfillment of the terms of this timber saleContract, the Seller warrants that the Seller has clear and unencumbered title to the stumpage subject to this Contract.
26. The purchaser agrees to take reasonable precautions to prevent the starting and spreading of fires. The Purchaser is responsible fordamage and forest fire suppression costs, including that provided in ss. 26.14 and 26.21, Wis. Stats., caused by the Purchaser’s operationunder this contract.
27. This Contract or work under it may not be assigned or subcontracted in part or in whole without prior written approval from the Seller andmay be changed or amended only in writing. The Purchaser agrees to notify the surety, if any, of any such change or amendment.
28. This Contract, together with specifications in the request for bids as well as reference to parts and attachments, shall constitute the entireagreement and any previous communications or agreements pertaining to this Contract are hereby superseded. Any amendments to thisContract shall be in writing signed by both parties.
Date Seller
Date Purchaser
Date
TIMBER SALE CONTRACT 55
NOTES
NOTES
Authors: Scott R. Craven and Robert L. Ruff are professors of wildlife ecology with the College ofAgricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison and wildlife specialists with the Universityof Wisconsin–Extension, Cooperative Extension. Darrel Covell is a wildlife ecology outreach specialist withthe College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison. John Kubisiak is abiologist with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Stephen DeStefano was a projectassociate with the Department of Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin–Madison and is currently aresearch associate with the Oregon Cooperative Research Unit at Oregon State University.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperationwith the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin–Extension, Cooperative Extension.University of Wisconsin–Extension provides equal opportunities in employment andprogramming, including Title IX and ADA requirements. If you need this information in analternative format, contact the UWEX Affirmative Action Office or Extension Publications at(608)262-2655.
This publication is available from your Wisconsin county Extension office or fromExtension Publications, Rm. 245, 30 N. Murray St., Madison, WI 53715, (608)262-3346.
G3578 A LANDOWNER’S GUIDE TO WOODLAND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENTwith emphasis on the ruffed grouse
I-02-94-2M-500-S