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AGSO RECORD 1995/38•••••• TIMESCALES•• 9. CRETACEOUS••••• AUSTRALIAN PHANEROZOIC TIMESCALES• BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC CHARTS AND EXPLANATORY NOTES

SECOND SERIES••• by•• D. BURGER••••

National Geoscience Infrastructure and Research Program• Australian Geological Survey Organisation

GPO Box 378, Canberra, ACT, 2601• Australia

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Timescales Calibration and Development Project0

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DEPARTMENT OF PRIMARY INDUSTRIES AND ENERGY^a

Minister for Resources: Hon. David Beddall, MPSecretary: Greg Taylor

AUSTRALIAN GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ORGANISATION

Executive Director: Neil Williams

aC Commonwealth of Australia 1995

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ISSN: 1039-0073ISBN: 0 642 22347 5^

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This work is copyright. Apart from any fair dealings for the purposes of study,research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part maybe reproduced by any process without written permission. Copyright is theresponsibility of the Executive Director, Australian Geological Survey Organisation.Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be directed to thePrincipal Information Officer, Australian Geological Survey Organisation, GPOBox 378, Canberra City, ACT, 2601.

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FOREWORD

This second series of Timescales Calibration and Development Correlation Charts andExplanatory Notes revises that originally entitled Australian Phanerozoic Timescales whichwas published as Bureau of Mineral Resources Records 1989/31-40. That series wasprepared to provide a firm chronological base for the AMIRA (Australian Mineral IndustryResearch Association) sponsored Palaeo geographic Atlas of Australia and APIRA(Australian Petroleum Industry Research Association) funded Phanerozoic History ofAustralia.

The Correlation Charts and Explanatory Notes for each system have formed the basis for thedevelopment of a composite Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO) PhanerozoicTimescale Chart and a condensed single volume summary. The summary chart and singlevolume together provide ready access to the ages of most Phanerozoic chronostratigraphicsubdivisions in Australia. The Correlation Charts and Explanatory Notes also provide thespecialist biostratigrapher with the data to understand the basis for the ages estimated. It isanticipated that both charts and notes will be updated at regular intervals, as and whensignificant bodies of new information become available.

The revised charts have been compiled mostly by palaeontologists of the TimescalesCalibration and Development Project from data published in the specialist literature, as wellas unpublished information from on-going biostratigraphical research. As previously, thecharts integrate zonal schemes using different groups of key fossils with isotopic andmagnetostratigraphic data, and where possible related to sea level curves. Recentgeochronological numbers generated by SHRIMP (Sensitive High-Mass Resolution IonMicroprobe) technology have been responsible for significant revision of the timescaleapplied to some systems, notably the Cambrian, Ordovician, Carboniferous and Permian.Similarly, the definition of the base of the Cambrian by the International Union of GeologicalSciences, Commission on Stratigraphy, at a level approximately 545 my old has led to ashortening of the Phanerozoic timescale by some 25 my. Such changes are represented in thenew cover design for the Timescales Calibration and Development charts that depicts thegeochronological time scale currently used in AGSO.

T. S. Loutit,Co-Chief,Marine, Petroleum and Sedimentary Resources Division.

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CONTENTS

ABSTRACT^ page 5INTRODUCTION^ page 7THE STANDARD CRETACEOUS TIME SCALE^page 7

THE AMMONITE RECORD^ page 7Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary^page 8Early Cretaceous^ page 9Late Cretaceous^ page 9Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary^page 9Ammonite records outside Europe^page 10

ABSOLUTE TIME^ page 11GEOMAGNETIC REVERSALS^page 11INTEGRATION OF DATA^ page 12

Correlation A-B^ page 12Correlation C-A^ page 12Correlation C-B^ page 13

THE RECORD OF MICROFOSSILS^page 13FAUNAS^ page 13FLORAS^ page 13

Calcareous nannofossils^ page 13Palynomorphs^ page 13

EUSTASY^ page 14THE CRETACEOUS OF AUSTRALIA^page 15

INTRODUCTION^ page 15THE RECORD OF DEPOSITION^page 16THE FOSSIL RECORD^ page 17

Faunas^ page 18Floras^ page 18Ages of dinoflagellate zones^page 21

RADIOMETRIC AGES^ page 21EUSTASY^ page 23

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS^ page 23REFERENCES^ page 23

Figure 1: Isotopic ages of Cretaceous Stage boundaries and their magnetostratigraphic correlations(for details see text)

Figure 2: Correlation of basal Cretaceous ammonite zones in England, France, Russia, and SiberiaFigure 3: Australian sedimentary basins containing Cretaceous =LI

Figure 4: Prominent Cretaceous lithostratigraphic sequences in Australia

Figure 5: Eustatic sealevel movements, and sealevel movements registered in Australiansedimentary basins (for details see text)

Table IA: Standard chronostratigraphy and biostratigraphy for the Early Cretaceous (Berriasian-Aptian), and associated faunal and floral biostratigraphies applied in Australia andother continents

Table LB: Standard chronostratigraphy and biosiratigraphy for the Early and Late Cretaceous(Albian-Maastrichtian), and associated faunal and floral biostratigraphies applied in Australiaand other continents

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• ABSTRACT•

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• Sedimentary sequences of Cretaceous age have been described from allmajor continents including Australia. To establish a globally applicable time

• framework for those sequences the most important fields of study to datehave been palaeontology, radiometry, and magneto stratigraphy. Another

• study object, eustasy, provides a promising additional avenue for dating• depositional events in Australian basins. The chief evidence regarding those

disciplines in the Tethyan Realm is briefly summarised, to present an• integrated geochronology with which the Cretaceous of Australia may be• correlated.

• During the Cretaceous the Australian Plate remained fairly constant withregard to the South Pole. As it gradually broke loose from the other

• Gondwana continents its present northwestern margin moved from 50 0 to 400

• south. New sea floor had been forming in the north and northwest alreadyduring the Jurassic, and separation (from greater India?) started during the

• Valanginian-Barremian. Initial separation between Australia and Antarctica,• with inundation of existing rift valleys, started in the Turonian. Sea floor

spreading along the eastern margin slowly separated Australia from Lord• Howe Rise and New Zealand, starting in about Santonian times.

• The Australian Cretaceous fossil record includes vertebrate faunas (fishes,• reptiles, birds, mammals), invertebrate faunas (a variety of macro- and

microfaunal groups), and floras (plants, spores, pollen, marine microphyto-• plankton, nannofossils). This record is compiled from 23 onshore, coastal,• and offshore sedimentary basins. It can be correlated in a broad sense with

the European Tethys, despite a tendency towards progressive endemism as• the fragments of ancient Gondwana drifted apart.

• Magnetostratigraphy has rapidly developed to become a major chrono-• stratigraphic tool, and research in this field is under way in the Cretaceous of

Australia. Radiometry has provided valuable data for Australian hardrock• geology, and successful attempts have been made to obtain radiometric (K-• Ar, fission track) ages on fossiliferous sedimentary formations in eastern

Australia. Eustatic influences have been detected in several sedimentary• basins, and are being studied further as a possible aid towards dating

nonmarine strata sequences.•

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CretaceousStage

upper Stage limitMa^chron

magnetostratigraphicevidence

MA ASTRICHTIAN 65 (top B. casimircrvensis)^92R Gubbiol

CA/v1PANIAN 73 (top B. polyplocum)^33N Gubbiol' 2

SANTONIAN 83 (top syrtale)^34N Gubbiol

CONIACIAN 87 (top serratomarginatus) CQZ Gubbiol

TURONIAN 89 (top deveriai)^CQZ Gubbiol

CENOMANIAN 91 (top juddi)^CQZ Gubbiol

ALBIAN 97.5 (top perinflatum)^CQZ Moria3

APTIAN 108 (top nodocostatuml^CQZbigoureti)

Poggio , le Guaine

BARREMIAN 115 (top seranonis)^MO Valdorbia3'4'5

HAUTERIVIAN 123 (top angulicostata)^lvf7N Gorgo a Cerbaria Presale 9

VALANGINIAN 130 (top callidiscus)^MlON Cismon9

BERR1ASIAN 135 (top boissieri)^M14 Caprolos, Xausas

(TURASSIC/Tithonian)141 (base grandis)^M18 Bosso7, Poza7

142 (base Jacob:)^M19N Carcabuey6, Foza6' 7; 8, Xausa6' 7. 8

I. Alvarez & others (1977)^4. Lowrie & Alvarez (1984)^7. Ogg & Lowrie (1986)2. Lowrie & Alvarez (1981)^5. Lowrie & Ogg (1986)^8. Channell & others (1987)3. Lowrie & others (1980)^6. Ogg & others (1984)^9. Bralower (1987)

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Figure 1: Isotopic ages of Cretaceous Stage boundaries and their magnetostratigraphic correlations(for details see text) ••

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INTRODUCTION

During the last decades, significantadvances in biostratigraphy and chrono-stratigraphy have led to a series of proposalstowards improving the standard Cretaceoustime scale. This paper takes account of themost recent proposals, and updates Burger(1990) and the Cretaceous chapter in Young& Laurie (in press). It summarises chrono-stratigraphic scales and standard biostrati-graphic schemes, against which the record ofthe Australian Cretaceous may be fitted (seeFig. 1). The data are presented as follows:

A. Selected palaeontological records fromkey regions in Gondwana and Laurasiaare summarised in the text and set out inTable I as columns against the CretaceousStages. Tethyan and Boreal ammoniterecords from Europe are given in columns3-4, and ammonite sequences from otherregions in columns 5-8. Selected micro-faunal and microfloral biostratigraphicschemes are set out in columns 9-20.Columns on single subjects bear identicalnumbers in Table IA (Berriasian-Aptian)and Table IB (Albian-Maastrichtian).

B. Absolute ages here accepted for theCretaceous Stage boundaries are given inFigure 1 and set out in Table I column 1.

C. The standard global magnetostrati-graphic record for the Cretaceous is setout in Table I column 1.

D. Cretaceous global sealevel movementshave been logged and described byCooper (1977), Vail & Todd (1981), Haq& others (1987), and other workers. Theeffect of eustasy on the depositionalhistory of several Australian basins isbriefly reviewed, and set out in Figure 5.

E. The section Cretaceous of Australia isan update of Burger (1990) and Bradshaw& Yeung (1992). The records of the mostimportant groups of fossils are given inTable I columns 21-37.

THE STANDARD CRETACEOUSTIME SCALE

The Cretaceous Period succeeds theJurassic Period, and is followed by theCainozoic Era. The Cretaceous System wasfirst referred to as such (terrain Crêtace) in1822 by d'Omalius d'Halloy, during hisobservations in France, Belgium, and theNetherlands. D'Orbigny studied the marinefossil record, and he was the first to recognise&ages, each with its own peculiar fauna.They form the backbone of the presentsubdivision of the Cretaceous into 12 Stages.Each Stage is defined by zonal sequences(primarily of ammonites) described chieflyfrom marine epicontinental environments ofthe western Tethyan Realm in France, theNetherlands, and Switzerland (Fig. 1).

This chapter briefly reviews the mostrecent ideas concerning Tethyan and globalstandards in the fields of biostratigraphy,chronostratigraphy, and magnetostratigraphy.They provide the mutual verification requiredfor establishing an internally consistent geo-chronology, which may serve as a standardfor the Cretaceous of Australia. Limitedspace prevents any but the briefest review ofearlier studies, but they are acknowledged inpublications referred to here.

THE AMMONITE RECORD

As in the Jurassic, ammonites have beenused to subdivide the marine Cretaceous inmany regions of the earth. However, anoverall shallowing of the Cretaceous seassharpened the contrasts between Tethyan,Boreal, and Pacific provinces and led toprogressive endemism and impoverishment(even disappearance) of ammonite faunas.This is reflected in the record and compli-cates worldwide correlations. The followingsummary indicates the ephemeral character ofthe sea-lanes which connected various keyregions during the Cretaceous, and theproblems arising from attempts to relate theAustralian ammonite record with the Tethyanbiostratigraphy.

There is at present no uniform ammonitebiostratigraphy for the Cretaceous of theMediterranean Province, which encompasses

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okensis(u/gene

RUSSIANPLATFORM

Sachs eta!, 1975

spasskensis

nasanensis

— ---nodger

subditus

SIBERIA

Sachs eta!, 1975

analogus

kochi

sibericus

chetae

taimyrense

originalis

(vogulicus)

20-1/41

1 El(oppressus)

17 I

(stenomphaius)

^ icon

kochiIE runcton

ijiamplughi

prepiicomphalus

primitivus

fIThI(oppressus)

much of western Europe, North Africa, andthe Middle East. The zonal scheme whichhas been proposed as a standard for theTethyan Cretaceous has been described fromwestern Europe (see Table I columns 3, 4),and is a compromise based on Birkelund &others (1984), Robaszynski (1984), andKennedy (1984a,b, 1986, 1987).

Type areas of individual CretaceousStages were initially established in westernEurope. Many stratotype boundaries reflectgeological events, and are frequently gaps inthe record. This has convinced geoscientistsof the need for more detailed definitions ofStage boundaries, if needed outside theformer type areas, based on ammonites andwhere desirable also on evidence frombivalve molluscs, foraminifera, calpionellids,nannofossils, and palynomorphs.

Proposals to achieve this were presented atthe 1963 Colloque SUIT le Cretace Inferieur,the 1973 Colloque sur la linaite Jurassique-Cretace, the 1983 Symposium on CretaceousStage boundaries, organised by the JUGSSubcommission on Cretaceous Stratigraphy,

and by Cavelier & Roger (1980). At thistime several Stage boundaries have not yetbeen formally established, as ammoniterecords need to be verified and proposals foralternative type boundaries evaluated.

Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary

A satisfactory palaeontological definitionfor the J-K boundary has never been agreedupon, as provincialism in ammonite ecologyfollowing the great latest Jurassic marineregression in Europe has fueled continuousdebates on time relationships betweenregional Boreal and Tethyan Stages, such asthe Portlandian, Tithonian, Beniasian,Volgian, and Ryazanian (Fig. 2).

At the 1963 Colloque sur le Cretac6Inferieur a recommendation was made torecognise the Berriasian as a separate Stage.This recommendation was confirmed by theMediterranean Mesozoic Committee inCassis, France (1964). The accepted J-Kboundary in the Tethyan biostratigraphy, i.e.the base of the Berriasian, as being the base

EASTERNENGLAND

Casey, 1973Rawson eta!, 1978

SOUTHEASTERNFRANCE

Cavelier & Roger, 1980

Calpionellidzones

Remane, 1978

(VALANGINIAN)

y_boissien

occitanica

grandisB2

chaperiB1

delphinensis —CU

0-1A—

(semiforme)(Chit)

Figure 2: Correlation of basal Cretaceous ammonite zones in England, France, Russia, and Siberia

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of the GRANDIS zone was upheld by LeHegarat (Cavelier & Roger, 1980, p. 96), butmore recently has been questioned, chieflybecause the original stratotype of theBerriasian in southeastern France (Busnardo& others, 1965) contains few ammonites inits basal interval, and its exact relationshipwith the preceding Tithonian (which has notbeen formally defined) is not yet certain.

At the CoRoque sur la limite Jurassique-Cretace (1973) the desirability of adoptingthe GRANDIS-JACOBI zonal interval as thelowermost Cretaceous ammonite zone in theTethyan Realm was seriously considered aspresenting the least disruptive alternative tothe present J-K boundary (Yegoyan, 1975).The new boundary is recognised in southernSpain (Enay & Geyssant, 1975). It wouldprobably require a revised definition for theTithonian from that proposed by Zeiss(1974), but unlike the base of the GRANDISzone it has an equivalent in the Boreal Realmof Russia. It coincides with the base of theCalpionella alpina zone (calpionellid zone Bof Remane, 1978), which has been widelyobserved in regions where the standardammonite succession is not recognised, suchas in Spain (Allemann & others, 1975; Ogg &others, 1984), Italy (Ogg & Lowrie, 1986),and North Africa (Memmi & Salaj, 1975).

Early Cretaceous

The present standard ammonite biostrati-graphy for the Boreal and Tethyan EarlyCretaceous (Table I column 3) follows thatcompiled by Van Hinte (1978) and Kennedy& Odin (1982). The positions of variousStage boundaries has been discussed inCavelier & Roger (1980) and Birkelund &others (1984).

No comparable ammonite succession hasbeen developed for the Early Cretaceous ofNorth America, where marine deposition wasspasmodic; faunas are impoverished andcontain few ammonites. Marine biostrati-graphies for various regions are based largelyon bivalve molluscs (Inoceramu,s, Buchia,Meleagrinella) and foraminifera (Jeletzky,1971, 1973; Charruiey, 1973; Stott, 1975).The Albian hoplitid-dominated fauna fromEurope spread as far west as Greenland, but

is not recognised in the North AmericanInterior, where a more or less continuousammonite record begins with an endemicgastroplinitid fauna. Owen (1973) regardedthat fauna as chiefly late Albian, because oneof its components, G. cantianus, also occursin the INFLATUM zone in the U.K.

Late Cretaceous

The standard Tethyan ammonite zonationfor northwestern Europe has been reviewedby Cavelier & Roger (1980), Kennedy &Odin (1982), and Kennedy (1984a,b, 1986).Positions of Stage boundaries in the zonalscheme, and possible alternatives, have beendiscussed by Birkelund & others (1984).Ammonite occurrences are less frequent thanin the Early Cretaceous; individual zones aremuch broader, and the Maastrichtian isusually subdivided by the much morecommon belemnites (Fable IB column 3).

The Late Cretaceous ammonite sequenceof the North American Interior (Table IBcolumn 5) is derived from Obradovich &Cobban (1975), Stelck (1975), Stott (1975),and Caldwell & North (1984). The positionof the Campanian-Maastrichtian boundary isstill uncertain. H. nicolletti has been found inthe early Maastrichtian B. cimbricata zone inGermany, and Obradovich & Cobban (1975)referred to indirect evidence suggesting anearliest Maastrichtian age for the B. reesideizone. However, the authors also pointed outthat evidence from planktonic foraminiferasuggests that the base of the Maastrichtianmay fall below the STEVENSON' zone inthe western Gulf Coast, or near the B. scottizone in New Jersey.

Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary

The K-T boundary in Europe is generallytaken to lie at the Maastrichtian-Danianboundary contact, although several geo-scientists would prefer the Danian to beincluded in the Cretaceous (Berggren &others, 1985). The former type sequences ofthe Maastrichtian and Danian were definedrespectively in Limburg (The Netherlands)and Stevns IClint (Denmark). The boundarytype has been established at Stevns Klint.

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The base of the Danian in the sense ofHardenbol & Berggren (1978) thus liesbetween the Abathomphalus mayaroensis andGlobigerina eugubina foraminiferal zones.

In North America the sediments depositedin the Western Interior sea contain richammonite faunas. U.S. and Canadian bio-stratigraphers have developed a zonal schemewhich - despite its endemic character - can bebroadly correlated with Europe. It is given inTable I column 5, as it makes a substantialcontribution to Cretaceous geochronology.

The Western Interior sea gradually with-drew to the south; in Canada the ammoniterecord ends with the GRANDIS zone, and inthe U.S.A. with the CHEYENNENSIS zone,both zones being dated as early Maastrichtian(Obradovich & Cobban, 1975). The K-Tboundary thus lies within sequences oflargely nonrnarine strata, and they have beenstudied in almost a dozen sedimentary basinsin the Western Interior. The northern U.S.A.may serve as an example of the problems metin connection with that boundary.

In Montana and Wyoming, deltaic andlagoonal deposits of the Fox Hill Formationcontaining oysters and other bivalves ofMaastrichtian age (Feldmann & Palubniak,1975) interfmger with coastal lowland andalluvial plain deposits of the Hell CreekFormation, which includes a diverse reptilianfauna (Russell, 1975; Lehman, 1987). Thisclassic Triceratops fauna has been (partly orwholly) correlated with the late MaastrichtianB. junior and B. casimirovensis zones inEurope (Lanphere & Jones, 1975).

The demise of that fauna has traditionallybeen accepted as marking the K-T boundary.Sloan & others (1986) recovered dinosaurremains, together with Palaeocene mammals,from beds above the basal Tertiary «Z-Coal»overlying the Hell Creek Formation inMontana, but Argast & others (1987) doubtedif those remains were in situ occurrences.Magnetostratigraphic data (to be evaluated)seem to add to a growing body of evidencewhich leads several geoscientists to believethat the dinosaur extinction level in NorthAmerica may be a diachronous event (seeChannell, 1982; Officer & Drake, 1983).

Palynologists are aware that correlationsbased on spores-pollen and on vertebrates

may not yield parallel results (see Berggren& others, 1985). Brown (1962) suggestedthat the K-T boundary be drawn at the base ofthe stratigraphically lowest persistent lignitehorizon overlying the highest occurrence ofdinosaurs. North American palynologistshave generally followed Brown's definition,as specific changes occur in the palynologicalrecord near the base of certain coaly horizonsoverlying the Hell Creek Formation, as wellas in other areas of the Western Interior(Tschudy & Tschudy, 1986). However, it hasnot yet been established beyond doubt thatthose changes are isochronous events.

Palynological changes such as have beendescribed from North America have not beenobserved in Europe, and we must concludethat the correlative of the K-T boundary inEurope has not yet been accurately pin-pointed in North America.

Ammonite records outside Europe

L a u rasia: There were frequent inter-changes between Boreal and Tethyan faunasof Laurasia (Rawson, 1973; Donze, 1973;Owen, 1973), and these facilitate correlations(based on crioceratitid ammonites) betweenNorth America and Eurasia. In NorthAmerica, marine sequences in the Gulf regionare biostratigraphically subdivided in part onammonites, and in part on bivalve molluscs.

The Boreal Realm in Eurasia presents amore varied and less coherent picture.Despite periodic influxes of Tethyan marinefaunal elements (Rawson, 1973) - which arebest displayed in Germany (Kemper,1973a,b), England (Casey, 1973), and otherwestern European regions - ammonites,belemnites, and bivalve molluscs of stronglyendemic character have been used as bio-stratigraphic indicators in all major Borealprovinces (Russian Platform, northern Urals,northern and eastern Siberia). Several bio-geographic provinces have been describedfrom China, and Yang (1986) outlinedseveral ammonoid and bivalve associations.Apparently the detailed ammonite biostrati-graphy developed for Japan (kindly commu-nicated by prof. T. Matsumoto, Table Icolumn 6) has not been identified in China,suggesting western limits of the Pacific

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Realm on the East Asian mainland.

G ondwana: Sea-lanes existed betweenLaurasia and Gondwana, and although theypermitted faunal interchanges the record fromGondwana suggests that they were tenuous atbest. The Cretaceous of western SouthAmerica is dominated by the Andean Troughand Magellanean Geosyncline; the record ofammonites is incomplete and endemic butindicates Mediterranean Tethyan influences(Wiedmann, 1980). Towards the east (Brazil,Argentina) marine Albin to Maastrichtiansediments occur in coastal basins and theeastern continental shelf. In the southernregions of the continent (see Riccardi, 1988),Early Cretaceous ammonite faunas of theAustral Basin in Patagonia show Boreal,South African, and Caucasian influences, andLate Cretaceous faunas indicate Indo-Pacificaffinities. Farther north, Early Cretaceousammonites from the Andean Basin includeHimalayan and Mediterranean elements.

In Africa the record of marine LowerCretaceous strata is fragmentary. MarineUpper Cretaceous strata have been mapped insome detail in several countries but detailedammonite schemes have been published onlyfrom Morocco (Wiedmann & others, 1982;Table I column 7). In both West and SouthAfrica, where near-complete Cretaceoussedimentary sequences occur in coastal andoffshore regions, microfaunas provide themain time framework, and some ammonitecontrol exists in the Algoa Basin andZululand. A shallow sea along the Africaneast coast connected the region with the mainTethys Ocean at least from the Late Jurassiconwards, but the fossil record has nooverriding Tethyan character.

In India the Cretaceous is nowhere fullypreserved, and the most complete marinesequences overlying Lower Cretaceous«Upper Gondwana» strata (frequently inunconformable contact) have been describedfrom the Cauvery, Palar, Godavari-Krishna,and Mahanadi Basins at the east coast (Sastri& others, 1974). Ammonite biostratigraphieshave been developed for the middle and LateCretaceous of the eastern and northwesternsubcontinent (Table I column 8).

The Cretaceous marine record of New

Zealand covers only the Aptian to Maas-trichtian; the oldest Cretaceous history hasbeen partly obliterated by the Late MesozoicRangitata Orogeny. Stages are defined byammonites and bivalve molluscs (Aucellina,inoceramus,Maccoyella). New Zealand andAustralia were then much closer to each otherand to Antarctica than they are today, but fewparallel faunal developments have been foundfrom the two regions. The positions ofseveral Stages are still under consideration,but correlation with the standard Cretaceousis gradually being refined (Raine, in Edwards& others, 1989).

ABSOLUTE TIME

Isotopic ages of Cretaceous Stage bound-aries, which form the basis of the Cretaceoustime scale, have been calculated from K-Ar,Ar-Ar, and Sb-Sr age determinations onglauconites from Europe and the USSR, andbiotites and sanidines from volcanic ashes inNorth America (Table I columns 1, 2).

There are generally accepted istopic datesonly for a few Cretaceous Stage boundaries.Ages extrapolated for the Late Cretaceousboundaries by Harland & others (1982,1989), Snelling (1985), and Odin & Odin(1990) diverge not more than 2 Ma. TheMesozoic time scale of Gradstein, Ogg, &others (see AAPG Annual Convention 1993)was not available to this author at the time ofpublication. Values for the Early Cretaceousboundaries given in various published time-scales deviate much more, and they move upand down continually as new isotopic dataare released. The author has tried to find acompromise by adopting the timescale ofHarland & others (1982) for the LateCretaceous, and that of Haq & Van Eysinga(1987) for the Early Cretaceous, slightlymodified to accept 141 Ma for the J-Kboundary, as has been accepted by Bralower& others (1990).

GEOMAGNETIC REVERSALS

Since the early nineteen sixties, recurrentreversals of the earth's dipole magnetic fieldhave been logged in Cainozoic, Mesozoic,and Upper Palaeozoic magmatic and sedi-

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biostratigraphyA•

• 11-10. •

chronostatigraphy^magnetostratigraphy

mentary rock sequences, both on the oceanfloor and on land. Those reversals mostprobably originated from internal, not extra-terrestrial causes (Merrill & McFadden,1988).

Standardisation of the sequence of loggedCretaceous reversals is primarily the result ofstudies of geomagnetic lineations from riftzones in the Pacific (south of Hawaii) and theAtlantic Oceans. Heirtzler & others (1968)compiled a standard reversal diagram for theCainozoic and Late Cretaceous, includinganomalies 0 to 34. Helsley & Steiner (1969)first recognised a long interval of normalpolarity in Cretaceous volcanics of NorthAmerica; it is known as the Cretaceous QuietZone and extends between anomalies 34 andMO. Larson & Hilde (1975) and Vogt &Einwich (1979) set up a standard reversaldiagram for the Late Jurassic and EarlyCretaceous - known as the Keithley sequence- which includes Cretaceous anomalies MO toM18 (Table 1 column 1). The numberingcode of Couillard & Irving (1975), althoughperhaps more logical, was not followed bythose authors.

INTEGRATION OF DATA

The integration of magnetostratigaphywith independent evidence from fossils andradiometry enables geoscientists to confirmthe reliability of their data with enhancedconfidence. At the present time however, ahigh degree of internal consistency cannot beexpected from such integration, in view ofinherent uncertainties within each discipline(rate of sea floor spreading, isotopic decayconstants, biostratigraphic resolution). Thefollowing correlations show the possibilitiesand limits of this approach towards theCretaceous (see following diagram).

Correlation A - B

This correlation links the fossil record toradiometric data, and is summarised in thesection ABSOLUTE TIME. Biostratigraphiccontrol of isotopic ages is often very high, asmany source rocks (glauconies, benthonites)are associated with zonal index ammonites.

Correlation C - A

This correlation aims at linking individualgeomagnetic anomalies with the CretaceousStages. Very few such links have beenobtained from the seafloor, but pioneeringwork on Neogene volcanics in several partsof the world during the nineteen sixtiesshowed that geomagnetic reversal patternscan be recognised in suitable land-basedsequences (Helsley & Steiner, 1969; Alvarez& others, 1977).

The advantage of easy accessibility wasdemonstrated by a multidisciplinary study ofPalaeogene and Late Cretaceous pelagiclimestones near Gubbio (central Italy). Thoselimestones are associated with a sequence ofmagnetic reversals, of which the oldest couldbe correlated with ocean floor anomalies 29to 34 and with part of the Cretaceous QuietZone. On the evidence of planktonic foram-inifera, calpionellids, and nannofossils thatsequence of reversals could be dated asMaastrichtian to Cenomanian (Alvarez &others, 1977; Lowrie & Alvarez, 1981).

Subsequent studies have linked magneticreversal sequences measured from LowerCretaceous pelagic limestones in central andnorthern Italy and southern Spain with oceanfloor anomalies MO-M19 (Lowrie & others,1980; Ogg & others, 1984, 1988; Galbrun,1985; Ogg & Lowrie, 1986; Channell &Grandesso, 1987; Channell & others, 1987;Bralower, 1987).

The C-A correlations thus established forthe Early and Late Cretaceous are set out inTable I columns 1, 2, and given in Figure 1.

12

Correlation C B

This correlation aims at providing trueages for geomagnetic anomalies, but it is stillin the early stages of progress. Usually,ocean floor reversals are dated by extra-polating between isotopically dated magneticpolarity intervals, taking into account rates ofsea floor spreading calculated for individualrift zones. This is in principle the mostaccurate method, provided that sea floorspreading remained constant over a longperiod.

Radiometric ages so far obtained from theocean floor are few and spaced widely apartin time. On isotopically dated Early Tertiaryand Late Cretaceous anomalies, Tarling &Mitchell (1976), Lowrie & Alvarez (1981),Harland & others (1982, 1989), Berggren &others (1985), and other workers havecalculated closely matching ages for LateCretaceous anomalies 29 to 34. Ages for theMaastrichtian to Aptian reversals adoptedhere are those of Harland & others (1982).

At present no generally accepted ageshave been published for the Early Cretaceousocean floor anomalies. Values calibrated byLarson & Hilde (1975), Vogt & Einwich(1979), Harland & others (1982), and Lowrie& Ogg (1986) have resulted in 21 to 29million years duration for the Neocomian.Those uncertainties required this author tomatch the sequence including MO to M18against a pre-existing time scale (a step whichin fact expresses correlation B-C). Althoughunavoidable at this time, so as not to violateknown correlations A-C and A-B, thisprocedure perpetuates the very imperfectionsof those correlations which it is supposed tocorrect. The author therefore does not imputeages for anomalies MO to M18; and Table Icolumns 1 and 2 cannot pretend to be morethan a state-of-affairs presentation for the endof this century.

THE RECORD OF MICROFOSSILS

FAUNAS

Micropalaeontological research plays an

increasingly important role in world-widecorrelations, aided by the huge influx of datafrom the subsurface, and from the continentalshelves and ocean floors, provided byscientific and commercial drilling programs.Foraminiferal biostratigraphies (Boll 1966;Sigal 1977; Van Hinte 1978; Pflaumann &Cepek 1982; Caron, 1985) have beenpublished for the Cretaceous in the Atlanticand Mediterranean regions (Table I columns9,10). They have been applied in other partsof the world, but at present no global standardbiostatigraphy has been formally agreedupon. No calpionellid biostratigraphy hasbeen developed for the entire Cretaceous(Remane 1978), and this group is notdiscussed except where useful for indicatingcorrelation of other fossil sequences.

FLORAS

Calcareous namiofossils (Text and Table Icolumns 11-14 contributed by S. Shafik)

Nannofossil biostratigraphies have beendevised for the Early Cretaceous of high-latitude regions (e.g. NW European zones ofCrux, 1989; Table IA column 24) and mid- tolow-latitude regions (e.g. Blake-BahamaBasin zones of Roth, 1983; Table I column24). Neither scheme could be used onmaterial from the Rowley Terrace. However,the Albian high-latitude zonation of Wise &Wind (1977; incorporated in Table I column24) could be successfully applied in north-eastern and northwest Australia (Shafik,1985, 1992, unpublished data).

Various events in the nannofossil bio-stratigraphies of Table I columns 11-14 and26-28 are coded as follows: FO, FADindicate earliest appearances (bases of strati-graphic ranges, evolutionary appearances,lowest regular occurrences); LO, LADexpress last appearances (tops of stratigraphicranges, exits, extinctions, highest regular andcommon to abundant occurrences - tops ofacme occurrences, or re-entries).

Palynomorphs

Palynology today covers a very widerange of palaeoenvironments. Sediments of

13

flood plain, fluvialilacustrine, deltaic tolagoonal, littoral, and marine (epineritic tocontinental shelf) origins produce a wealth ofplant fossils, of which spores, pollen grains,and dinoflagellate cysts are the mostsignificant for biostratigraphy.

Sp or es & polle n : The study ofspores and pollen has outlined broad floralprovinces in the Northern Hemisphere,frequently indicating palaeolatitudinal (e.g.climatic) control, especially during the EarlyCretaceous. During the Late CretaceousEurope and European Russia were part of theNormapolles Province, and Siberia part of theAquilapollenites Province. Recent studieshave covered various aspects of Cretaceousphytogeography and biostratigraphy in China(Sun, 1980; Song & others, 1983). Broadlyparallel palynofloral developments have beenobserved near the J-K boundary in southernEngland and on the Russian Platform(Bolchovitina, 1973), but so far correlationbetween continents has met with limitedsuccess, and no biostratigraphies are given inTable I.

The spore and pollen records of Australiaand New Zealand reveal broad similarities,but still cannot be readily compared (Raine,1984).

Dinof lagellate s The study ofmarine dinoflagellate cysts has enabled muchwider correlations to be made, due to thefloating life-style of the organisms involved.A very comprehensive summary includingvarious proposed biostratigraphic schemeswas written by Williams & Bujak (1985).Table I columns 15-20 set out some of themost recently published schemes for theTethyan and the Boreal Realms.

Boreal assemblages recorded from Canadaand northern Europe reflect phytoplanktonprovincialism, especially during the EarlyCretaceous (Pocock, 1976, 1980). Paralleldevelopments also occur; the P. neocomicazone approximately marks the J-K boundaryin areas from Eastern Canada to the MoscowPlatform. In the Moscow Basin that zone isdated Ryazanian (Fisher & Riley, 1980), andin eastern offshore Canada Berriasian toValanginian (Bujak & Williams, 1978).

The European and Mediterranean Tethya.nrecord has been analysed in part by Habib &Drugg (1983; see also Ogg, 1994). Theyproposed a zonal scheme for the (late)Berriasian-Aptian in France, and recognised avirtually identical sequence in the northwestAtlantic. Few of those elements are found inDavey's (1979, 1982) mixed Tethyan-Borealbiostratigraphy for the Early Cretaceous ofnorthwestern Europe, in which the base of hisG. villosa zone coincides with the base of theJACOBI ammonite zone.

Marine sediments of Cretaceous age arerare in China, and the published record is stillvery fragmentary and localised. Broad bio-stratigraphic schemes have been proposed forthe Neocomian in the east (Yu, 1982) and theLate Cretaceous in the west (Yu & Zhang,1980). In New Zealand, the dinoflagellatebiostratigraphy for the Korangan-Haumurian(late Aptian-Maastrichtian) has been sum-marised by Wilson (1984).

Comparisons of Australian Cretaceoussequences with western Europe have yieldedsome results (Morgan, 1980a; Burger, 1982;Helby & others, 1987), and it is possible thatthese and other parallel sequential develop-ments (see Williams & Bujak, 1985) mayeventually for the basis for an integratedTethyan record for the Cretaceous.

EUSTASY

During the last hundred years a growingbody of evidence has demonstrated theexistence of synchronous rises and falls of thesealevel in several continents during thePhanerozoic. Several mechanisms have beenproposed to explain those eustatic move-ments. Those with most likely noticeableimpact during the Cretaceous would havebeen changes in the volume of oceanicbasins, specifically by recurrent uplifts andsubsidence of oceanic ridges, and changes inthe rate of sea floor spreading. Changes involume of land ice or in mean temperature ofoceans would have been minor or non-existent, at least during the Cretaceous (seeHallam, 1977, 1984b; Donovan & Jones,1979). Changes in the configuration of the

•••

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••

••

•

••••••0••

•

•

14^ •

•

globe also fall outside the scope of this paper,as they would result in infinitely slowereustatic movements.

The combined effect of those mechanismson the Cretaceous fossil and environmentalrecords of five continents was first investi-gated by Cooper (1977) and Pitman (1978).Cooper summarised relevant data into a curveof rises and falls of sealevel relative to themargins of the ancient Gondwana andLaurasia continents.

The earliest attempts to use seismicallyprofiled truncation of strata sequences(primarily in the north Atlantic), as a meansof retracing world-wide sealevel movementsduring the Mesozoic and Cainozoic wasmade by Vail and his collaborators. Theypublished sealevel curves representing'relative changes of coastal onlap' (Vail &others, 1977a, emended by Vail & Todd,1981). However, their curves lack detail withregard to the Cretaceous.

A broader-based study was set up by Hag& others (1987), who integrated seismic andsequence stratigraphic data from continentalmargins elsewhere, to create depositionalmodels for the reconstruction of a detailedMesozoic and Cainozoic coastal onlap curve.The underlying premise that primary seismicreflectors are time-concordant is plausible(Vail & others, 1977b) but has not yet beenbacked by published evidence, and seismicresults need to be checked against othermethods (Hallam, 1977).

There is evidence from both fossil andsedimentological records for recurrent marinetransgressions and regressions in severalAustralian sedimentary basins during theCretaceous. Their relationships to worldwidesealevel movements are discussed below.

THE CRETACEOUS OF AUSTRALIA

INTRODUCTION

The earliest geological and palaeont-ological observations of this continent datefrom the late eighteenth century, made byexplorers, chance visitors, prospectors, andlocal laymen with geological interest, many

trekking the country on horseback. Theearliest known geological observations of theCretaceous stem from the earliest settlementof Europeans in Victoria in the nineteenthcentury, and are tied with names like Sturt,Mitchell, Stszelecki, Hobson, and Jukes, whomade repeated exploratory treks througheastern Victoria (Darragh, 1976).

The mining of economically valuableminerals (gold, coal, copper) led to theinstitution of State Geological and MiningDepartments in Victoria, New South Wales,and Queensland. They appointed govern-ment geologists and palaeontologists, whowere charged with organising and planningmining acitivities and mapping the country.At the beginning of the twentieth centurygeological and palaeontological research hadbeen placed on a proper organisational andlegislative footing in each of the states andterritories.

Geological exploration in Western Aust-ralia started near the end of last century.Much of it was done by A. Gibb Maitland,who, as government geologist, reported onCretaceous strata in the first comprehensivepublication on the state's geology. Hereported the presence of artesian water in theEucla Basin. Subsequent studies by C.Teichert offered more detailed stratigraphicand palaeontological accounts of severalWestern Australian basins.

The discovery of coal along the east coastof Queensland stimulated palaeobotanicalresearch (W.H. Rands, T.W.E. David, A.B.Walkom). With the influx of immigrants intorural Queensland and the discovery ofsubterranean (artesian) water, exploration ofthe vast expanses of the Great Australian orGreat Artesian Basin in Queensland andSouth Australia (by H.Y.L. Brown, R.L. Jack,and others) started in earnest around the turnof the century (Sprigg, 1986).

W.B. Clarke, F. McCoy, C. Moore, and R.Etheridge Jnr. first described marine Cret-aceous faunas from the Great AustralianBasin (Day, 1969). Whitehouse (1926) firstattempted to correlate what was known ofmarine Cretaceous deposits of Australia.Cape York Peninsula was first explored earlylast century by L. Leichhardt, A.C. Gregory,and R.L. Jack. Oil exploration at Weipa,

15

AUSTRALIAN MESOZOICSEDIMENTARY BASINS

Wyaaba, and Karumba, and geophysicalsurveys have begun to fill in the peninsula'sgeological map after World War 2 (Smart &others, 1980).

A CamarvonAl Exmouth PlateauB PerthB1 Naturaliste PlateauC BremerD Great Australian Bight^NE Eucla^0F OfficerG/ Canning^0G2 Rowley TerraceH BrowseI^Bonaparte

LI

Figure 3: Australian sedimentary basins containingCretaceous strata (slightly modified afterFrakes & others, 1987, Fig. 1)

In 1946 the Federal Government institutedthe Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geologyand Geophysics (BMR). Housed initially inMelbourne, and later in Canberra, A.C.T., theBMR expanded into the largest earth scienceresearch institute of Australia. In 1991 it wasrenamed as the Australian Geological SurveyOrganisation (AGSO). The organisation actsas the federal repository of geological docu-mentation, and expands and integrates ourknowledge of the geology of the Australianplate. Geological and geophysical activitywas speeded up when aerial photographs and

four-wheel drive vehicles became available.Systematic mapping of sedimentary basins,frequently in joint projects with State Geolo-gical Surveys, started in Western Australia,Queensland, and Northern Territory.

The Government also stimulated closerrelationships with the petroleum industry bymeans of the first Petroleum Search SubsidyAct of 1957, which made federal subsidiesavailable for explorarion projects. Thoseprojects furnished essential data for in-depthstratigraphic and palaeontological research ofmany sedimentary basins. Starting in thenineteen sixties, increased search for oil andnatural gas led to intensive offshore seismicexploration and onshore drilling by SHELL,ESSO, WAPET, WOODSIDE, ATLANTICRICHFIELD, ELF-AQUITAINE, BURMAHOIL, and other companies. Their activitieshave greatly expanded the known blanket ofCretaceous sediments, particularly in thesouthern, western, and northwestern offshoreregions of Australia.

Cretaceous strata of the Murray Basinwere first dated in Victoria (Kenley, 1954)and South Australia (Ludbrook, 1961).Commercial drilling since 1964 has disclosedthe presence of Cretaceous sediments alsounderneath the Tertiary of the Murray, Eucla,and Bass Basins.

THE RECORD OF DEPOSITION

The Cretaceous geological history ofAustralia - including plate tectonics, strati-graphy, palaeontology, and palaeoenviron-ments of 23 onshore, coastal, and offshoresedimentary basins - has been reviewed byFrakes & others (1987), Dettmann & others(1992), and Bradshaw & others (in press).

During the Cretaceous the Australian Platewas part of marine orthogeosynclinaldevelopments taking place in the HimalayanProvince of the eastern Tethys region(Brinkmann 1959), or the Austral Province ofthe Indo-Pacific region (Kauffman, 1979).Australia moved comparatively little withregard to the South Pole, its northern rimshifting from 50° to 40 0 palaeolatitude as itgradually separated from the other Gondwanacontinents (Barron & others, 1981). Initialrifting with Antarctica occurred already

Money Shoal andBathurst TerraceWisoNorthern TerritoryLauraCarpentaria}

GreatEromangaSurat^AustralianMaryboroughMurrayOtwayGippsiandBass

11/A1159

16

Ma60

CRETACEOUSSTAGES

(CAINOZOIC)

GREAT AUSTRALIANBASIN

Maastrichtian70

(1)

0Lu Campanian

80

CC SantonianUJ Coniacian

90 <C Turonian—J

Cenomanian

100Albian

Rolling DownsGroup

CO110

0 AptianUJ

120 UiCC

Barremian

CC Hauterivian

130 LU BlythesdaleValanginian Group

Berriasian140

(JURASSIC)

WhitnellFormation

ToolongaCalcilutite

Sherbrook andLatrobe Valley

Groups CoolyenaGroup

Bathurst IslandFormation

BarrowGroupParmelia

Formation

OTWAY-GIPPSLAND

BASINS

PERTHBASIN

CARNARVONBASIN

BONAPARTEGULF BASIN

Miria Formation

WinningGroup

Strzelecki andOtway Groups

WambroGroup

Day eta!, 1983^Douglas eta!, 1988 Bradshaw eta!, Hocking eta!, 1987^Bradshaw et a!,in press^ in press

20-1/42

Figure 4: Prominent Cretaceous lithostratigraphic sequences in Australia

before the Cretaceous (Johnstone & others,1973); the sea penetrated into the rift valleysas from latest Albian, and inundated themduring the Turonian. In the northwest, thegreater Indian Plate separated during theValanginian-Barrernian as new seafloor wasforming (Buffler, 1994; Exon & Colwell,1994). In the east, New Zealand and the LordHowe Rise slowly separated during theSantonian (Laird, 1981; Johnson & Veevers,1984).

Large parts of Australia remained abovesealevel, although shallow epicontinental seasrepeatedly covered the western and north-eastern regions during Early and Middle

Cretaceous phases of global high sealevel.During the Late Cretaceous the wideningocean basins were filled by retreating seas asthe Indian, Australian, and Antarctic Platesseparated (Frakes & others, 1987; Veevers,1988; Bradshaw & others, 1988). ByTuronian times most of the Australian platewas permanently above sealevel, and marinedevelopments are known almost exclusivelyfrom offshore and coastal basins at thewestern and southern margins (Figs 3, 4).

THE FOSSIL RECORD

The above summary explains why the

17

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marine Cretaceous faunal and floral recordsin eastern Australia remain incomplete.However, drilling by petroleum explorationcompanies, the Bureau of Mineral Resourcesin Canberra, and various State GeologicalSurveys since the nineteen fifties, enabledmicropalaeontology and palynology to fillmany biostratigraphic gaps. Palynology nowprovides a continuous standard biostrati-graphic record for the Australian Cretaceous.

Cretaceous faunas, although more or lessendemic, indicate Antarctic influences, andcertain affinities with other Gondwanacontinents. Australian palaeontologists havetherefore traditionally related the fossil recordto the standard European Tethyan Cretaceousgeochronology. Cretaceous floras includeendemic elements, but also indicate affinitieswith New Zealand, Antarctica, the southernAtlantic, and East Asia.

Faunas

V ertebrates (TableIcolumn 37): Therecord is poor and too episodic for biostrati-graphic synthesis. Fishes are well repre-sented in the late Albin Toolebuc Formation,Great Australian Basin, and in the AptianKoonwarra Beds, Gippsland Basin (Long,1991; A. Kemp, 1991; N.R. Kemp, 1991).Reptiles are well represented in the LateNeocomian to Albin fauna in Victoria, andin the Toolebuc and early-middle Albia.nLightning Ridge faunas (Molnar, 1991).Birds are known only from isolated feathers(Koonwarra Beds) and some skeletal frag-ments in the late Albian of the Great Austral-ian Basin (Vickers-Rich, 1991). Amphibianshave now been reported from the EarlyCretaceous of the Gippsland Basin (Warren,1991). The first known Mesozoic mammalfrom Australia (jaw and teeth of a mono-treme) has recently been discovered in theLightning Ridge fauna (Rich, 1991).

I n vertebrates: This record is muchmore extensive. Foraminifera have beenmost actively studied, but data have beenpublished also on other protists (radiolaria),brachiopods, molluscs (ammonites, belem-nites, bivalves, gastropods), crustacea (crabs,ostracods), spiders, insects, otoliths, and

many other fossil taxa (see Quilty, 1975).The foraminifera, bivalves, and ammonitesindicate various degrees of provincialism,which may indicate climatic control, as wellas increasing isolation of Australia during thebreak-up of ancient Gondwana.

F o r a m in i f er a (Table I columns 23-25): Benthonic and planktonic foraminiferahave made successful biostratigraphic contri-butions to basin studies, especially for themid-Cretaceous of northeastern Australia(Crespin, 1963; Ludbrook, 1966; Scheibner-ova, 1976; Haig, 1979) and the Middle andLate Cretaceous of the North West Shelf(Wright & Apthoipe, 1976; Apthorpe, 1979;Quilty, 1984, and many unpublished reports).Belford (1958, 1960) and Quilty (1978)described Late Cretaceous agglutinated andcalcareous foraminffera from the Perth andCamarvon Basins. The Late Cretaceoussequence of agglutinated-calcareous foram-inifera in the Otway Basin has been describedby Taylor (1964) and Ludbrook (1971).

A m monite s (Table I columns 21, 22):Cretaceous ammonites have been describedand reported from the Great Australian Basin(Whitehouse, 1955; Reyment, 1964; Day,1969, 1974; McNamara, 1978, 1980, 1985;Skvvarko, 1981), and from northern andWestern Australia (Spath, 1940; Brunnsch-weiler, 1959, 1966; Wright, 1963; Skwarko,1966, 1983; Henderson & McNamara, 1985;Henderson, 1990; Henderson & others,1992). Only the Bathurst Island and some ofthe Western Australian Maastrichtian faunashave been directly correlated with thestandard Tethyan ammonite succession; theGreat Australian Basin fauna is moreendemic, although it shares certain elementswith other Tethyan regions (Day, 1969).

Additional studies of local character andfrom before World War 2, not mentionedhere, are referred to in the abovementionedpapers. At present an ammonite biostrati-graphy has been publidshed only for theGreat Australian Basin (Table I column 22).

Floras

L a n d plant s (Table I column 36):

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•

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18^ •

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These fossils are best known from easternAustralia. Records of the Neocomian toCenomanian from the Great Australian Basinare fragmented and include chiefly poorlypreserved leaf and wood impressions and(locally abundant) silicified wood (Gould,1975). The much richer vegetation preservedin the Otway/Gippsland Basins (Victoria) hasbeen taxonomically and biostratigraphicallystudied by Douglas (1969, 1973), Cantrill &Webb (1987), Douglas & others (1988), andTaylor & Hickey (1990). Plant remains alsooccur near the J-K boundary in Tasmania(Tidwell & others, 1989).

Calcareous nannofossils (Textand Table II columns 26-28 contributed by S.Shaft): Cretaceous calcareous nannofossilsfrom several basins marginal to WestAustralia and from the epeiric EromangaBasin were studied by Shafik (1978, 1985,1990a, 1994; in Colwell, Graham & others,1990). Early Cretaceous assemblages wererecorded from the Rowley Terrace in theoffshore Canning Basin, and Late Cretaceousassemblages from the Carnarvon and PerthBasins. In onshore sections of the CarnarvonBasin calcareous nannofossils first appear inthe late Turonian, and Albian nannofossilswere recorded from the Carnarvon Terrace.In the western Great Australian Bight Basin,the only known calcareous nannofossils areMaastrichtian in age (Shafik 1990b). In theEromanga Basin Albian nannofossi1 assem-blages are mostly diversified, although oftendominated by only a few species.

So far no standard nannofossil zonationhas been formally proposed for the Cret-aceous of the Australian region. None of thepublished zonations can be applied singularlyin the western margin of Australia (Bralower& Siesser, 1992; Bown, 1992; Shafik, 1978,1994), but reliable biostratigraphic eventsbased on widely distributed (cosmopolitan)species have been identified in most areas.Shafik (1990a) identified a set of Turonian-Coniacian/early Santonian events in theCarnarvon Basin, and a set of late Coniac-ian/early Santonian-Campanian events in theCarnarvon Basin and Perth Basins (Table 1B,column 26).

Cretaceous sections offshore North West

Australia and along the continent's westernand southwestern margins were drilled inseveral DSDP and ODP sites. The mostcomplete nannofossil information came fromsites on the Exmouth Plateau and in theadjacent abyssal plains. Sites drilled in theCuvier and Perth Abyssal Plains and on theNaturaliste Plateau showed that Albian sedi-ments bearing nannofossils are widespreadoffshore along the Australian western margin.

Dumoulin & Bown (1992) dated the lateJurassic-Early Cretaceous of sites 261 and765 without assigning it to any particularzones (or subzones). Mutterlose (1992)pointed out ten events in the Berriasian-Albian of sites 765 & 766. Bralower &Siesser (1992) discussed sites 761, 762, and763, where it is difficult to apply Sissingh's(1977) zonation (Table I column 12).Following the approach made earlier byShafik (1990a) they described a set of bio-stratigraphic events instead (Table I column28). Thierstein (1974) described seveninformal zones for the Albian-Santonian ofthe Naturaliste Plateau (Table 1B column 27).

Shafik (1990a, 1993) described several«Narmoprovinces» for the Cretaceous of theAustralian region, in particular for the Albianand late Senonian. The association of several(rare) Tethyan species with abundant Austral/Boreal species in the Neocomian of NorthWest Australia (Exmouth Plateau-RowleyTerrace-Swan Canyon-Argo Abyssal Plain)suggests the inflow of warmer water into thegenerally cool surface water regime of thejuvenile ocean being formed northwest ofAustralia: a connection with the Tethys to thenorth opened during the Valanginian, butlater this connection was not evident; nanno-provinces developed particularly during theAlbian and late Senonian (Shafik, 1993,1994).

The co-occurrence of Albian cool- andwarm-water species along the western marginof the continent indicated the ExtratropicalNannoprovince (Carnarvon Terrace, PerthAbyssal Plain, Naturaliste Plateau, most ofPapuan Basin, PNG). At the same time theAustral Nannoprovince was evidenced in theEromanga Basin (northeastern Australia).During the late Campanian-Maastrichtian twonanrtoprovinces existed along the western

19

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margin; the Austral Nannoprovince, indicatedby abundant cool-water species and lack ofwarm-water species (Perth Basin, GreatAustralian Bight), and the ExtratropicalNannoprovince, indicated by a mixture ofcool- and warm-water species (CamarvonBasin, northern Australia). The TropicalNannoprovince, indicated by abundant warm-water species, extended over most of PapuaNew Guinea.

p ore s & p ollen (Table I columns34, 35): As compared with the Jurassic, theCretaceous flora included a large number offerns and bryophytes and a reduced fractionof gymnosperms. The pollen record indicatesthat the angiosperms probably first appearedin the late Neocomian to early Aptian, andthey became the dominant component of theuppermost Cretaceous vegetation.

The study of spores and pollen grains hasbeen the prime instrument in integratingAustralian marine and nonmaxine bio- andlithorecords, thus enabling marine faunal andmicrofloral evidence to be applied to thecontinental facies record. Together with themegafloral record, it has also furnished strongevidence of active interchange of vegetationswith adjoining Gondwana continents, andwith eastern Laurasia, at least during theEarly Cretaceous (Dettmann, 1981).

Early biostratigraphic schemes for theCretaceous of eastern Australia (Dettmann,1963; Evans, 1966) have culminated in thescheme of Dettmann & Playford (1969). Aslightly modified version of that scheme waspublished by Helby & others (1987).Biostratigraphies for the Perth and CarnarvonBasins in Western Australia (BaLme, 1957,1964; Backhouse, 1978, 1988) cover only theEarly Cretaceous, due to the poor spore-pollen record of the marine Upper Cretaceousstrata sequences. At present comparison withthe eastern Australian schemes is difficult,since zonal diagnostic fossils are recordedfrom slightly different time spans.

The biostratigraphy of Table I column35C is primarily the result of decades ofstudy of hundreds of boreholes drilled in theOtway-Gippsland, Great Artesian, and LauraBasins (Burger, 1973, 1982; Dettmann, 1986;Dettmann & Douglas, 1988).

The Late Cretaceous zones of that schemehave been dated on evidence of forarninifera(Taylor, 1964; Ludbrook, 1971) and dino-flagellates (Evans, 1966; Helby & others,1987) from the Otway and Bass Basins. TheAptian and Albin zones, described from theGreat Australian Basin, have been dated ontheir association with ammonites (Day, 1969,1974), foraminifera (Playford & others, 1975;Haig, 1979), and dinoflagellates (Evans,1966; Dettmartn & Playford, 1969; Morgan,1980a; Burger, 1980, 1986). The Neocornianzones have been dated on their associationwith invertebrates and dinoflagellates in theGreat Australian and Papuan Basins, and alsoon considerations such as intercontinentalspore correlation and estimated rates of floralmigration (Dettmann, 1963, 1986; Dettmann& Playford, 1969; Burger, 1973, 1982, 1986,1989; Helby & others, 1987).

Indirect evidence of eustasy in the theGreat Australian Basin has also given certainclues as to ages of spore and pollen zones(see below).

D i noflagellates (Table I columns29-32): Isabel Cookson and collaboratorsestablished a systematic and descriptivefoundation with their early studies on themarine Jurassic and Cretaceous microphyto-plankton in Australia and Papua New Guinea(see Deflandre & Cookson, 1955; Cookson,1956, 1965; Cookson & Eisenack, 1958,1960a,b, 1961, 1962, 1970; Eisenack &Cookson, 1960; and many other papers).

Initial biostratigraphic synthesis of recordsfrom the Perth and Eucla Basins (Edgell,1964; Ingram, 1968), and from the GreatAustralian and Otway Basins (Evans, 1966)was refined by later studies from WesternAustralia (Backhouse, 1978, 1987, 1988;Wiseman, 1979; McMinn, 1988; and others),and from northeastern and central Australia(Morgan, 1980a; Burger, 1982, and otherstudies).

Helby & others (1987) proposed the firstcomprehensive pan-Australian zonation forthe Cretaceous, based on data from onshoreand offshore boreholes drilled in Australiaand Papua New Guinea. Lingering problemsregarding species ranges of dinoflagellates inthe Late Cretaceous of Western Australia are

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••••••••

20^ •

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probably to be attributed to condensed andpoorly sampled intervals, and reworking(B.S. Ingram, pers. comm., June 1989).

Several recent biostratigraphies, andranges of selected species, are set out againstthe standard Cretaceous chronology, such asthey are given by their authors. Slightlymodified ages of certain Early Cretaceouszones are proposed below, and are shown inTable IA column 33 (see also Burger, 1990).

Ages of dinoflagellate zones

A comparison of age determinations ofEarly Cretaceous dinocyst zones in Westernand northern Australia by various authorsdisclose certain disagreements. The modifiedages and correlations here proposed for thebasal Cretaceous zonal units are based on thefollowing considerations:

A. Helby & others (1987) placed the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary within their Pseudo-ceratium iehiense zone. Data from thePapuan Basin (Davey, 1987) and freshevidence from the North West Shelf (see(Burger, in press) indicates that thatboundary falls most probably within theirKalyptea wisemaniae zone.

B. According to Backhouse (pers. comm.,June 1989) Control Point CP1 of Wiseman(1979) in the Carnarvon Basin is not olderthan the Kaiwaradinium scrutillinum zonein the Perth Basin. Backhouse (1987,1988) regarded the lower limit of that zoneto be of Valanginian age.

C. The lower limits of the Phoberocystalowryi and Phoberocysta burgeri zones,and Wiseman's (1979) Control Point CP2,are intercorrelated on the first appearanceof Muderongia testudinaria, and thisapproximately agrees with Helby & others(1987). M. testudinaria was first describedfrom northern Queensland, where it occurswith several dinoflagellate species whichin the Tethyan north Atlantic are notknown prior to the Hauterivian (Burger,1982). The range of M. testudinaria inAustralia is therefore assumed not toextend significantly below the Hauterivian.

D. Helby & others (1987) correlated thelower limit of the Batioladinium jaegerizone of Backhouse (1987) with that oftheir Muderongia australis zone, based onthe youngest occurrence of Canningiareticulata, Muderongia testudinaria, andPhoberocysta burgeri. However, firstappearances of certain other species givenby those authors for that part of thesequence also suggest that the B. jaegerizone may correspond approximately intime with the M. testudinaria zone.

E. Odontochitina operculata and Ovoidiniumcinctum first appear in the upper part of theFromea monilifera zone in the Perth Basin(Backhouse, 1987; pers. comm., June1989), and in the Muderongia australiszone (Helby & others, 1987). The authorsagree that the two zones are Barremian toearly Aptian. 0. operculata first appearsin the late Hauterivian of the WesternTethys (Ogg, 1994), and presumably alsoin northern Australia (Burger, 1982; Helby& others, 1987). This author thus placesthe Hauterivian-Barremian boundary with-in the basal intervals of the M. australisand F. monilifera zones.

RADIOMETRIC AGES

A large number of isotopic (K-Ar, Rb-Sr)age analyses have been made on Cretaceouscrystalline intrusives and lavas, especiallyfrom eastern Queensland, and on lavas fromTasmania (Sutherland & Corbett, 1974; Day&others, 1983). The Sunbury Basalt- a tholeiitic basalt in the Perth Basin - islinked with the Biretisporites eneabbaensisspore-pollen zone. It yielded K-Ar ages of105-88 Ma, which are regarded as unreliable(McDougall & Wellmann, 1976; Backhouse,1988).

So far, no reliable isotopic ages have beenobtained from the sedimentological record ofnortheastern Australia. Glauconites assoc-iated with the Crybelosporites striatus andthe Cyclosporites hughesii spore-pollen zonesfrom the Wallumbilla Formation (EromangaBasin, New South Wales) yielded prelim-inary K-Ar ages of 101.2 to 97.9 Ma and 96.6Ma respectively, and they were rightly

21

13

Ma60 —

(JURASSIC)

(CAINOZOIC)

Maastrichtian

Campanian

80

90

Santonian

Coniacian /Turonian

Cenomanian

Albian

Aptian

Barremian

120 Hauterivian

Valanginian

Berriasian

20-1/43

GLOBAL SEALEVEL CURVES1 Cooper (1977)2 Haq eta!., (1987)

AUSTRALIAN SEALEVEL CURVES3 Mc Minn (1985) North West Shelf

4 Wiseman (1979) Camarvon Basin5 Blackhouse (1988) Perth Basin6 Quilty (1980) Western Australia7 Morgan (1980b), Burger (1982) Great Australian Basin

Figure 5: Eustatic sealevel movements, and sealevel movements registered in Australiansedimentary basins (for details see text)

suspected as too young (Byrnes & others,1975). Fission track dates of 103-126 Mahave been obtained from the largely non-marine Otway Group in the Otway Basin(Gleadow & Duddy, 1981). That sequence is

dated Neocomian to Albin on palynologicaland pa1aeobotanical evidence (Dettmann &Douglas, 1988; Wagstaff & McEwen-Mason,1989).

22

EUSTASY

Australian geologists have found directand indirect evidence of Cretaceous sealevelmovements in the Perth Basin (Backhouse,1988), Carnarvon Basin (Wiseman, 1979),Surat Basin (Exon & Burger, 1981), Ero-manga and Carpentaria Basins (Burger, 1982,1986, 1988), and in the Late Cretaceous ofWestern Australia (Quilty, 1980; McMinn,1985). Briefly, this evidence relates either toperiodic disappearance (or in part statisticallyestablished impoverishment) of marine in-vertebrate faunas and/or dinoflagellate floras.

Various Australian sealevel curves areshown in Figure 5, as drawn by individualauthors. Evidently a number of peaks andtroughs are of local origin, but certain sea-level movements are synchronous with theglobal curves and appear to be of eustaticorigin. They warrant more attention, in viewof their potential value for correlating anddating sedimentary sequences.

Morgan (1980b) made the only attempt sofar to integrate Aptian-Albian fossil records(in part complemented by lithorecords) into apan-Australian Cretaceous sealevel curve. Ityielded good results for certain sedimentarybasins because, on the whole, there was verylittle structural activity to mask the effects ofsealevel movements on depositional events.Quilty (1980) observed 2 Late Cretaceoussedimentary cycles in various WesternAustralian basins. They are bounded bywidespread unconformities, which he attri-buted to recurrent eustatic falls of sealevel.

Exon & Burger (1981) and Burger (1986)logged a series of 5 widespread cycles in theJurassic and Neocomian nonmarine sequenceof the Great Australian Basin. Each cycleconsists of a lower fluvial sandstone and anoverlying lacustrine mudstone/siltstone. Thesandstone indicates rapid drainage with a fallof the regional base level of erosion, and theoverlying argillaceous sequences (withoccasional coal and benthonite, and commonacritarchs) indicate times of sluggish drainageduring a rising base level of erosion.

Exon & Burger (1981) reviewed severalpossible causes for this phenomenon. Theyrejected local hot spots, periodic changes (i.e.precipitation) of the climate, and recurrent

uplifts of the eastern Australian craton rim,and concluded global sealevel movements tobe the most likely alternative cause of therising and falling erosion level in the basin.They linked the Jurassic and Neocorniancycles with the eustatic curves of Vail &others (1977a) and Cooper (1977).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is indebted to geoscientistsfrom Australia and overseas, who commentedthe Cretaceous volume in the initial BMRRecord series on Australian PhanerozoicTimescales (Burger, 1990). Many kindlysent reprints of papers or manuscripts (inpress) on various subjects.

He acknowledges the helpful assistanceof: M. Apthorpe, J. Backhouse, B.S. Ingram,and K.J. McNamara (Perth, W.A.), M.E.Dettmann and R.E. Molnar (Brisbane, Qld),A.D. Partridge (Melbourne, Vic), and P.G.Quilty (Kingston, Tas); P. Bengtson (Upp-sala, Sweden), T.J. Bralower (Miami, Fla,U.S.A.), R.J. Davey (Llandudno, NorthWales, U.K.), B. Galbrun (Paris, France), thelate N.F. Hughes (Cambridge, England), W.Lowrie and K. von Salis Perch-Nielsen(Ziirich, Switzerland), T. Matsumoto, M.Noda, and S. Toshimitsu (Fukuoka, Kyushu,Japan), D.J. McIntyre (Calgary, Alta,Canada), G.S. Odin (Paris, France), J.G. Ogg(W. Lafayette, Ind., U.S.A.), F. Robaszynski(Mons, Belgium), G.J. Wilson (Lower Hutt,New Zealand), and Yang Zunyi (Beijing,China).

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