a history of greek philosophy from the earliest period to the time of socrates 1880 vol 2 zeller
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A HISTORYOF
GKREEK PHILOSOPHYFROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE
TIME OF SOCRATES
WITH A GENERAL INTRODUCTION
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF
DR E. ZELLER
PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN
faritb the guitjjor's sanction
ET
S. F. ALLEYNE
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. II.
LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
All rights rtserved
1881
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--
A HISTOEY
GREEK PHILOSOPHY
VOL. II.
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LONDON i PHISTED BT
BPOTTI8W00UK AND CO., NKW-STHEET BQUAttB
AND PARLIAMENT STREET
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ERBATA.
Page 24, 3, line 6for infra, p. 555, 3, 3rd ed. read infra, p. 46, 1. 54 (first column), line 10for inf. p. 708, 2, 3rd ed. read inf. 234, 2.
57, 2, line 7 (second column)for heat and warmth read light andwarmth. 59, afor p. 621, 2 read 57, 2. 69, n. line 12 (first column)/or Diog. ii. 8 (inf. p. 77) read Diog.
ix. 8 (inf. p. 77, 1). 70, line 12 (second column)/or 363, 5 read 863, 2. 80, note 1omit i. 614 sq.
96, note 2, line 12-for p. 601 sq. 3rd ed. read inf. 113 sq. 196, 1, line 12/or p. 707, 1, 4 read 148, 4 ; 149, 3. 207, 1, line 13omit sometimes. 310, 1, line 2/or 294, 2 read 294, 4.
320, 2, line Ifor Diogenes read Diagoras. 412, line 6for I.eontium read Leontini.
453, 1for p. 638, 1 read 630, 1. 453, 4, last line/or p. 638, 2 read 632, 2.
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.^FRALLIRliAur,
UNIV. i
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Ti CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
B. The Atomistic philosophy : paok1. Physical bases of the system. Atoms and the Void . 2072. Movement of the atoms. Formation and system of the
universe. Inorganic nature 2353. Organic nature. Man : his knowledge and his actions . 2534. The Atomistic doctrine as a whole : its historical posi
tion and importance. Later adherents of the school . 292
III. Anaxaookas.
1 . Principles of his system : Matter and Mind . . . .3212. Origin and system of the universe 354
3. Organic natures : Man 3634. Anaxagoras in relation to his predecessors. Character and
origin of his doctrine. The Anaxagorean school. Archelaus 373
THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY.
THIRD SECTION. '
THE SOPHISTS.
1. Origin of the Sophistic doctrine 3942. External history of the Sophists 4073. Teaching of the Sophists considered in its general character . 4294. Sophistic theory of knowledge and Eristic disputation . . 4465. Opinions of the Sophists concerning Virtue and Justice,
Politics and Religion. Sophistic Rhetoric .... 4696. Value and historical importance of the Sophistic doctrine.
The various tendencies included in it 496
INDEX 517
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THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE GREEKSIN ITS
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.
THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY.
11. HERACLEITUS,EMPEDOCLES,THE ATOMISTS,ANAXAGORAS.
I. HERACLEITUS.1
1 . The general standpoint and fundamental conceptions of
the doctrine of Heracleihis.
While in the Eleatic School the doctrine of the Unity
of all Being had led to the denial of the possibility of
plurality and Becoming, contemporaneously 2 with that
1 Schleiermacher, Herakleitot
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_> HERACLEITUS.
school there arose in Asia Minor, at the opposite poleof the Greek civilised world, a system which developed
80th or 81st Olympiad, and thisstatement seems to derive confirma
tion from the fact that, accordingto Strabo, xiv. 1, i. 25, p. 642 (in
comparison with his evidence noweight can be attached to the 8thof the so-called Heraclitcan letters,p. 82, Bern ). HermodornsthoEphe-sian, who, we are told by Pliny. H.Nat. xxxiv. 5, 21, and Pompouius,Digest, i. 1, tit. 2, /. 2, 4, assisted
the Roman decemviri in their legislation (01. 81,4; 452 B.C.), was noother than the friend of Heracleitus, whose banishment the philoso
pher could not forgive his countrymen. (Strabo I.e., Diog. ix. 2,&c. ;
vide infra.') From this Hermann inferred (De Philos. Ionic. Mtatt. p.
10, 22), and Schwegler agrees withhim (Rom. Gcsch. iii. 20 ; otherwisein Gesrfi. d. Griech. Phil. 20. Kiist-lin's edition, where also, p. 79. thereference of Parmenides to Heracleitus, which Bernays conjec
tured, but which is irreconcile-aMo with Hermann's computation,
is admit ed) that Heracleitus wasborn about 01. 67 (510 B.C.) anddied about. 01. 82 (450 b.c). I
have shown, however, in my treatise Dc Hrrmodnro JSpkcHo et
Ilermnd.Plat. (Marb. 1859), p. 9sqq. that this opinion is not. justifiable. The statement of Euse-
bius repeated by Syncellus is initself not nearly so trustworthyas that of Diogenes, taken from
Apollodorus ; Hermann urges inits favour that Eusebius determines
the date of Anaxagoras and Demo-critus more accurately than Apol
lodorus, but this is not the case.On the contrary, the statementloses all weight by its glaring
contradiction with the earlierutterances of the same author.Where Eusebius found the state
ment, and on what it is based, wedo not know ; but if we remember
that the primo of Heracleitus (nothis death, as Hermann says: the
words are clarus habebatur, cog-noscebatur, IJKnafc) is here made
to coincide almost exactly with thelegislation of the decemviri, itappears probable that it. arose from
tile supposition that Hermodortis.the friend of Heracleitus, entered
into connection with the decemviriimmediately after his banishment,
and that his banishment coincidedwith the axuii of the philosopher.Now the assertion of Diogenes canhardly be founded upon any accu
rate chronological tradition ; it isfar more likely (as Diels acknow
ledges, Rh. Mus. xxxi. 33 sq.) thatits author knew only of the gene
ral statement that Heracleitus hadbeen a contemporary of Darius I.,and that in accordance with this, heplaced his prime in the 69th Olym
piad ; i.e. in the middle of Darius'sreign (01. 64, 3-73, 4). But that
this theory is at any rate appro.xi-matelv correct, and that the death i
of Heracleitus cannot be placedlater than 470-478 B.C., we find exrtremely likely for other reasons.For though we may not lay much
stress on the circumstance that,according to Sotion, ap. Diog. ix. 5,
Heracleitus was regarded by manyas a pupil of Xenophanes, the allu
sion to him by Epicharmus, whichwe have found probable vol. i. p. 532,
would imply that his doctrine wasknown in Sicily as early as 470 n.c. ;and since he himself instances as
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HIS DATE AND LIFE,
the same presupposition in a contrary direction, andj
regarded the one Being as something purely in motion Iand subject to perpetual change and separation. The |
author of this system is Heracleitus.1
men to whom varied knowledge hasnot brought wisdom, only Xeno-phanes, Pythagoras and Hecatseusin addition to Hesiod, this looks as
if the later philosopher, and especially his antipodes Parmenides,were unknown to him. Moreover,
the statements about Hermodorusdo not by any means compel us to
regard Heracleitus as later. Forfirst, the theory that Hermodorus,
who took part in the decemvirs'legislation, was the same personas the friend of Heracleitus is
not based even by Strabo (as Ihave shown. I.e. p. 15) on trustworthy tradition, but merely on a
probable conjecture ; and secondly,we have no reason to assume that
Hermodorus was of the same ageas Her.ieleitus. Supposing him to
have been 20 or 25 years younger,it would be quite possible to admithis participation in the lawgivingof the decemviri, without on thataccount altering the data of Hera
cleitus' death to the middle of thefifth century. We certainly cannot
place the banishment of Hermodorus and the composition of Heracleitus' work earlier than 478 B.C.,
forthe rise of democracy at Ephesuswould scarcely have been possiblebefore the deliverance from thePersian dominion. On the otherhand this event^may have givenrise to the deliverance. Both
theories are compatible with thatsupposition : on the one hand, thatHeracleitus died in 475 B.C. ; onthe other, that Hermodorus assisted the decemviri in 452 b.c.
Aristotle fixes the age of Heracleitus at 60, if the reading of themanuscripts in Diog. viii. 52 becorrect: lApiffrori\i\s yap aitrbv
(Empedocles) In rt 'HpdicKiiTove^rjKovra Itu>v ipy\ffi TertKtvn\K(vai.Sturz, however, instead of 'ttpdtc-KtiTov reads 'HpaicXtiSri!, and Cobet
has admitted this conjecture, whichis favourably regarded by many
authorities (more than a conjecturehe does not consider it), into thetext. It does not commend itselfto me as indispensable ; for it isperfectly conceivable that Aristotle
may have connected the two mentogether in reference to their age,and tho biographer of Empedocles,
here referred to by Diogenes (thatthese words, as well as the context,are derived from Apollodorus seemsto me doubtful, in spite of the ob
servations of Diels, A'A. ilfiis.xxxiii.38), may have also quoted what hehad taken the opportunity to sayabout Heracleitus, in the sameway that in 55 Philolaus is
mentioned with Heracleitus. On the other hand it is very possible
that 'HpoKAfiToy may have been amistake for 'HpaxKfttns ; and we
must thereforo leave this questionundecided like many others respecting the chronology of Heracleitus.
1 The native city of Heracleitus, according to the unanimoustestimony of tho ancients, was
Ephesus. Metapontum is substituted by Justin, Cohort, c. 3, but
this is merely a hasty inferencefrom a passage in which Heracleitus is named in connection with
n 2
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HERACLEITUS.
The doctrine of Heracleitns,1 like that of the
Hippasus of Metapontum ; as wascustomary, in accordance witl^Arist. Me/apkj j, 3^84a 7. His
father, accordu^gpPlfffx. 1 . &c,was callod Blyson, but others name
him Hcrncion (whom Schuster, p.362 sq., conjectures to have been hisgrandfather). That he belonged to
n family of position is evident fromthe statement of Antisthenes, ap.
Diog. ix. 6, that he resigned thedignity of $aai\tvs to his younger
brother ; for this was an officehereditary in the family of An-droclus, the Codrid, founder of
Ephesus (Strabo, xiv. 1, 3, p. 632;Bernays, Heraclitea, 31 sq.). He
held decidedly aristocratic opinions(vide infra), while his fellow-citizens were democrats ; this explains
why his friend Hennodorus shouldhave been exiled (Diog. ix. 2)and he himself regarded with littlefavour (Demetr. ibid. 15). The
persecution for atheism, however,which Christian authors infer from
this (Justin. Apol. i. 46; Apol. ;i.8; Athenag. Supplic. 31, 27), isperhaps wholly derived from the
fourth Heraclitean letter (cf. Ber-nays, HtraJcl. Br. 35), and is rendered improbable by the silence of
all ancient authorities. Concerningthe hist illness and death of Hera-
cleitus all kinds of unauthentieatodan.l sometimes contradictory storiesare to be found in Diog. ix. 3 sqq.,
Tatian, C. Grcec. c. 3, and elsewhere(cf. Bernays, llerakl. Brie/e, p. 55sq.). If they have any historical
foundation (Schuster thinks, p.217, they may have a good deal), wecannot now discover it. Lassalle's
opinion (i. 42), that they arosemerely from a mythical symbolising
of the doctrine of the passage ofopposites into one another, appears
tomejjtf ^Klic disposition Is described byTheophrastus as melancholy (ap. '
Diog. ix. 6 ; cf. Pliny, H. Ar. vii.
19, 80), and this is confirmed bythe fragments of his writings. Butthe anecdotes which Diogenes (ix.
3 sq.) relates concerning his misanthropy are worthless ; not to speakof the absurd assertion that he
wept, and Democritus laughed, overeverything (Lucian, Vit. Auct. c.
13; Hippolyt. Brfut. ;. 4; Sen.Be Ira, ii. 10, 5; Tranqu. An. 15,
2. &c). As to any instructorsthat he mag have had, ordinarytradition seems entirely ignorant;which proves that the ancients
(Clemens, Strom, i. 300 c, sqq. ;Diog. ix. 1; Prooem. 13 sqq.; I
similarly Galen, c. 2) found it impossible to connect him with anyschool. It is, therefore, manifestly
an error to represent him as apupil of Xenophanes, which is
done by Sotion, ap. Diog. ix. 5, oras a scholar of Hippasus, whichis asserted by another account (ap.Suid. 'Hpxh. But that he claimed tohave learned everything from himself, to have known nothing in his
youth and all things afterwards(Diog. ix. 5; Stob. Floril. 21, 7 ;
Procl. in Tim. 106 E), seemsmerely an inference from some
misapprehended utterances in hisworks.
1 Our most trustworthy sourceof information in regard to the doc
trine of Heracleitus is to be foundin the fragments of his own work.This work was written in Ionicprose, and according to Diog. ix. 5,
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HIS WORK.
Eleatics, developed itself in express contradiction to
12; Clem. Strom, v. 571 C, borethe title repi tyiafas. We are toldin Diog. ix. 5 that it was divided
into three \oyoi, tts t rbv vepl rovTavrbs ko.1 rbv iroKiTtKbv Kal 6to-
\oyi'6v. It is quite possible (asSchuster remarks, p. 48 sqq. in opposition to Schleiennacher, Werke
-. Phil. ii. 25 sqq.) that the workmay have contained several sections, each devoted to a par
ticular subject ; and this may bebrought into connection with thefact that, according to Diog. 12, italso bore the title of Mowrai ; if,
like Schuster, p. 67, we thinkof the three muses of the older
mythology. (On the other hand,two more titles are given in Diog.
12, which are certainly spurious ;cf. Bernays' Heracleit. 8 sq.) But
there is no doubt that the Movoaioriginate with Plato, Soph. 242
D ; not (as Schuster, p. 329, 2, isinclined to suppose) with Hora-
cleitus ; and the names of the throesections given by Diogenes (asSchuster observes, p. 54 sq.) withthe Alexandrian catalogues, andthat these names correctly described
the contents of the work is quiteuncertain, as is. proved, amongother evidence, by the double titles
of the Platonic dialogues. Thefragments we possess contain very
little that could be assigned to thesecond section, and still less that is
appropriate to the third, if the former were really devoted to politics
and the latter to theology; and itis the same thing, as we shall find,
with the other traditions concerningthe doctrine of Heracleitus (cf.Susemihl, Jahrb. f. Philol. 1873,H. 10, 1 1, p. 714 sq.). I believe it
to be impossible to recover the planof the work, with any certainty,
from the fragments in existence ;and Schuster's attempt at such areconstruction is founded on suppositions that are generally doubtful, and in some cases, it appears
to me, more than doubtful. Thatthis was the sole work of Hera
cleitus is unquestionable, not onlybecause of the indirect testimony ofAristotle, Hhet. iii. 5, 1407 b, 16 ;
Diog. ix. 7 ; and Clemens, Strom.i. 332 B, where mention is madoof a irvypapfia in the singular, and
not of ouypdiifiaTa, but because noother work was either quoted or
commentated on by the ancients. InPlutarch, Adv. Col. 14, 2 'Hpaittel-tov 5i rbv Zotpodo-rpTjv, we shouldread, with Diibner, 'Hptuc\fiSou(vide Bernays, Iih. Alua. vii. 93 sq.),an amendment which of itself set
tles Schleiermacher's doubt as tothe genuineness of this writing, and
the trustworthiness of Plutarch'sstatements concerning Heracleitus(I. c). David, Schol. in Arist. 19 b,7 ; Hesych. Vir. HI. 'Hpdic\. ; Schol.
Bekker, in Plat. p. 364, mentionHeracleitUs's airfypipnuera; butthis is only a proof of their carelessness. The Heracleitean letterscannot possibly be considered genuine. Concerning a metrical version
of the Heracleitean doctrine, videVra,p. 21, 1. Whether Heracleitusreally deposited his work in thetemple of Artemis, as is stated inDiog. ix. 6 and elsewhere, cannot
be ascertained ; if he did, it couldnot be for the sake of secrecy, asTatian, C. Gr. c. 3, suggests. Norcan we suppose that his well-knownobscurity (cf. Lucret. i. 639), which
procured for him the title of ano-rnvbs among later writers (such asPseudo-Arist.. De Mundo, c. 5,
396 b, 20; Clem. Strom, v. 671,
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HERACLEITUS.
the ordinary mode of thought. Look where he will,
C), proceeded from discontent andmisanthropy (vide Theophrastus,ap. Diog. 6, and Luc. Vit. Auct.
14) ; or from a wish to conceal hisopinions (ride Diog. 6; Cic. N. D.i. 26, 74 ; iii. 14, 35 ; Divin. ii. 64,
133, &c). Against the latter view,vide Schleiermacher, p. 8 sqq. ;Krische, Forschumyeti, p. 59.Schuster says in its favour (p. 54,
72 sq., 75 sqq.) that Heracleitushad every reason to conceal opinions
which might have brought uponhim an indictment for atheism ;
but on the other hand it is noticeable that in his fragments thosejudgments on religious usages and
political conditions, which wouldhave given the most violent offence,are enunciated in the plainest andboldest manner possible (vide infra,
opinions of Heracleitus on ethicsand politics), while those propositions which are difficult to understand, on account of the obscurityof the language, are precisely those
which could in no way have endangered the philosopher, however
clearly he might have expressedthem. Not one of the ancients
asserts that Heracleitus was purposely obscure in his writings, in
order to avoid persecution. Thecause of his obscurity seems tohave lain partly in the difficulty ofphilosophic expositions at that
epoch, and partly in his own peculiar character. He clothed hisprofound intuitions in the most
pregnant, solemn, and for the mostpart, symbolical expressions possi
ble, because these suited him best,and seemed best to correspond with
the weight of his thoughts; andhe was too sparing of words andtoo little practised in the art of
composition to escape the am
biguity of syntactical arrangement,which whs noticed by Aristotle(Bia. iii. 5, 1407 b, 14; cf. I)e-metr. De Elocut. c. 192). He himself characterises his language as alanguage adapted to the subject,when in Fr. 39, 38 (ap. Plut. Pyth.
Orac. c. 6, 21, p. 397| 404 ; Clemens,Strom, i. 304 0. and pseudo-Iambi.De Myster. iii. 8, refer to the first
of these fragments, and not to somedifferent utterance, and pseudo-
Iambi, he Myster. iii. 15 to thesecond), according to the most pro
bable acceptation of these fragments (which Lucian, i.e., confirms),
he compares his discourses to theearnest and unadorned words of aninspired sybil, the oracular sayingsof the Delphic god. This oracular
tone of the Heraclitean utterancesmay be connected with the censure
of Aristotle (Eth. -V.vii. 4, U 46 b,29 : M. Mor. ii. 6, 1201 b. 6), whosays he had as much confidence in
his opinions as others had in theirknowledge. When results, merely,
without demonstration are to beset forth in a statuesque style, the
distinction between the several gradations of certainty can neither befelt nor represented. The confi
dence with which Heracleitus stated his convictions is seen, amongother examples, in the expression
(Fr. 137; Olympiod. Gory. 87vide .Talin's Jakrb. Suppl. xiv. 267 ;cf. Diog. ix. 16): Keyw tovto nal
napa Tlepfrp6yp &v. Vide also ivfra,where ' the one on whom he relies
more than on thousands,' is primarily himself. A remark attri
buted to Socrates on the difficultyof Heraeleitus's exposition is given
in Diog. ii. 22 ; ix. 11 sq. In Diog.ix. 15 sq., mention is also made of
some ancient commentators of He-
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HIS WORK.
nowhere can our philosopher find true knowledge.1The mass of men has no intelligence for eternal truth,though it is clear and obvious ; that which they dailyencounter, continues strange to them; whither their
own road leads is hidden from them ; what they dowhen they are awake, they forget, as if it were done
in sleep ; a the order of the world, glorious as it is,
absolute is exempt from all sensibleexistence, that it is the negative.'To me it seems more likely thatthe true meaning is this : ' Noneattains to understand that wisdomis separated from all things,' that
is, has to go its own way, divergingfrom general opinion. This doesnot contradict ineoBai r$ vvtl\ as
Schuster (p. 42) believes, for vybyis something different from the
opinion of the people. Schuster'*explanation, which is that of
Heinze (Lehre vom Logos, p. 32),' that wisdom is the portion ofnone,' as far as I can see, does not
harmonise any better with his conception of \vybv. In order to
decide with certainty as to thesense of the words, we should know
the connection in which they stand.2 Fr. 3, 4, ap. Arist. Rhrt. iii.5, 1407 b, 16; Sext. Math. vii.
132 (who both say that this wasthe beginning of Heracleitus's
work); Clem. S/rom. v. 602 D;Hippol. Re/ut. ix. 9 : toO \6yov
rovb" i6yros al. : tov 6yros ortoO Storms ; the latter, which isthe usual reading in our Aristote
lian text, is inadmissible, if onlyfor the reason that in that case the
oei cannot be connected with thepreceding context, whereas Aris
totle expressly remarks that wedo not know whether it belongs towhat goes before, or what followsit ; it seems to me Aristotle must
racleitus's work. Brandis (Gr.Rom. Phil. i. 154), with good reason, on account of other passages,Diog. vi. 19, and ix. 6, doubtswhether the Antisthenes here alluded to is the Socratic philosopher
(vide Schleiermacher, p. S), andLastalle makes the unfortunate
suggestion, i. 3, that in Eus. Fr. Ev.xv. 13, 6, Antisthenes the Socratic
is not colled 'HpaK\sa>Tui6s, butHpajcAeiTtitSs, tij aviip to
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HEUAVLEITUS.
nave read rovSc u>ros, and Hera-cleitus must have written: tovS'
46vtos or rovSe 46vr. aUl avvtTotylvovrai avQpunoi Kal irp6ofcv ?)
anuvaai Ka] atcovtrcwTts to ttdwtovyivofievav yap -xavrw Kara *rbv\6yov t6vSc aTnipoMTLv (so Bern.Mull. Schust. read) iotmurt irtipti-payoi iirio>v Kal tpyoav toiovtwv
6koIwv 4yii Snryevpai Kara, tpinrii/Siaip4
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IGNORANCE OF MANKIND. 9
for them does not exist.1 Truth seems to them incredible ; 2 they are deaf to it, even when it reaches
their ears ; 3 to the ass chaff is preferable to gold, andthe dog barks at everyone he does not know.4 Equally
incapable of hearing and speaking,5 their best coursewould be to conceal their ignorance.6 Irrational asthey are, they abide by the sayings of the poets and
or something of the kind], toCt'tan Kara tyt\bv koS6ti vaptik-tiQafiev.The words marked as a quotationI agree with Bernays, Rh. Mus.vii. 1 07, in regarding as cited from
Heracleitus, but manifestly only
fidOri rrjs yv&ijeus is an expression
which reminds us so strongly ofChristian language (cf. 1 Cor. ii.
10; Kcv. ii. 24; 1 Cor. viii. 1, 7 ;2 Cor. i. 5, and other passages),and partly because for the reasonsfrom memory, and therefore not already given, supra, p. 6. I can-
altogether literally. The words in not agree with Schuster, who, p. 72,Hippocr. x. Shut, i. 5 (if taken from finds in this fragment a recom-
Heracleitus) must belong to the mendation to guard against perse-same connection : koI t /ii? ir/>f}
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10 HERAL'LEITUS.
the opinions of the multitude without considering thatthe good are always few in number ; that the majoritylive out their lives like the beasts, only the best among
mortals preferring one thing, namely undying glory, toall besides ; ' and that one great man is worth more than
thousands of evil persons.2 Even those who have earnedthe fame of superior wisdom in most cases fare very
little better at the hands of Heracleitus. He sees in themfar more diversity of knowledge than real intelligence.
On Hesiod and Archilochus, on Pythagoras, Xenophanes
and Hecataeus, but above all, on Homer, he passed theseverest judgments ; 3 a few only of the so-called seven
wise men are treated by him with more respect.4 How-
1 Fr. 71, as this is restored byBernays, Hfracl. 32 sq. ; cf. Schus
ter, 68 sq. (in preference to Las-salle, ii. 303): from Priel. inAlii'), p. 255 ; Creuz. iii. 1 15, Cous. ;
Clem. Strom, v. 576 A : ti'j yapaitruiv [so. Ttov TroWuv'] v6os fi cppvi' ;oj/uti'i' auiSotni tirovTai Kal StSa-(TKaKcfi (1. -\wv) xptovrat d/jLiKu, oi/K
(tS6rti oti troKKol kclkoI oKiyoi Sea-yaSot. aiptovrat yap tv avrla irdV-ttov ol &pi
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FLUX OF ALL THINGS. 11
ever great then may be the differences between the
theory of Heracleitus and that of the Eleatics, they are
both equally opposed to the ordinary theory of the world.According to Heracleitus, the radical error in thepopular mode of presentation consists in its attributingto things a permanence of Being which does not belong
to them. The truth is that there is nothing fixed andpermanent in the world, but all is involved in constantchange,1 like a stream in which new waves are. continu
ally displacing their predecessors ; 2 and this means not
by Aleseus, ap. Diog. i. 76, canhardly be our philosopher.
1 Plato. Thcat. 160 D: koto. . . 'HpanKarov . . . olov fotli/xajaKtvcfaBat to wiyra. Ibid. 152 D
(inf. p. 18, 2); Crat. 401 1) : Kaff'Hpdic\(iTov ay yyoivro to uvra tivatre iravra Kal fiivfiv oi/tty. Ibid.
402 A : Xiyti irov 'Hpa^cA. ort irdvraJ(Wpti Kal OVOiV ^l'(, Kal norau'ivpur) aweiKafav ra tiyra \tyei &>s ols
is rbv avrbv itorafiOy oi/K ay tpfiatris.Ihid. 412 1) : rb -nay fjyat iviropt'ta.to . . . ToXii ai'Tuv . . . roiovrdv
ti rivai, olov oi/oiv aAAo i) xatpciv.Soph. 242 C sqq. ; vide inf. p. 33, 1 ;Arist. Mctaph. iv. 5, 1010 a, 13
(vide next note). Ibid. 1, 6, subinit. : tois 'HpaxKcireioLs Sdafr, i/s
enrdyrwy rwv alo-6-nrwv acl pt6vrtevKal 4-WKTT-tlfilJS TCpl avruiv Ot/K odo"TJ$.
Ibid. xiii. 4, 1078 b, 14: to7j 'Hpa-K\eir*tots \6yois its Trdrtey rayaio'&nrxy ati ptSvruy. De An. i. 2,405 a, 28 (after the quotation,
538, 2, 3) : iv KLiriad 5' cImu touvra KOKCiVof afro Kal oi iroA-\ol. Top. i. 11, 104 b, 21 : 8ridrra kivutm Ka$' 'HpaKKtirov.fhys. viii. 3, 253 b, 9 (infra, p.
15. 1); De Calo, iii. 1, 298 b, 29(inf. p. 21, 1). Also later writers,as Alex, in Top. p. 43; Schol. in
Arist. 259 b, 9 ; in Metaph. iv. 8,p. 298, 10 Bon.; Pseudo-Alex, in
Metaph. xiii. 4, 9, p. 717, 14, 765,12 Bon.; Amnion. De lnterpr.9;Schol. in Ar. 98 a, 37 ; Diog. ix.8; Lucian, V. Anct. 14; Sext.
Fi/rrh. iii. 115; Plut.. Piac. i. 23,6'; Stob. Eel. i. 396, 318. Thesame theory is presupposed LyEpicharmus, vide supra, vol. i.529 sq.
Plato, Crat. 402 A. vide previous note ; Plut. de Ei ap. D. c.
18: iroTautp yap oi/K i aiTtf> KaO' 'HpaKAeiTOf. oi
-
12 IIERACLEITU8.
merely that all individual existences are fleeting, but
that any continuance in the state of a thing is a delu
sion, as we are distinctly assured by Heracleitus himself,as well as by all our other authorities from Plato andAristotle onwards.1 Nothing remains what it is, every-
Aristotelian Stoic form of expression. The same expression is usedby Plut. de s. Num. find. e. 15, endp. 559; Qu. Nat. 2, 3, p. 912 ;
SimpL Pht/s. 17 a, m, 308 b;Plut. Qu. Nat. adds, trtpa )&/>
i-rttfrpti vSara ; more fully Clean-thes, ap. Eus. Pr. Ev. xvi. 20, 1 :
'HpctK\. . . . \tyw ouTwy TrOTapolffiroiffiv avroiffiv i)if&tuvovtTlv trfpa Kal
cripa vSara imtytl (thorest cannotbe regarded as Heracleitean). InHeracleitus, Alleg. horn. c. '-'4, p.
51, \lt:hl. we find: vorap.o'is TotyOUTOiS infialvofiiv T Kdl OVK ^Uj8a{-
vo\ktv, tljxivTt koX ovk (1/j.iv, whichmay be explained thus: 'We only
seem to descend into the sameriver, identical 'with itself; intruth, we do not descend into thesam, for during our descent it is
changing ; and so wo ourselves areand are not, because we also are
constantly changing ' (Schuster'sinterpretation, p. 88' we are in it,
and at the same time uo longer init,' is less satisfactory to me). The
words, however, likewise admit ofanother interpretation : ' In truth
we do not go down into the sameriver, and we are not the same(after I/*y we may supply oiouVol from the preceding context)as before.' Arist. Mctaph. iv. 5,
1010 a, 12, is in favour of thisinterpretation: (KpariAos) 'Hpa-
K.\tT$> lircrl/ia tlv6vri, on 51s ryavr$ TtoraixQ ovk toTtv ifjL&TJvai'alrros yap moo ott' Siraf; for if
Heracleitus had also said this,there was no reason for the censure.
So does Seneca, Ep. 58, 23 : Hocest, quod ait Heraclitut : ' in idemflumen bis descendimus et non de-
scendimus.' The latter pass-agemight be quoted in favour ofSchleiermacher's conjecture, I. c.
143. that in Heracloitus (Allcg.Horn. 1. c.) " Sis " should be inserted
after norapoh rots avruls ; but itseems to me more probable that the
'Aw' in Seneca is an explanatoryaddition taken from the famousproposition : ' We cannot descend
twice into the same river.' Schuster's restoration of the text of Heracleitus from the above quotations;p. 8C sqq.) is not at all clear tome. All the expressions here cited
need not necessarily be taken fromone and the same place.
1 Schuster, p. 201 sq., has been atmuch pains to prove that Heraclei
tus, in the sentences quoted above,merely intended to express the
thought ' that nothing in the worldescapes the final destruction.' Icaunot, however, satisfy myself thathis argument is really satisfactory.
In the first place, it may well bedoubted whether the original expression of the Heracleitean doc
trine (as he believes, vide p. 86),is to be found in the words TrdvraX"P" Kai oiSiv ntVet, Crat. 402 A
(vide the last note but one). It isnot altogether clear from this pas
sage whether these were actuallythe words of Heracleitus : it is alsovery improbable that, if they were,
he should not often have recurredto his original view; and in that
-
FLUX OF ALL THINGS. 1:3
thing passes into its opposite, all comes out of all ; all
is all. The day is sometimes longer, sometimes shorter ;
case we might conjecture that hewould not always have employedone and the same formula. Why
the expression adduced by Schustershould be more authentic than the
others that have been handeddown to us ; why the itivra Au>
which is mentioned by Aristotlethree times (Z)e Coelo, iii. 1, Metaph.
1, 6, and De An. i. 2, vide, infra,p. 22, 4) ; or the corresponding
passage, otov pevaara kivcutBcu raKama, which is quoted in Plato as
a saying of Heracleitus, Thetet. 160I), should not equally reproducehis own words ; why he should
have said lavra xaP**< an(J nt(according to Crat. 401 D) Mmuto xdWa Kal fitveir ovSlv, it does
not appear. Whatever expressionHeracleitus may have employed,
the chief question is, what hemeant by it. And he himself loaves
no doubt upon this point. Theriver, which lahitur et labetur inomne vclubilis avum, would havebeen a very inappropriate illustration of the proposition that all
things in time come to an end;but it is perfectly just in regard to
the constant change of things.This is clearly marked by Heracleitus as the point of comparison,
when he snys that we cannot godown twice into the same river.
Whether the river flowed on eternally, or at some time or othercame to an end, is, in reference tothis point, quite immaterial. But
even if tbe explanations of Heracleitus had been less equivocal
than they are, the opinion of thewriters who were acquainted with
his works, not as we know them,in small fragments, but in their
whole connection, would bedecisive.
These writers are unanimouslyagreed that he denied any perma
nent state of things. Schuster says(p. 207 sq.) that Plato was thefirst to ascribe this meaning toirivra ytwptTthat Aristotle followed his example, but betrayed
in Phys. viii. 3, that he had nothimself found a definite explanation
of the words in Heracleitus's work.For my part, I can charge neitherPlato nor Aristotle, nor even Plutarch, nor Alexander, who were
equally in possession of this muchread book, with so careless andsuperficial an account; and I do notsee what can justify us, even irrespectively of Heracleitus's own
assertions, in opposing their unanimous declarations with a theorywhich cannot bring forward a
single witness in its defence. Foreven Phys. viii, 3 proves nothing.Aristotle here says, 253 b, 9 :
-
14 HERACLEITUS.
and so is the night ; heatsun is at one period nearer
been correct ; viz., that Heracleitusdistinctly maintained tho perpetual
variation of things, and proved it(as we shall find) by many examples, bur, that he did not, likeAristotle, distinguish logically the
various kinds of change, and therefore in places where he announcedhis proposition in a general manner, he held to tho indeterminate
conception of the motion (or thoflux I nf all things, without explain
ing wherein this motion consisted;whether the place, or the size, orthe material constitution of things,or all these at once, were constantlychanging. In Plato, also, Timet.
181 B sqq., the proposition that,according to the Heracleitean doc
trine, iravra Trarrav Ktwrjtrw &eiKu-ftrai, everything is perpetually
changing its place as well as itsconstitution (is subject to a constant a\\olu(Tis as well as a -Ktpi-ph). is indeed declared to be the
proper sense of the doctrine, but insuch a manner that we can plainlysee that it was Plato who firstdiscriminated these two kinds of
motion. Schuster is of opinion thatto assume the perpetual changeof individuals would lead to thegreatest difficulties. If we suppose
that their shape is porpetuallychanging (which no one, so far asI know, ascribes to Heracleitus),this is contradicted by the continu
ance of the earth, sea, and sky, ofsouls after death, etc. If theyare constantly changing theirsulatance for some other sub
stance, this theory is compatibleneither with the period of the
world's conflagration, nor with thefollowing period in which all issea (vide infra. Her. Cosm.), nor
and moisture alternate ; theto us and at another farther
evon with the prosent cosmicalperiod ; it would only be in keep
ing with the idea that everythingis, at every moment, changing all
its old parts for new; that theworld is everymomenr. as by magic,disappearing and reappearing -
which we can hardly suppose tohave been the opinion of Heracleitus. But in order to refute theaccounts of his doctrine by theseconsequences, two things must, first
be demonstrated. First, thatHeracleitus, in case the accountsare correct, himself drew theseinferences ; and secondly, that hefound difficulty in them. Andneither of these two presupposi
tions can I admit. How do weknow that Heracleitus, if he heldthe perpetual transformation ofsubstances, regarded this transformation as taking place momentari 1 v,and not gradually, now quickly,and now slowly ? or that he ever
said to himself, ' If all is constantlychanging, this must be true of the
smallest particles of matter ? ' Howagain do we know that from his pointof view such an absolute transfor
mation of substances would seemunthinkable? Even on this presupposition, the apparent perma
nence of particular things, eventheir continuance till the end ofthe world, would bo perfectly explicable, if we also suppose that
what they lose on one side wouidbe made up to them on the other ;
which, according to p. 559 sq., 3rded., seems to have been actuallyHeracleitus's opinion. Cf. withthe preceding observations, Suse-
mihl, I. c. 725 sq. ; Siebeck, Ztschr.f. /'Ai'Uxvii.245sq. ; Teichmiiller,
New. Studien, l. 118 sqq. The
-
FLUX OF ALL THINGS. lo
away. The visible passes into the invisible, the in
visible again into the visible ; one thing takes theplace of another, or is lost by means of the other ; the
great is nourished by the small, the small by the great.From man, too, nature takes some parts, while at the
same time she gives him others ; she makes himgreater by giving to him, and less by taking away, and
both coincide.1 Day and night are the same ; that is,
irpbs tt&vto. KaX irdvra irpbs tKavrovravrb . . . xaP" W trivra (to! 6(Ta
Kal avBptinriva avw Kal Ki.ru afi(i$6-p-tva- VP1 *J itypirtl M rb ni-
khitov koI IxAxwrov . . . rvpbs(
-
l'J HERACLEITUS.
there is one essence which is now light,1 now dark ; 2lieneficial and destructive,3 upper and under,4 beginning
aySptiiruv so it is with the nature of man ; rb p.ev (nominative)
wtft'et. rb be e'AKti, rb p.*v blbuffi, rb5e Xaflfidvel, Kal rw fiev blbuffl, rui
[tow] be XaixQai/tL, Kal tw fievblbctMTi, rooovrtp k\4op (and that to
which it gives, becomes more by somuch), rav be kauPdvei, roookrtp
fieiov.1 Frag. 25, Hippol. Refut. ix.10: Tjfidpa yap, (pijtrl (sc. 'HpdK\.)tKal yv tnriv c, \eyuv wbe tos-btba.
-
FLUX OF ALL THINGS. 17
and end.1 Mortal and immortal 2 are the same. Sicknessand health, hunger and satiety, labour and refreshment
are alike ; the Deity is day and night, summer and
winter, war and peace, plenty and want ; all is one, allbecomes all.3 From the living comes death, and from
the dead life, from the young old age, and from the oldyouth ; from the waking, sleep, and from the sleeping,
wakefulness. The stream of generation and destruction never stands still ; the clay out of which things
are made is for ever being moulded into new forms.4
under, and vice versa ; upper andlower are consequently the sameessence. Meantime it is a question
whether the words Kal rb &va> . . .rb abrb belong to Herncleittis, ormerely contain an inference drawnby the author from ' iSbs &vo> ' &c.)
bibs avb! xdru filrj Kal uvrij. Weshall have more to say on this subject further on.
1 Fr. 58 ; Porphyr. in Schol.Ven. in 11. xiv. 200 : tyvbv apxhKal nepas
-
IH IIERACLEITUS.
jAll life and consciousness of life ! is founded on this| constant motion, which alone constitutes the existence
1 of things ; nothing is this or that, but becomes what
ever it is, in the movement of the life of nature ; thingsare not to be conceived as permanent, and finished once
for all ; they are continually being reproduced 2 in the
in all probability also that whichis said of the stream of Becomingand decay, of light and Hadesis
chiefly borrowed from the samesource. As to the meaning of thosewords, Plutarch says : ' Heracleitus
declares the living to be identicalwith the dead, the waking with thedeeping, &c, because both passinto one another (for as the livingbecomes dead when it dies, so the
dead becomes living when theliving feeds upon it ; as the youngbecomes old through the lapse ofyears, so the old becomes young bythe propagation of the species),and it car.not be urged that this
was too trivial for the profoundphilosopher (Lassalle, i. 160); for
in the first place the thought thatiu a certain sense the dead againbecomes the living, and the old.
young, was sufficiently remote fromthe ordinary presentation, and
secondly, the inference would bein any case peculiar to Heracleitus,
that consequently the living andthe dead are one and the same.In themselves, however, the words
might likewise signify : the livingis at the tame time dead, and viceversa, because the living only arose
from the destruction of a previousexistence ; and the dead is undergoing the transition to that oxistence ;waking is sleeping, and sleepingwaking ; because in waking all thepowers are not in full activity, and
in sleep they are not all at rest ;
youth is age, because it only arisesfrom that which has long been in
existence ; and age is youth, because it only consists in constant
renewal ; and even the more abstract expressions that life is at thesame time death, &c, allow of justification (cf. Plut. De Ki. ap. 1)
c. 1 8, p. 392). The unity of deathand life is referred to in Fr. 139(Ett/mol. Magn. v. Bias; Eustath.
in II. p. 31, 6) : t$ ovv &lai uvo.uafiiv Bios ipyov 8e Bdvaros.
' Hence the statements in Plac.i. 23 : 'Hp. yptuiav itai trrdffiy 4ktwc oKwvaytfper (an yap touto ruy
vtKpwv. Iambi, ap. Stob. i. 906 :to uec toTs axnois 4wtij.tyeiv Ka.aa.Toif
ilvai to 5e fi(Ta$d\\tv ip4peiy kvd-vaaatv. Numtn. ap. Porph, Antr.
Nymph, c. 10 : 88er ko\ 'rlp&KXtiros{-Of) *I/V)(T 4pwKai p.aK' ov $av\oy \6yov us apa %v
aiy auTO KaB' ainb ovtidv 4(rriv, oi/o"&v rt Trpofftivois bp6us ou5' oiroiovof'*'ti, aAX* 4av its /xe^o irpoo'ayopfvTjs,
real fftxiKpbv (pai'urai. Hal cav Bapv,Koixpov, {'U.navr6. tc oStois, ws utjSc-
vbs vyros 4vbs jutVtc riybs fiJir* Stoio-yovv 4k 8 87) (papas tc koI KitrftaeusKal Kpdtrtws vpts aAATiXa yiyveratTrdvra a 5/j
-
FLUX OF ALL THINGS. 10
flux of phenomena by means of active forces ; theymerely mark the points where the opposing streams of
natural life cross each other.1 Heracleitus thereforelikens the world to a mixture which must continually
be stirred that it may not decompose,2 and the world-creating power he compares to a child who, in play,draws his pebbles this way and that.3 While, there-/
fore, Parmenides denies Becoming, in order to maintain!the conception of Being in its purity, Heracleitus denies
E : avibp-tv Kttff avrb U7j5ef elvai . . .iv ok tt] irpbs &\\T]\a dfjtiKia vdtnayiyvtoQai Ka\ lrayroTo awb rrjs Kiin\-
ceais . . , oi$\v tivai %v airb Kaffavrb aAXa rivl ol ylyvto-8ai, rb 8'
ttvai TavraxAQty ifaiperiov. In thofirst of these passages, this opinionis generally ascribed to all the an
cient philosophers, except Parmo-nides.aud especially to Heracleitus.
Kmpedoclcs, and Protagoras; anlthe riyl is only applicable to Protagoras. However, it has alreadybeen proved, and we shall see, fur
ther on, thit the words quotedcorrectly represent the doctrine ofHeracleitus.
1 Further details hereafter. Fr. 85 ; Theophr. De Vcrtig.
9, p. 138 ; Wimm. : ti tt /d> (thisis no doubt correct ; Bernays,Heracl. 7, reads : Si)), naSiirfp
kHpa.K\arAs (fnjcn, Kat b kvkcwv iita-
totoi uh mi.ovij.tvos (thus Wimmerreads, following Usener and Bern. ;
the older editions leave out /i^,which, however, in spite of Las-salle, i. 75, is decidedly requiredby the context. Cf. Lucian, Vit.Auct. 14: tu-xtZov odb'lv, a.\\a kus
it KuKtHova Tama ffwtiXiovrai, Haliffrt ruvrb rtptyu aTtptylij, yvaffisayvteffli). uiya uucpdv, avu tcarta vept-Xuptoyra xal afiti$6fitva iv rjj tup
axuvot iraiSijj. The anecdoteinPlut.Garrulit. c. 17,P- 511, can scarcelyhave any connection with this doctrine. The kvk*&>v of Heracleitusis mentioned by Chrysippus, ap.
Philodem. Nat. De. Col. vii. ; according to Petersen's emendation,to which, however, Sauppe prefersanother and simpler version. Epicurus, ap. Diog. x. 8, calls Heracleitus a KWOJT^J.
Prod, in Tim. 101 F: i\\oi
ii not rbv foiiXLOvpybv iv rw ttoffiiavp-yuv wai^tiv elpiiKao-i, Ka9dtrtp ' Hpa-
k\(itoj. Clem. Patdag. i. 90 C :Toiavrriv rtva val^eiv iraiitav rbv
iaxnov Am *Hpct*fAiTos \tyet. Fr.49 ; Hippol. Refut. ix. 9 : al&iv iralsitrrt *aiuv. jrtTTva>v ' trattibs tj/3a
-
20 HERACLEITUS.
( Being that he may maintain in full force the law ofBecoming ; while Parmenides declares that the notion
of change and of movement is merely a delusion of thesenses, Heracleitus asserts the same of the notion of
permanent Being ; while Parmenides regards the ordinary mode of thought as erroneous in principle because
it assumes generation and destruction, Heracleitus comes
to a similar conclusion precisely for the opposite reason.But the metaphysical proposition that all things
are in a continual flux becomes with Heracleitus aphysical intuition. The living and moving element in
nature seems to him to be fire ; if all things are con
ceived in perpetual motion and change, it follows that
all things are fire. This second proposition does notseem to have been developed from the first by consciousreflection, but the law of change which he everywhere
perceives, presents itself to him through the directaction of the imagination under this symbolical
aspect, the more general import of which he cannottherefore separate in his own consciousness from the
sensible form in which it is contained. In this way wemust understand the assertion ' that Heracleitus held
1 Arist. De Coelo, iii. 1, 298 b, do-Alex, on Metaph.xu. 1, p. 643,29: of Si tA pev SAAo irima ylvea- 18 Bon.: 6 p.iv yap 'Hp&K\tiTosBat r( 4>a
-
THE PRIMITIVE FIRE. 21
fire to be the first element, the principle or primitivematter of all things.1 ' This world,' he says, ' the same
for all, has been made neither by one of the gods nor
by any man ; but was, and is, and shall be, an ever living
by Simpl. Phys. Ill b, containsmuch that is truly Heracleitean.
For, after Simplicius has givenas the doctrine of Heracleitus,
(V ITVp&f TCfTCtpCLiTfjLfVOV TTOLVTa fJfCU
*cal tis rovro xdVra kvaKvtaBau,he afterwards says: 'HpoKAwroj
" ti tip" Kiynr "koX in tupis t4T&rra." As these words are made
into a hexameter in Stobsus. andas we elsewhere (ap. Proc in Tim.
36 C; Plut. Viae. ii. 21; Qu. Plat.viii. 4, 9, p. 1007; cf. also thervpit aiioif)i)v, infra, p. 27, 1) meot
with fragments of verse bearingHeracleitus's name, we may suppose tb.it there was a version of
his doctrine, made in hexametersto assist the memory, which probably emanated from the Stoics.Schuster, p. 354, conjectures theauthor of it to have been Scythi-
nus, who, according to Hieronymus,ap. Diog. ix. 1G, rendered the work
of Heracleitus. into verse ; aud refers to versified fragments in Stub.
i. 26.1 On this Teichmiiller remarks(N. Stud. i. 118 sq., and similarly, p. 133, 143 sq.. although hequotes my very words, from ' The
metaphysical proposition ') : ' According to this, therefore, Hora-cleitus first discovered the meta
physical truth, and then made thededuction, which depends upon theobservation of things.' I really
thought I had said the contrarysufficiently clearly to have been
safe from sueh a misrepresentationof my opinion. Even the ' meta
physical ' proposition is obviously
not to be understood as an d priorione; I am speaking of the law ofchange, which Heracleitus everywhere perceived, and I have shown,
p. 13 sq., on what kind of perceptions the philosopher based his pro
position. I derive the propositionfrom observation, and expresslyremark that it did not precede the
assertion ' All is fire ' in the consciousness of Heracleitus. I cer
tainly do not suppose, however, inregard to this fire, that Heracleituswas thinking merely of the actual
fire that ' we see, and hear crackling,' etc. ; nor that any man everthought that the whole world hadbeen and would be again such avisible crackling fire ; nay more,
that it was so always, even at thepresent time. Heracleitus says of
the world, not only ijr *al Iztoi, buttjv if 1 Kal tfTTi Hal tiTTai tvp atlfaov.
Consequently, I cannot but thinkthat this view is symbolical. That
fire was to Heracleitus ' only a symbol for the law of change,' I neversaid, but it is imputed to me byTeichmiiller, who naively quotesthe very words which refute him
(' Heracleitus did not separate themore general meaning of this con
ception from its sensible form'),as evidence. But if Heracleitus, in
asserting the world to be fire, didnot mean to assert the absurditythat it was visible fire, the con
ception of fire must have had asignification with him, transcend
ing its directly sensible content;that is to say, it was a symbolicalconception.
-
L'L> IIERAC'LEITUS.
fire, kindled and extinguished in due measure : ' ' fire,never resting, rules in all.2 He thus indicates his
reason for calling the world a fire ; it was, as Simplicius 3and Aristotle 4 observe, in order to express the absolute
1 Fr. 46 (Clemens Strom, v.599 B. Plut. An. Pr. 5, 2, p. 1014 ;Simp]. Dc Cafo 132 b, 31, 19;
Schol. in Arist. 487 b, 46, 33):ic6fffxov rbvSf rbv avrbv awdvrtiivodrt tls Bfav otrre hvBpumwv 4iroi-
T)trw dXV %v acl nal torai, irvpaei^tudc, airr6p.evoy fitrpa teal airo-afitvvifuvov perpa. To the latterdefinition I shall presently recur.The words rbv ainbv awdvrav aboutwhich Sculeiermacher (p. 91) is
uncertain, I consider genuine, onaccount of their very difficulty,
though they are wanting in Plutarch and Simplicius ; the andrruv,
I refer, as masculine, to the godsand men, so that the words wouldindicate the reason why none ofthese can hare made tie world ;namely, because they all, as partsof the world, are contained in it.Lassalle, ii. 56 sq., says : ' the oneand same out of all things, thatwhich, springing from all, is internally identical ; ' but the forceof this explanation is not clear.
That the world is the same forall, Heracleitus remarks also ap.
Plut. lh Supcrst. 3, vide inf. chapter on Her. Anthrop. We need notenquire with Schuster (p. 128), whosupposed the world to have beencreated by a man, nor need we, withTeichmiiller, N. Stud. i. 86, answerthe question by a reference to theOriental apotheosis of princes (theywere not so foolish in Egypt or
Persia as to regard a favouriteprince as the creator of the world).
' No god and no man ' means, ashas already been observed, vol. i.,
p. 559, l,no one absolutely. To theGreeks of the time of Heracleitus,indeed, the notion that the worldwas made by one of the gods wouldhave been scarcely less strange thanthe idea that a man made it. Theeternity here ascribed to the world
by Heracleitus does not contradictthe assertion of Aristotle that allhis predecossors considered theworld as become, or created : thishas already been pointed out, vol.i. p. 440, 1 ; 670 ; cf. also infra,Her. Cosm.
' Fr. 68; Hippol. liefut. ix. in :to Si Ttdvra oiaKlfai K*pavr6s. 11 i]>-pocr. it. 8io(T. i. 1 0, end (vide infra,
p. 27, note). We meet with (hosame world-ruling fire, also underthe name of Ktpavvbs, in the hymnof Oleanthes (Stob. Eel. i. 30), verse
7 sq. where that Stoic, who we findfrom other indications especiallyresembled Heracleitus, exalts Zeusas ' He that holds in his hands theo el {uiovra Kfpawbv ( 1 h e nvp de Ifaov) :$ trit HarevGuvas Kuivbv Kuyov, ts Sia
Ttdvrwv
-
THE PRIMITIVE FIRE. L'.'I
:\
life of nature, and to make the restless alternation ofphenomena comprehensible. Fire is not to him anunvarying substance, out of which things derived
were compounded, but which in this union remains
qualitatively unchanged, like the elements of Empedocles or the primitive substances of Anaxagoras ; it isthe essence which ceaselessly passes into all elements,
the universal nourishing matter which, in its eternalcirculation, permeates all parts of the cosmos, assumes
in each a different constitution, produces individualexistences, and again resolves itself ; and by its absolute motion causes the restless beating of the pulse
of nature. By fire, the fire-flash o'r lightning,1 Hera- Vcleitus understood not merely visible fire, but heat in J
ri\\a ji s jififia. Ve Vita et m.c. 5, 470 a, 3 : t6 Si -nvp at! Sia-
tcAci yivoficvov Kal frtov titrirep xo-rapis. Similarly Theophr. Fr. 3
(De Igne), 3.1 The Ktpawbs has already comebefore us, p. 22, 2, in a connection
in which it can only signify fire asthe creative principle of the world,and not merely lightning in the
special sense. rpritrrtip, however,has doubtless the same general(significance in Fr. 47 ; Clemens,
Strom, v. 599 C : xvpbs Tporalrporoy DaKaaaa 0aAd
-
24 HERACLEITUS.
general, the warm matter, or dry vapours, according to
the language of later writers ; ' and for this reasonhe even substituted for fire the breath, the ifrvxv* per
haps also aether.3 But it would imply a misconception1 Aristotle expressly says thisin the passage we have just been
discussing. Cf. also Fr. 89 ap.Clem. Strom, vi. 624 D; PhiloMem. Mundi, 958 C (cf. Prod.
in Tim. 36 ; Julian Orat. V.
1 When Aristotle /. c. (videprevious note)saysthat[Heracleitus
sought the soul in the &.va8vfiicuris,i $s rSXXc trwiffTTiffiv, it is plainthat this avaBvpSati is cannot beseparated from the irDp which is
elsewhere declared to be Hera-cleitus's primitive matter. Schuster
thinks (p. 162) it is useless to on-quire whether Aristotle meant the
same thing by the two words ; tome there seems no reason to doubt
so clear an expression. If, in oneplaee fire, and in another the awi-
(huia
-
THE PRIMITIVE FIRE. 25
of his whole system to say, as Aenesideimw4ioes, that
he supposed all things to consist of warm air. In
accordance with this larger import of the word,
Heracleitus says of his fire, that it is never destroyed,2Heracleitus, and which (even in
Heracl. Alleg. Horn. c. 26) does notabsolutely coincide with the dis
tinction said to have been made byour philosopher between aether and
fire. He thinks that the apathy ofaether (ps.-Censorinus, /. c.) whichcontradicts the Stoic doctrine, musthave been taken from Heracleitus,whereas it is far more likely thatits source is Aristotle's Physics(vide Part n. b, 331, 2nd ed.) from
which we must also derive theconceptions of Ocellus, 2, 23, andthe spurious fragments of Philolaus(Lassalle, however, considers themauthentic), which were discussed
vol. i. 399, 1 ; cf. 1. c. p. 358.1 Ap. Sext. Math. X. 233 ; ix.360: cf. Tertull. De An. c. 9, 14 ;Part m. b, 23 sq.
1 Fr. 06, Clem. Paedag. ii. 196C : to fib Svyov irs 6.V rts \A8oi ;that the subject of Svyoy is *up or'o one can
hide himself from the divine fire,even when the all-seeing Helios
has set.' The tij is also defendedby Lassalle, ii. 28 (who pertinently
reminds us of Cornut. JV. Deor. 11,p. 35); Schuster, p. 184; andTeichmiiller, N. Stud. i. 184.
Schuster, however, refers it toHelios, who obeys the laws whichare inherent in fire; but with thisI cannot agree.
tions) much later than Aristotle.The further supposition (Lass. ii.
89 sq.) that aether was the highestcreative principle of Heracleitus,
and that he held three stages offire, in which it manifested itselfmore or less purely, viz. aether,
xDp, and xfmmTip, has no realfoundation, though its author hastaken much pains to prove it.
Lassalle thinks that this theoryalone can explain the assertion of
Aenesidemus, that air is the firstprinciple of Heracleitus ; but Ihave shown (Part m. b, 23 sq.,2nd ed.) that we do not require itfor this purpose. He also urgesthat in Ambrosius Hexaem. i. 6 T.,
1, 8 Maur., and also in Ps.-Censorinus Ft. 1,4, in the enumeration
of the elements, air (which can onlyhave come there by a confusionwith aether), and not fire, takesthe highest place, as if that enu
meration were necessarily according to a strict order, and as if
Censorinus had not immediatelyafter remarked : the Stoics placeaether above air ; and below air,
water. He lays great stress onthe quotation, I. c. [mvndus constat] quattuor elementis, terra, aqua,
igne, acre, cujus principalem solemguidam jmtaut, ut Cleanthcs ; but
cuius does not refer, as Lassallesupposes, to air, but to mundus;for Cleanthes regarded the sun asthe rtyi/ioyiKby tou Koauov (videPart in. a, 125, 1, 2nd ed.). He
relies on the Stoical discriminationof aethereal and common fire, inregard to which it is a questionwhether it was borrowed from
/
-
20 HERACLEITUS.
that it is not like sunlight connected with a particularand therefore changing phenomenon, but is the univer
sal essence, which is contained in all things as their
substance.' We must not, however, reduce it on that
account to a metaphysical abstraction, as Lassalle does.I When Heracleitus speaks of fire, he is not thinking'merely of 'the idea of Becoming as such,' 'the unity
in process (processireade Einheit) of Being and non-Being,' &c. ; 2 there is not a word to imply that hemeans only the ' ideal logical entity of fire,' and not the
definite substance perceived in the sensation of heat, orthat fire, as a principle, is absolute, immaterial, anddifferent from every kind of material fire.3 His own
1 Cf. Plato, Crat. 412 C sqq.,who, in his playful etymology of
hiKcuor, probably borrowed fromHeracleitus, proceeds quite in thestyle of Heracleitus when he says,
SVoi yb.p riyovvrtu rb xav elvcu ivroptla, rb fttv -ro\u ainov uTroKaa-f&ayouffi rotovTOv ri cfrcu, otov ouSir&K\o ti xp'''. 8'
-
THE PRIMITIVE FIRE. L>7
utterances, on the contrary, as well as the statements ofancient writers, leave no doubt that it was fire as a
definite substance in which he sought the principle and
essence of all things.
The primitive fire, however, changes into the mostvarious forms, and this, its transmutation, is the produc
tion of things derived. All things, says Heracleitus,
are exchanged for fire, and fire for all things, as wares
for gold, and gold for wares ; ' and herein he gives us topassages of the Cralylus ; but the those Heracleitean philosophers say
Sfpubv (v Ttf irvpi ivbv, even if it of *vp or Siptioy. Lassalle, ii. 22,really corresponds with Heraclei- thinks he has found the true doc-
tns's opinion, is not immaterial, trine of Heracleitus in Marc. Ca-bnt only the same matter whichcommunicates its heating power tofire ; and if it be urged that some
explain Sixatov, like Anaxagoras,from vovs, this explanation does
not relate ti fire but to the Siftoior,and it is not derived from Heracleitus but from Anaxagoras. Lassallefurther supports his view by refe
rence to two passages in Ps. Hip-pocr. t. Stair, i. 10, and De Cam.i. 425 K. And the thoughts there
expressed have certainly a Heracleitean stamp, for iu the first pas
sage, primarily in regard to man, itis said of the 9tp\ilna-rov ml l
-
28 HERACLEITUS.
j understand that the derived arises out of the primitive
I matter, not merely by combination and separation, butby transformation, by qualitative change ; for in the
' barter of wares for gold, the substance does not remain,but only the worth of it. Any other conception would
be altogether irreconcileable with the fundamental doctrine of this philosopher concerning the flux of all
things. It is, therefore, decidedly untrue to assert, like
some of our authorities, that, according to Heracleitus,
things are formed by means of the union and separationof substances,1 if this is intended in the sense given to
such expressions by Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and De-mocritus. But such language is also inaccurate and misleading if we understand by it, as some have done,2 that
p. 388 : irvpAs r' avrap.ufiio-aiwdVra, (p-qirlv 6 ^peEfcAeiTOy, ital trvp
UTOLfTWlf, UMTTTtp XpOffOV XP^/iOTO Kal
Xpvuarav xpwo1*- Heracl. Alleg.Homer, c. 43, p. 92, therefore says :nvpbs yap tij. koto ibv QvaiKOV
'HpaKhtiroy, afioififi to nivra yivt-ran. Similarly Simpl. Phys. 6 a,
and Diog. ix. 8 : irvphs o/joi/SV tojraVra, also Eus. Pr. Ev. xiv. 3, 6:auoi^jjc yap (Tri/p&s) tivai to Ttdma.
1 Aristotle is not among these ;lie says indeed in Metaph. i. 8, 988
b, 34 : tj; fiiy -yap tw $6*,(if otoi-X'twScVTOToc ftvai vdirrtjov 1% o\iylyvovrat avyKpltrci irp&rov, toiov-
tov 5e to fuKpofupiffrarov ko! Air-t
-
FIRE AND ITS TRANSFORMATION. 29
Heracleitus believed things to arise out of fire by condensation and rarefaction, and to resolve themselves into
fire again.1 It is undeniable that when fire passes into
moisture, and moisture into earth, condensation takesplace, and, in the. opposite case, rarefaction. But from
Heracleitus' point of view, rarefaction and condensation
were not the cause but the consequence of the changeof substance ; as he represents the process, it is not thatthe closer juxtaposition of the fiery atoms makes mois
ture arise out of fire, and solid earthy particles out ofmoisture ; but, on the contrary, that from the rarer
element is produced a denser, since fire is changed intomoisture, and moisture into earth ; and that conse
quently in order to reproduce fire out of the other
substances, not merely a decomposition of their primi-
fixWirrrn (Auaximenes and Diogenes) ftal r$ pxi\\of nal t\ttov
(Platol. It would, however,follownot that Heracleitus regarded thederived as arising from rarefactionand condensation, but only fromthe development of opposites fromthe primitive matter; and this isquite correct. Only the later
writers ascribe to him rarefactionand condensation. Thus in Diog.
IX. b sq. : rvpds auoiBv" t& wdura,apaiu&ei Hal Tvuvuirti yiv6/x(ya
. . . wKyoifxtvov yap rb nvp i^vy-paivtadai avvi
-
30 HERACLEITUS.
tive constituents, but an- entire transformation, aqualitative change of the parts, as well as of the whole,
is necessary. The language he uses to describe thepassage of one element into another shows this clearly
enough, for, instead of rarefaction and condensation, ofthe union and separation of substances, we read .only of
transmutation, of the extinction and kindling of fire,of the life and death of the elements ; ' terms which
are employed by no other natural philosopher. Butthe most decisive argument is that any theory, which
assumes a primitive matter of unchangeable quality,would be inconsistent with the fundamental principles
of Heracleitus. Fire with him means something en-I tirely different from the elements of the early physicists ;
the elements are that which, amidst the change of
particular, things, remains unchangeable; the fire ofHeracleitus is that which by means of constant trans
mutation produces this change.2
1 It follows then from the flux of all things thateverything, without exception, unites in itself opposite
qualities. Each change is a transition from one condi
tion to the opposite condition ; 3 if everything changes
1
-
FIRE AND STRIFE. 31
and only exists in this mutation, things are but a
middle-term between opposites ; and whatever point wemay seize in the flux of Becoming, we have only a
point of transition and limit, in which antagonisticqualities and conditions encounter one another. While,therefore, all things, according to Heracleitus, are per
petually involved in transmutation, everything has at Ievery moment opposite principles in itself; it is and itis not ; and we can predicate nothing of a thing the
opposite of which does not equally and simultaneouslybelong to it.1 The whole life of nature is a ceaseless
alternation of opposite conditions and phenomena, and
each particular thing is, or rather becomes, that whichit is, only through the perpetual emergence of the opposites midway between which it stands.2 Or, as this is ex-
tb.9 previous state, because a partof the previous characteristics havebeen exchanged for such as couldnot coexist in the same subject and
in the same relation ; and suchcharacteristics we call opposites.
Every difference leads hack topartial opposition, and everychange fluctuates between two con
ditions, which, when conceived ina perfectly definite manner, excludeone another.
1 Cf. besides what is said on p.1 1 sq., the statement of Aenesi-dcmus, ap. Sext. Purrh. i. 210:
'The sceptics say tint the oppositeappears in all things, the Heraclei-teans, that it actually belongs toall things;' and the correspondingstatement of Sextus himself, ibid.ii. 59, 63 : Gorgias teaches pritivtlyeu : Heracleitus, Tcdra thai (thatis to say, everything is all) ; De-mocritus teaches that honey is nei
ther sweet nor bitter. Heracleitusthat it is sweet and bitter at once.
Cf. Diog. ix. 7 sq. : irdyra re
yiveaSai xafl' (luaf.uti'jjn xal Sia tt)sivavTiorponTJs r)pu.6(r9ai to uvra. . . ylvarBai re trdvra Kar* Ivav-Ti
-
HERACLEITUS.
pressed by Heracleitus : All arises from division ; strife' is the father and lord of all things, the law and order of
the world ; ' the unlike is joined together,2 high and deep
nostra mutuality sententias decern-
trariis. odditis immensis atquelabo-riosis argumentis. The last 'wordswould imply that Heracleitus, like
the Pseudo-Hippocrates (vide supra, p. 16, 1), had proved his
doctrine of oppesites by numerousexamples.
1 ^V. 75 ; Hippol. liefut. ix.9 : irdKffXos iravrw p.iv iraTT/p loriniiiTUDV Si /SairiAei'S, Kal tovs p.iv
8tovs 5ei rout Si avBp&novs, roi/sp.iv SovKovs itroitidf robs Si lK*u64-povs. Philodem. ir. Eucrt/Scias Col.
7- Chrysippus said. Zeus and theit6htp.os are the same, as Hera
cleitus also taught, vide supra, p.17, 2 ; Pint, De Is. c. 48, p. 370 :'HpetaAfiTos p.iv yap avriKpvs iroAe-H.0V ovopdfai iraTtpa Kal jSatriAca Kalitvpiov lrAmwv. Procl. in Tim.
64 A : 'Hp. . . . t\tyf ir6\(fiostotJjp irivruw . Fr. 77 : Orig. c.
Cels. vi. 42 : ei Si XP^I T0V tfatpAV46vto. %wbv Kal AIkt\i> lp*ir, Kalyiv6fjLfva irama kot' ipiv Kal XP*-
fiti'a, where Schleiermachor's readings, elSivai for tl Si aud tpiv foripiiv, are less bold than he himselfsupposes. I am not more certainthan he is about beginning with
Xptdpuva, for Lassalle's interpretation (i. 115 sq ), 'bestir themselves,' cannot be proved to be
Greek ; Brandis's au^ipava doesnot seem to me like Heracleitus.Schuster's conjecture, p. 199, appears preferable, Karaxpfiinwa,
'applying themselves to.' Aristotle(vide next note) confirms thewords yiv6ntva, &c. Hence thecensure of Homer, ap. Eudom. Eth.vii. 1, 1235 a, 25 : ol 'HpaKAcirott7TiT(^u t VOfflVCWTl " its (pit (K
re Qtiav tcaX avQputirwv airtJAoiTO." ovyap av elvou apuovlav uj) Svros d4os
koI fSapeos, oitSi to fcjja ivtv 8i)\tosKal afiptvos dvavriwp Syraay. Thesame is related by Plutarch, /. c.
(on which cf. Schuster, p. 197 sq.) :Chalcid. in Tim. c. 295; Schot.
Venet. z. II. xviii. 107 ; Simpl. inCateg. Scltol. in Ar. 88 b, 30, who,in making good this censure, oixii-ffwrdat yip
-
STRIFE. 3-1
must unite, in order that a concord, male and female,a new life, may be produced.1 What separates, uniteswith itself2: the structure of the world rests upon
opposite tension, like that of the bow and the lyre ; 3
ipyitorrai, etc., and Alexander,Aphrod. ap. David Schol. in Arist.81b, 33, who explains the natureof the i-irriKflfiffa in the A
-
34 HERACLEITUS.
whole and divided, congruous and incongruous, accordant and discordant, must unite in order that from all
same, De Tranqu. An. c. 15. p.473, while on the other hand weread. De An. Procr. 27, 2. p. 1026 :
'HpaKAeiTos 5e iraKlvTpoTrov apuo~Vi-f)V KiKTUOV OKtiHTITtp KipVS KOl
Tdjou. Simpl. P/it/s. 11 a: islHpdK\eiTus rb aya6bv ko! rb Kaxbv
ii rainbv \iyaiv ffvvUvat SIk^vt6^ovkoI A upas. Porphyry, Antr. Nymph.c. 29 : Kai 5ia toCto iroXivrovoy ^
apuovla Kai (al. ^) to|u Si' ivar-t(wc. The text, however, is here
no doubt corrupt ; Lassalle (i. 96sq., 112) takes 'shoot through as
synonymous with penetrate ' ; but
this seems to me impi&sible, and Ican credit neither Porphyry nor
Heracleitus with so monstrous animage as a harmony shooting witha bow. Schleiermacher. p. 70, conjectures instead of to4v(i : t6ov,
6i ; so that the meaning would be :' And therefore Harmony is calleda " strained back " harmony and aharmony of the bow because it is
brought about by contradictions.'In this case we should have expected, instead of ft 8i' iv, 8ti 8.t. i. Perhaps some words have
been lost, and Porphyry may harewritten k. 8. t. Tra\lvrpovos ijappiovla noaaov us \6pas Kai t6ov,
in 8. iv, or, as Schuster moresimply proposes (page 231) napuovla Kvpas Kai t6$oo efrrep 8i*
iv. The meaning of this expression ha* always been a difficulty,even in ancient times. If. accord
ing to the precedent of Plato'sEryximachus and of Plutarch, theapuovlr\ Kipits were understood ofthe harmony of tones, there wouldbe no corresponding meaning forthe appoviri t6ov, and if theapuorlri T
-
STRIFE. 35
one may come, as all come from one.1 In a word, thewhole world is ruled by the law of opposition.
cleitus has reference not to theform, but to the force of the bow
and of the lyre. ' As the two con-flictingmoments of the extinguishedand re-kindled fire condition the
phenomenon, so the strainingapart of the arms of the bow and
lyre conditions the tension ' (p.16). This conception also is compatible with the words, and cm-
tains a suitable sense. Lassalle,i. 105 sqq., opposes Bernays,but the ground on which he doesso appears to me not very impor
tant, and two of the passages towhich he refers, Apul. Be Jifiindo,c. 21, and Iambi, ap. Stob. Fhril.
81, 17, have nothing to do withthe question. The statement of
Porphyry (noticed above), evenwere the text of it in order, couldequally prove nothing. Synes. Be
Insomn. 133 A, compares the harmony of the world with that of the
lyre, and explains the latter by theharmony of tones : which makes itprobable, indeed, that in his explanation of Heracloitus's words
he is following Plato, but cannotaffect our judgment concerning
Heracleitus's own opinion. Lassalle himself understands our viewas ' a harmony of the lyre with the
bow' (p. 111). He observes(p. 113), ' Ber Bogen sei die Seitedes Hervorfliessene der Einzellieitund somit der Unterschiede ; dieLeyer die rich zur Einheit ordnendeBewefjutifl dertelben. The bow isthe side whence flows forth singu
larity, and therefore differences,the lyre is the movement which reduces them to order: an allegory
of which, indeed, no Neo-Platonistneed be ashamed, but which the
most skilful commentator wouldfind it impossible to harmonise
with Heracleitus's words. Theharmony of the world is, indeed,compared to that of the lyre and
the bow, which must, therefore, besomething known and given in experience, the point of the compari
son lies in the ira\lvrovos or vaKlv-Tpoiros ; but where is the mention
of a harmony of the lyre with thebow ; and what, on the other hand,are we to understand by the antitypea harmony of differences,changing into its opposite ?
' Fr. 98 ; Arist. he Mundo. c.5, 396 b, 19 : trvvityfias oi\a [km ]
ov^l oijut, tTvfx
-
36 HERACLEITUS.
On account of these statements Heracleitus is censured by Aristotle and his commentators for denying the
law of contradictories.1 Later writers on the other hand
maintain that it is his merit to have first recognisedthe unity of opposites, the identity of Being and non-
Being, and to have made it the foundation of his sys
tem.' Whether this be regarded as a merit or a defect,neither view of it is absolutely true. Heracleitus could
only be said to deny the law of contradictories if he
maintained that opposite qualities could belong to tbesame subject, not merely at the same time, but in the
same respect. But this he does not say. He observes,
pretation, and would seem to showthat the expressions should betakenin a wider sense; as in all the arts,
one arises, in to\K&v, and viceversa, but not (k wivraiv.
1 Arist. Mctaph. iv. S, 1005 b,23 : bbivarov yh.p bmivovv rairrbvbiro\ap.$aytiv (hat a\ uij enrol,Ka.Bi.vep Tiy otovrai (vide vol. i.
553, 1) *)>' 'HpinKcirov. Ibid,c. 4, init., where Heracleitus is not
indeed named, but is evidently intended ; ibid. c. 7, end : totite 8' 4p.ir 'HpaKXtirov \6yos, Xiyav itoi/to
elrcu xal i*)) flrat, fiircura &Xrjfl7Jireiftv. Similarly c. 8, init. ; ibid.xi. 5. 1062 a, 31 : tox&di 8' &v tis
teal alirby rbv 'HpAicktiTov . . . yvi-ynturtv bp.o\oyuy, fi7|5tVoTf tAs
avTiKtiutias- (pdatis Svyarbv (focuKara Tue avruy aXi)6eveffBai' viiv 8'
ov avyiels iavrov ri noTt Xiytt, rav-T7iP tAaSf tV Si(av. Ibid. c. 6,
1063 b. 24 ; Top. viii. 6, 155 b,30 : ayaBbv icol naxby (Jyai ravrby,KaSa-rep lr\pix\(ir6t ipriatv. Phys.
i. 2, 185 b, 19 : "4\A pMv el tok6ytp ty t4 tvra -Kirra . . . T&rHpanktirov \6yov avfifialytt kiytw
axnoiv TavTbv yitp tarcu a,ya6$ ko\Kcucy flvat KaX ^ii o.ya6$ Kcd ayadv.&o~re Tavrbv larai ayaBbv koX ovkayaBbv Kal av&puiros Ka\ 'faros. The
commentators express themselvessimilarly. Alex, ad Metaph. l'HO
a, 6; 1012 a, 21, 29; 1062 a, 25,36 b. 2, p. 265, 17 ; 294, 30 ; 295,
19; 296, 1,624 sq. Bon. : Themist.Phyt. 16. b (113 Sp.); Simpl.Phi/s. 11a, unt. 18, a, m ; cf. Las-salle, i. 80. Asklepius, Schnl. inAri.it. 652, a, 11 sq. attributes to
Heracleitus the proposition, ivaSpurtibv tlvai irdrTwp tu>v vpayn&rvv,but he only said this
-
STRIFE. 37
indeed, that one and the same essence assumes the
most opposite forms, and that in everything, the oppositeconditions and qualities between which, as subject to
Becoming, it fluctuates, are united. But that it unitesthem in one and the same respect, he does not sayfor
the reason, no doubt, that such a conception ( which asfar as we know was first expressly noticed by Plato andAristotle ' ) never occurred to him. Nor on the other
hand has he spoken of the unity of opposites, the unity ofBeing and non-Being, in so general a manner, and the
general view does not follow so absolutely from the ex
pressions he uses. To say that ' One and the same essenceis light and dark, day and night ; one and the same pro
cess is generation and destruction,' is one thing ; to saythat 'there is no difference between day and night, be
tween Being and non-Being as such,' is quite another ;to maintain the unity of opposites in the concrete is
not identical with maintaining it in the abstract ; toassert that opposites are found in the same subject, is
not to assert their identity. The former view alone canbe deduced from the examples which Heracleitus bringsforward, and4ie had no occasion to go farther, since his
concern was not with speculative logic, but withphysics. We must not, however, suppose 2 that his
proposition meant no more than this : ' Each thingdisplays very different qualities, either simultaneously,if it be suddenly brought into connection with several
other things, or successively, if it be opposed to one,
and that a variable thing ; ' in the language of Her-
1 Cf. Part ii. a, 527, 1, third edition,edition; Part ii. b, 171, second * Schuster, p. 236 sqq.
-
38 HERACLEITUS.
bart, that the co-existence of contraries is merely the
product of an accidental opinion. Of such an ideaneither Heracleitus' own utterances nor the ancient
accounts of him bear any trace. On the contrary, he
says quite universally and with no limitation whatever,that the things which are apparently opposed to each
othersuch as day and night, war and peace, aboveand below are one and the same ; and the limits of hisreflection are indicated by the fact that he has not as
yet enquired under what conditions, and in what sense,
this coincidence of opposites would be possible.
But though it is necessary that all things should be1 sundered into opposites, it is equally necessary that theI opposites should again combine to form a unity ; for
that which is most opposed originates from one and thesame; it is one essence which, in the course of itschanges, produces opposites and again cancels them ;which in all things produces itself, and in the working of conflicting principles sustains all as one.1 In
1 Fr. 67 ; Hippol. Refut. ix. irrespectively of Schuster's inter-10: i fobs v/iipy (v$o6vti, xf'H"l>' pretation, ' each one makes a labelBipos, (iX*/ioj ttptirn, x6pns Amuy for it at pleasure ') in that way we
dWoiou-rai Si uKwtnrep 8rav (TvfjLfiiyfj get no suitable sense, since theBvuiaaiTL- ovondfercu Kaff it$oid)v forms which the primitive matter
ixiarou. Bernays, Rh. Mus. ix. assumes in its transformation are245, in the second clause of this something objectively given, andfragment where the text is evi- cannot be described by any com-dently defective, would substitute parisons we may choose. It is
Biufia for 0vtifmai ; Schuster, p. rather to be explained thus : it188 would introduce otvos before (the air mixed with perfumes ) isBwiiuun. To me it seems still named according to the smell (videsimpler to read Ikus tip instead of vol. i. p. 291, 2) of any one of these$>cu
-
HARMOXY. 39
separating itself from itself, it unites itself with itself : l
out of strife comes existence, out of opposition, union ;
out of unlikeness, coincidence ; One comes out ofall ; * all things submit to the Deity for the concord
of the whole ; even the unlike unites itself to God and
becomes like ; even that which appears to men an evil,
is for them a good ; 3 and out of all things is produced
that hidden harmony of the world with which thebeauty of the visible cannot compare.4 This is the
Tas o< ir p o trrjynplas fira\afx-Pdyoy 8ia t&s rijs 6\T)S, St' fis
Kfx&pyxf, -rapaWd^fts. Here wehare nothing to do with appella
tions at pleasure. Teichmiiller,X. Stud. i. 66 sq., thinks the disputed sentence can be explained
without altering thetext, by makingthe snbject to trvptfuyp and 6vop.&-
C'tcu, Bt6t, by which is meant fire.For my part I cannot conceive, evenfrom Heracleitus's point of view, agod who becomes mixed with perfumes. Kofi" fiSov^y Teichmiiller
likewise translates 'at pleasure.'1 Plato, Soph. I. c, vide supra,p. 33, 2 ; cf. 252 B, where the dif
ference between Heracleitus endEmpedocles is said to be that Em-pedocles represents these states of
nnion and separation as alternating,and Heracleitus recognises in theseparation itself a continual and
contemporaneous union.* Cf. p. 35. 1.
Sehol. Ven. ad 11. iv. 4 : *o-
Acuoi Kal pdxat yuiv Setya Sokci rtpSi df(fi ovoi ravra Seiyd' trvyrtXti
yap a-Travra b Bebs npbs apptovtayriv (&AAv i) Kal evidently only a
different reading) S\*v oucoyop&vto ovpjQipoyra, Imp Kal 'HpaK\eiTOS
Xryti, &s rip p.iv 6t$ KaAa trdvra KaliUaia, avBptcnoi Si a ptiv aStKa inrti-
Kippaat, a Si Sixaia. Cf. Hippocr.ir. Sio(t. c. 11: Tr&rra yap Sputa,
av6ptoia idvra' Kal avprpopa irdvra,Stdtpopa I6vra' Sta\ty6p.va oO Sta-\cy6ptcya, yyafirjv txovra, aypu/xoya
(speaking and not speaking, rational and irrational, as the two
main divisions of the irdvTa). ir*f-yavrlos i rpovos fKdaraiy, bpto\o-yoi/fifyos .... a p.iv ovv avBpvnrot
%6t
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40 HERACLEITUS.
Tovritrn ret bpara ray aapdruv . . .(c. 10) ovtois 'HpdK\(tTos iy Tot)p.olpa liQtrai Kal rifia t4 iwpavijrois acpavtffiv . . . tan -yap, q>i)
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HARMONY. 41
divine law to which all things are subject,1 the &Ur)whose decrees nothing in the world can transgress ; 2
amat. ' The tree ' does not. indeed,belong, as Schuster thinks (Fr. 74,
p. 1 93, Nature loves to hide her
self, like a tree ; ' Teichmiiller follows him, A'. Stud. i. 183), to thecitation from Heracleitus ; it refers
to the tree previously mentionedby Philo, the oak of Mamre, Gen.xviii. 1, which is allegorised inthis way ; and if it appears other
wise in our Latin text, the twotranslators, or one of them, must
be" answerable for it. (TheArmenian text, as I am informed
by Petermann, stands literallythus: 'The tree, according to
Heracleitus our nature, loves toconceal and to hide itself.') Theproposition which is supported byThemistocles, Or. v. C9 b (^>wis Si
kcl& 'HpaxK. KorfrncfrBai pi\et, similarly in the second recension of Or.v. or xii. 159 b), and by Philo, DeProf. 476 C; Julian, Or. vii. 216
C (Strabo x. 3, 9, p. 467, does notbelong to this) that nature Kjuir-rta&tu Kal KaraoverrOat
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42 HERACLE1TUS,
the dependence or necessity by which all things areruled.1 The same universal order, conceived as efficient J
259, 3) conjectures AiWtu to haveljeen the word UBed by Heraeleitus.Lassalle. i. 351 sqq., defends yKur-
tcu, and supports his reading byPhilostratus, Apoll. i. 25, 2, who
mentions four images of birds(firyyj), reminding us of divineretribution, named from the Bt&v
yhiiiTTai of the Magi ; and hethinks that he has hereby proved
ii"t only that the handmaidens ofDike were called ' tongues ' among
the Persians, but that Heraeleituswas acquainted with the religiousdoctrines and symbols of the Magi.
This is certainly a mistake; foreven if pictures of the wryneckas symbolical of ' retpice finem '
were used by the Persians andcalled the tongues of the gods, itwould not follow that the Erinnyeswere called tongues of the gods or
simply yK&TToi. But even Ber-nays's suggestive conjecture has tobe given up ; for Schuster, p. 184,ami previously Hubmann (cf.Schuster, p. 357), propose K\a8asfor ^XioTTaj (the spinners, the
Moirss. who, as goddesses of Death,know how to find the sun when it
would overstep the measure oftheir life). Cf. further concerning
Si'ict), Orig. c. Cels. vi. 42 (vide sup.p. 32, 1), and what is quoted p. 26,
1, from Cratylus. Clemens, Strom.iv. 478 B, Abcijs uvofia ovk an ifSf-
aav, does not seem to belong here.1 Plut. Plac. i. 27: 'Hj>ok\.rivra Kaff tlpapfiUvriv, ttqv 5i ahrty
vw&px*iv Kal avdytc-nv. So Theodo-ret, Cur. Gr. Aff. vi. 13, p. 87;
Diog. ix. 7 ; Stob. i. 68 ; supra ;Stob. i. 178 (Plac. i. 28): 'Hpet-K\fir. ovtxiav (luapfitv^s aT*q>aive~to \6yov toy 8i& ovalas tov xayrbs
Si^Koira, o0tt; 5* icrl to aidipievtrufia, avep/juL ttji tov icavrbs ytvi-ffews koi trepioSov fiirpov TtTayfitirris.
itdvra Si Ka6' tlpLappcrnv, t^v 5'ovt^v vTrapx*tvav6.yKr\v'ypA$uyovv
taTi yap el^apfidtrq iravTcos. Herethere is a break in the text whichis the more to be regretted, as
Heraeleitus' own words are aboutto follow, wheroas what goes beforehas such a Stoical sound that it isof little consequence to us whether
the words from a&Yij to ytvtotusare (according to Sehleiermacher'sconjecture, p. 74) an interpolationrelating to oubv, ixitrraa&ai yvtbfnjv
JJre of tyituf}fiiv4)fftt Trivra (Neut,plur.) 8ii Trirrtui'. Instead of the
senseless ol iyitvfi. Schleiormaeherconjectures, p. 109 (cf. Lassalle, i.
334 sq.), dtn Kv&fpviioti, Beruays,Eh. Mus. ix. 252 sq., oicucffti,
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ZEUS ASD THE ORDER OF THE WORLD. 43
force, is called the world-ruling wisdom, the \6yos,1
Schuster, p. 66, oTij rt KvfStpviiati,or ii) (oTi) rt) KvPfpinjacu, and
K-vfrfpiav is often found in a similarconnection, with Heracleitus andothers, as Schuster and Lassalleprove. Fr. 14 ; Orig. c. Cela. vi.
i 2 : r\6os yap avQptetrtiov p.iu o?*ktxtl vfyvv, Btiov Si 1xft- Pint.1M It. 76 : t) Si fcaa . . . 6v lariv,%v rravra eioVva* (cf. p. 45, w.) ; butthe interpretation 'not listeuing tome, but to the speech as such, the
contents of the speech, the reasons '(cf. Schuster, 83, 228) is also admissible. On the other hand, in thedefinitions quoted in the previousnote and at p. 31 , 2, from Stobseus,
of the (luapniin], the \6yos is nodoubt taken from the Stoic terminology ; ap. Clem. Strom, v. 599 C,
the Sioticuv \6yos Kai debs is notfound, as Lassalle thinks (ii. 60),in the citation from Heracleitus,
but in the interpretation by theStoics of Heracleitus's words ; this
interpretation itself is very inexact,
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44 HERACLEITUS.
Zeus or the Deity 'and so far as it produces the endless series of cosmical periods, and of the varying conditions dependent on them, the ..Eon.2 All these conceptions signify with Heracleitus one and the same thing,3
and the world-forming force as active subject is nothere distinguished from the universe and the universalorder.4 This force, however, also coincides with the
and is expressly described byClemens as an addition of his own
(Svvdnftyap \fyti, ' the meaning ofhis statement is '). Also in Marcus Auielius, iv. 46 (vide sup. p.
8, n.), it is the Stoic who adds tothe words, $ fiaXtara SiijyeKus ifJU'Kovat \6ytp, these : ry ret 'oka, Sioi-
kovvti Originally scarcely moieMas intended by them than by theparallel passage : of* koS' tj/isVo"
iyxvpovixi, that which is constantlypresented to the eyes of men. Las-
salle, ii. 63, thinks he has discovered in Ft. 48, vide inf. p. 65, 1,
the pre-existeuce of the Logos, butwe shall find that k6yos here means
nothing more than relation