for Historians and Historical Social Scientists

A Geographic Information Systems (GIS)Training Manual

J.B. OwensAnderson SandesBarbara StephensonDavid DixonCatherine Zajanc

This work is provided as part of the projectUnderstanding Social Networks within Complex,

Nonlinear Systems: Geographically-Integrated Historyand Dynamics GIS [SOCNET], which is supported

by the U.S. National Science Foundation under GrantsNo. 0941371 and No. 0941501. Any opinions, ndings, and

conclusions or recommendations expressed in this trainingmanual are those of the authors and do not necessarilyreect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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A!Geographic!Information!Systems!(GIS)!

Training!Manual!

for!Historians!and!Historical!Social!Scientists!

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J.B.!Owens!Anderson!Sandes!Barbara!Stephenson!David!Dixon!Catherine!Zajanc!

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!!!Copyright!Information!!

!!A"Geographic"Information"Systems"(GIS)"Training"Manual"for"Historians"and"Historical"Social"Scientists!by!J.!B.!Owens,!Anderson!Sandes!et"al!is!licensed!under!a!Creative!Commons!Attribution@NonCommercial@NoDerivs!3.0!Unported!License.!To!view!a!copy!of!this!license,!visit!http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by@nc@sa/3.0/!or!send!a!letter!to!Creative!Commons,!171!Second!Street,!Suite!300,!San!Francisco,!California,!94105,!USA.!!Based!on!a!work!at!http://idahostate.academia.edu/JBJackOwens/Books.!!Permissions!beyond!the!scope!of!this!license!may!be!available!at!http://geographicallyintegratedhistory.com!or!http://www.isu.edu/history/!or!from!J.!B.!Owens!(owenjack@isu.edu).!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Dedicated!to!the!memory!of!Gary!L.!Watry!(1953@2008),!!Center!for!Ocean@Atmospheric!Prediction!Studies!(COAPS),!!

Florida!State!University!(FSU)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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Software!Requirements!!The!software!used!in!this!training!manual!is!designed!to!run!on!a!Microsoft!Windows!operating!system.!!

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Notes!on!Units!!This!training!manual!uses!a!mixture!of!both!international!(SI)!units!and!English!units!to!demonstrate! the! fact! that! both! are! supported! in! the!GIS! environment,! and! that! a!user! can!move! between! unit! types!within! GIS.! It! is! expected! that! the! users! of! this!material!will!come!from!both!types!of!backgrounds.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Table!of!Contents!!

!.!INTRODUCTION! !!!1""!!!!CHAPTER!1:!Geographically.Integrated!History! !!!5"!! What!is!GIS?! !!!7!! Advantages!of!GIS!for!Historians! !!!8!!!!!!!!GIS!Software!Packages! !!!9!! MapWindow!GIS?! !!!10!! Things!to!know!about!using!a!GIS!program! !!!11!! EXERCISE!1! !!!13!!!!.CHAPTER!2:!Getting!Started!with!MapWindow!GIS! !!!22"!! A!Few!Definitions! !!!22!! EXERCISE!2! !!!27!!!!.CHAPTER!3:!Datum!and!Map!Projection! !!!40"!! Basics!of!Map!Projection! !!!41!! Cylindrical,!Conical,!and!Azimuthal!Projections! !!!42!!!!!!!!Other!Types!of!Datums! !!!45!! EXERCISE!3! !!!46!!!!.CHAPTER!4:!Cartography! !!!58"!! Elements!of!a!Map! !!!58!! Layout!and!Planning! !!!60!!!!!!!!Lettering! !!!62!! Color! !!!63!! EXERCISE!4! !!!65!!

.CHAPTER!5:!Symbology!and!Data!Management! !!!76"!! Symbology! !!!76!! Adding!Data!to!a!GIS! !!!83!!!!!!!!Creating!a!New!Shapefile! !!!84!! Editing!a!Shapefile! !!!87!! Attribute!Tables! !!!89!!!!!!!!Adding!a!Field! !!!92!! EXERCISE!5! !!!95!!!!.CHAPTER!6:!Basic!Spatial!Analysis!!!!!!hjjj!..!!! ...105"!! Geocoding! !!!105!! How!to!Find!X,!Y!Coordinates! !!!109!!!!!!!!Clipping! !!!110!! Adding!and!Moving!Vertices! !!!112!! Buffering,!Querying,!and!Intersecting! !!!112!!!!!!!!Conclusion! !!!117!! EXERCISE!6! !!!118!!!!.CHAPTER!7:!Data!Normalization! ..!135"!! Classification!Breaks! !!!142!! Conclusion! !!!143!! EXERCISE!7! !!!144!! !!!.CHAPTER!8:!From!a!Paper!Historical!Map!to!a!Digital!One! .!!151"!! Scanning! !!!152!! Georeferencing!with!MapWindow! !!!152!!!!!!!!Challenges!and!Limitations! !!!153!! EXERCISE!8! !!!156!!!!.CHAPTER!9:!Digitizing!!..!!! ...174"!! How!Historians!Use!Digitizing!in!Their!Research! !!!176!

! Additional!Tools!Related!to!Digitizing! !!!177!! EXERCISE!9! !!!178!!!!.CHAPTER!10:!Raster!Data! !!!196"!! How!is!Raster!Data!Used!by!Historians!and!Historical!Social!Scientists?! !!!197!! Digital!Elevation!Models! !!!198!!!!!!!!Aerial!Photography! !!!199!! Raster!Data!vs.!Vector!Data:!A!Comparison! !!!200!! EXERCISE!10! !!!202!!!!.CHAPTER!11:!ArcGIS!Tutorials! !!!213"!! Introduction! !!!213!! TUTORIAL!I! !!!219!!!!!!!!TUTORIAL!II! !!!242!!!!!!!!TUTORIAL!III! !!!260!!!!!!!!TUTORIAL!IV! !!!289!!!!.REFERENCES!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.312.!!!!.GLOSSARY:!Commonly!Used!Terms! !!!316!

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INTRODUCTION)The" idea" for" this"geographic" information"systems" (GIS)" training"manual" for"historians"and"historical"social"scientists"emerged"during"the"creation"of"the"innovative,"GIS=based"masters"program"in"history"at"Idaho"State"University"(ISU).1"Many"historians"who"were"interested" in" the" application" of" GIS" to" their" research" and" teaching" were" nonetheless"intimidated"by" the" steep" learning"curve" they" faced" to"master" the" software"and"by" the"potential" costs."We"have"prepared" the" following"chapters"and"exercises" to"provide"an"accessible" introduction" to" GIS" for" novices."Moreover," until" readers" reach" some"more"advanced" chapters" at" the" end," all" of" the" exercises" use" MapWindow" GIS"(http://www.MapWindow.org/)," which" is" a" free," open" source" product" available" for"download"without" cost" by" anyone."The"direct" inspiration" for" creating" this" book" came"from" the" use" of" an" earlier"MapWindow" tutorial," G." L."Watry," and"D." P."Ames,"D." P."(2007),"A"practical" look" at"MapWindow"GIS" (US,"UK"&"CA:" lulu.com)."Gary"Watry"died"shortly"after"the"publication"of"this"guide,"and"we"dedicate"this"training"manual"to"his"memory."

)We" have" based" the" final" four" tutorials" of" the" book" on" the" use" of" ArcGIS," the" major"product"of"ESRI"(www.esri.com),"one"of"the"pioneering"companies"in"the"development"of"GIS."For"many"of"the"things"that"historians"and"historical"social"scientists"will"want"to"do"with"GIS,"MapWindow"is"too"limited."For"example,"the"MapWindow"software"does"not" support" professional" quality" cartographic" visualizations." Therefore," once"researchers"and"teachers"have"mastered"the"basics"of"GIS,"they"will"want"to"transition"to"ArcGIS."When" they" become" part" of" the" ArcGIS" community," this" group" of" users" will"have"access"to"a"variety"of"resources."It"is"true"that"ArcGIS"is"quite"expensive,"but"many"institutions" already" have" site" licenses" for" the" software," which" make" its" use" free" for"individuals."Also,"ESRI"has"available"several"programs"that"support"the"educational"use"of" the" software." ESRI" provides" a" rich" learning" environment" for" ArcGIS" users," both"online" and" during" the" huge" users" convention," which" is" held" every" year" in" July."

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1"J."B."Owens"and"Laura"Woodworth=Ney,"Envisioning"a"masters"degree"program"in"geographically=integrated"history,"Journal"of"the"Association"for"History"and"Computing"8/2"(September"2005)"[http://mcel.pacificu.edu/jahc/2005/issue2/articles/owenswoodworth.php];"Idaho"State"University"Creates"Innovative"Program"in"History"and"GIS,"ArcNews"(Fall"2005)"[http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/fall05articles/idaho=state=univ.html,"accessed"19"August"2013]."J."B."Owens,"Graduate"Education"in"Geographically=Integrated"History:"A"Personal"Account,"Journal"of"the"Association"for"History"and"Computing"13/1"(May"2010)"[http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.3310410.0013.105;"http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text=idx?c=jahc;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3310410.0013.105,"accessed"2"May"2014]."""

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Although"this"convention"is"also"expensive"in"terms"of"individual"registration,"there"is"a"research"segment"that"permits"the"presentation"of"papers"about"historical"research"using"ArcGIS," which" may" encourage" institutions" to" subsidize" the" cost" of" attending" the"meetings.""Note" that" we" have" tied" the" exercises" in" the" first" ten" chapters" to" a" stable" version" of"MapWindow"GIS."However,"we"could"not"design" the" final" four"exercises" to" include"a"stable"version"of"ArcGIS"10.x,"which"means"that"users"of"this"training"manual"may"note"some"slight"differences"in"the"exercise"procedures.""The"creation"of" this" training"manual"was"proposed"as"part"of" the"collaborative"project"Understanding"Social"Networks"within"Complex,"Nonlinear"Systems:"Geographically=Integrated" History" and" Dynamics" GIS" [SOCNET]," which" is" supported" by" the" U.S."National" Science" Foundation" under" Grants" No." 0941371" ($1,290.704;" lead" project"Principal" Investigator" Dr." J." B." Owens," Idaho" State" University)" and" No." 0941501"($471,193;" Principal" Investigator" Dr."May" Yuan," University" of" Oklahoma)," for" a" total"award"of"$1,761,897."The"project"was"funded"through"an"NSF"program"called"Cyber=Enabled" Discovery" and" Innovation" (CDI)." CDI" had" three" themes," all" of" which" are"relevant"to"the"SOCNET"project:"Data"to"Knowledge,"Understanding"Complex"Systems,"and"Virtual"Organizations."For"us,"GIS"is"a"key,"integrative"tool"for"moving"from"data"to"knowledge"and"for"understanding"dynamic"complexity."""However,"the"available"commercial"GIS"software"products"do"not"serve"historians"well"because"they"do"not"lend"themselves"easily"to"dealing"with"time.2"We"are"historians"who"assert" that" narrative" is" a" distinct" and" valuable" source" of" knowledge." To" achieve"narrative" knowledge," we" wanted" a" GIS" that" would" allow" us" to" produce" more"complicated" narratives" than" historians" have" been" capable" of" creating:" narratives" that"pay"attention"simultaneously"to"activities,"events,"and"processes"while"coupling"natural"and" human" systems." In" order" to" create" narratives" that" help" us" understand" complex"systems," potentially" at" a" global" scale," we" needed" to" encourage" more" historians" and"

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2"J."B."Owens,"What"historians"want"from"GIS,"ArcNews"29/2"(summer"2007):"4=6,"and"http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/summer07articles/what=historians=want.html,"accessed"on"19"August"2013;"J."B."Owens,"Historical"Studies,"GIS"for."In"Karen"Kemp"(ed.),"Encyclopedia"of"Geographic"Information"Science"(Thousand"Oaks,"California:"Sage,"2008),"pp."220=21;"May"Yuan,"Dynamics"GIS:"recognizing"the"dynamic"nature"of"reality,"ArcNews"30/1"(spring"2008):"1,"4=5,"and"http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/spring08articles/dynamics=gis.html,"accessed"on"19"August"2013.""

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historical" social" scientists" to" organize" their" information" within" a" GIS" software"environment.3"What"did"we"want"to"do?""There" is" a" long" tradition," especially" in" the" disciplines" of" geography" and" history," of"research" done" by" those"who"wish" to" combine" somehow" historical" developments" and"geography," but" the" results" present" a" confusing" picture.4" In" order" to" provide" a" more"coherent" framework" for" the" practitioners" in" this" area," Owens" followed" a" suggestion"attributed"to"Albert"Einstein:"Problems"cannot"be"solved"by"the"same"level"of"thinking"that"created"them."He"created"an"integrative"paradigm,"which"he"calls"Geographically6Integrated) History," to" get" to" a" higher" level" of" thought" about" the" relationships" of"geography" and" history." As" an" interdisciplinary" research" and" teaching" strategy,"Geographically=Integrated" History" is" founded" on" the" idea" that" the" understanding" of"historical" processes" requires" an" integration" of" the" natural," social," and" cultural"environments"on"the"basis"of"place,"space,"and"time,"and"accomplishing"this"integration"poses"a"challenge"that"can"be"met"with"modern"computational"tools,"especially"dynamic"forms" of" GIS" and" social" network" analysis," and" visualization" techniques." Three"components" define" the" Geographically=Integrated" History" integrative" paradigm:" (1)"Historical"periods"are"complex,"dynamic,"nonlinear"systems"that"are"spatially"large,"and"in" more" recent" centuries," global" in" extension," and" these" systems" sometimes" become"unstable," leading" to" a" phase" transition," bifurcation," and" the" organization" of" new"systems." (2)"Within" such" systems,"people"and"places"are" connected"by" self=organizing"networks,"which"are"the"sources"of"innovation"and"the"emergence"of"new"forms."And"(3)"the"history"of"any"place"is"shaped"in"significant"ways"by"the"way"the"place"is"connected"to"other"places"and"by"the"changes"in"these"connections"over"time."""This" paradigm" has" important" implications" for" the" way" that" historians" frame" their"research"questions,"for"the"methodologies"they"use"in"their"work,"and"for"the"way"that"historical" processes" and"periods" are" defined." For" example," the" nonlinear" dynamics" of"complex" systems" permits" only" limited" predictability," which" means" that" attempts" to"string" together" long" causal" chains" probably" do" a" poor" job" of" representing" historical"processes."The"SOCNET"project"focuses"on"the"First"Global"Age,"roughly"1400=1800,"as"a"system"because"there"was"a"phase"transition"at"the"end"of"this"period,"which"means"that"

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!3"J."B."Owens,"nToward"a"geographically=integrated,"connected"world"history:"Employing"geographic"information"systems"(GIS),n"History"Compass"5/6"(October"2007):"2014=2040;"doi:"10.1111/j.1478=0542.2007.00476.x."4"Alan"R."H."Baker"is"particularly"good"at"surveying"this"variety."See,"A.R.H"Baker,"Reflections"on"the"relations"of"historical"geography"and"the"Annales"School"of"history."In"S."Clark"(ed.),"The"Annales"School:"critical"assessments;"vol.II"(London:"Routledge,"1999),"96=129;"A."R.H."Baker,"On"the"Relations"of"History"and"Geography,"Historically"Speaking"5/6"(July/August"2004):"27=29;"A."R."H."Baker,"Geography"and"History:"Bridging"the"Divide"(Cambridge:"Cambridge"University"Press,"2003).

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historians"can"say"something"important"about"aspects"of"this"human"system"that"cannot"be"dealt"with"well"by"research"on"contemporary"scenarios."But"we"are"products"of" the"cultural"and"social"environments"of"a"different"system"and,"therefore,"we"have"difficulty"understanding"the" ideas"and"actions"of"people"who" lived" in"an"earlier"historic"period,"even" when" they" used" our" language" and" employed" conceptual" terms" that" appear"familiar.""In"order"to"explore"these"themes,"we"must"have"a"lot"more"qualitative"and"quantitative"information"organized"for"analysis"using"GIS."Therefore,"one"of" the"main"goals"of" this"GIS" training"manual" for"historians"and"historical" social" scientists" is" to"encourage"you,"the"researchers,"to"produce"such"data."It"will"also"be"important"that"you"volunteer"your"data"sets"to"major"repositories"for"such"resources.""Of" course," it" will" not" be" sufficient" to" have" a" bunch" of" user=generated" information" in"central" repositories." We" will" need" some" way" to" integrate" this" information." This"integration"will"not"be"an"easy"task"because"the"data"sets"will"have"been"created"on"the"basis" of" different" organizational" schemes" and" ontologies." Therefore," a" portion" of" our"future" research"will" concentrate"on"how"user=generated" content" can"be"evaluated"and"integrated"efficiently.""My" coauthor" Anderson" Sandes" is" unusual" among" researchers" in" the" discipline" this"training" manual" promotes" because" he" holds" graduate" degrees" in" both" geographic"information" science" and" history" (M.A." in" Historical" Resources" Management;" M.S." in"Geographic"Information"Science)."He"is"the"author"of"all"of"the"exercises,"and"he"used"his"considerable" skill" as" a" technical"writer" to" create" an" attractive" and" clear" final" product."Until"she"left"the"project"in"the"summer"of"2013,"much"of"the"manuals"organization"was"done" by" Dr." Barbara" Stephenson," who" served" as" the" postdoctoral" researcher" for" the"SOCNET"project"at"Idaho"State"University."She"was"ably"assisted"by"David"Dixon"(M.A."in" Historical" Resources" Management)" and" Catherine" Zajanc" (M.S." in" Geographic"Information" Science)," who" worked" as" research" assistants" for" the" project" and" wrote"important"sections"of"several"chapters."Dr."Daniel"P."Ames,"director"of"MapWindow"GIS"and" now" at" Brigham"Young"University," provided" us"with" important" advice."We" also"learned"much"from"Dr."Sarah"Hinman,"now"of"the"social"sciences"department"of"Leiden"University" College," The" Hague," and" Keith" T."Weber," founding" director" of" the" Idaho"State"University"GIS"Training"and"Research"Center."I"express"my"personal"appreciation"for"all"of"this"assistance.""J."B."Owens,"Ph.D."Research"Professor"of"Geographically=Integrated"History"Idaho"State"University"

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CHAPTER(1:(Geographically!Integrated)History"With" this" training" manual" we" will" show" how" using" GIS" (geographic" information"systems)"can"contribute" to"historical" studies,"and"we"will"provide"novice"users"with"a"structured"tutorial"that"will"allow"them"to"learn"GIS."To"make"learning"GIS"as"accessible"as" possible" for" historians" and" historical" social" scientists," the" first" ten" chapters" of" this"book"are"based"on"MapWindow"GIS,"a"free,"openCsource"program."This"instruction"will"teach"the"basic"techniques."However,"once"historians"have"gotten"this"far"in"their"use"of"GIS," they" will" need" to" make" a" transition" to" a" more" advanced" software" package,"especially" for" the" production" of" sophisticated" cartographic" visualizations." Therefore,"this" training"manual" will" close" with" four" exercises" based" on" the" use" of" ArcGIS" 10.x,"produced"by"the"company"ESRI."""The"use"of"GIS"for"historical"research"has"often"been"referred"to"as"historical"GIS"(HGIS)."We" prefer" the" term" geographicallyCintegrated" history" to" avoid" narrowing" the" list" of"subjects"that"can"be"treated"in"this"fashion,"as"HGIS"has"sometimes"done."For"us,"GIS"is"the"major" tool" for" a" necessary" integration" of" place," space," and" time." GeographicallyCintegrated"history"has"developed"over"the"past"few"decades"in"order"to"incorporate"the"spatial"and"temporal"elements"of"history"in"a"more"sophisticated"manner."By"providing"a" spatioCtemporal" component" to" historical" research," geographicallyCintegrated" history"can"do"much"to"further"research"and"analysis."The"leader"of"the"project"to"produce"this"manual,"J."B."Owens,"has"explained"elsewhere"how"he"came"to"use"GIS.1"While"Owens"was"not" the" first" to" incorporate"GIS" into"historical" research,"his" story" is" illustrative"of"how"doing"so"contributes"to"historical"studies"by"providing"a"visual"means"of"analyzing"complicated"information."Owens"also"recognized"that"GIS"could"play"an"important"role"in"changing"how"the"discipline"of"history"incorporates"new"technology,"leading"him"to"focus"on"projects"of"a"much"broader"scale."GIS"allows"scholars"to"work"with"much"larger"quantities" of" data" than" in" preCsoftware" days," which" in" turn" permits" one" to" ask," and"answer," much" broader" questions." Historians" and" historical" social" scientists" studying"many" different" regions" and" topics" have" found" using" GIS" helpful" with" their"methodology."""

1"J."B."Owens,"What"historians"want"from"GIS,"ArcNews"29/2"(summer"2007):"4C6,"and""http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/summer07articles/whatChistoriansCwant.html,"accessed"on"19"August"2013,"and"J."B."Owens,"What"Historians"Want"from"GIS,"in"GIS+Best+Practices:+Essays+on+Geography+and+GIS+(Redlands,"California:"ESRI,"2008),"35C46,"and"http://www.esri.com/library/bestpractices/essaysConCgeographyCgis.pdf,"accessed"on"24"September"2013;"J."B."Owens,"Toward"a"GeographicallyCIntegrated,"Connected"World"History:"Employing"Geographic"Information"Systems"(GIS),"History+Compass"5/6"(2007):"2014C2040.""

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All" human" interactions,"with" others" or"with" their" environment," have" inherent" spatial"characteristics," although" this" is" often" implicit" in" historical"work" rather" than" explicitly"addressed."But"understanding"the"geographical"space"in"which"human"history"occurred"is"an"important"part"of"understanding"that"history,"and"GIS"allows"historians"to"fill" in"that" gap." Historian" Loren" Siebert" pointed" out" why" the" geographic" component" of"historical"studies"is"so"important.""

There"is"a"simple,"twoCpart"answer."First,"humans"are"spatial"beings."Individuals,"groups," and" institutions" exist" and" interact" in" natural" and" human" environments"that" occupy" space" over" time." Human" history" necessarily" includes" a" spatial"dimension," which" historians" often" overlook." Second," geographic" information"systems"are"designed"to"record"spatial" features"and"related"information,"display"them," and" analyze" their" conditions" and" spatial" relationships." These" capacities"enable"spatial"historical"research"and"extend"its"analytical"reach.2""

For"these"reasons,"Siebert"used"GIS"as"part"of"his"methodology"in"his"spatial"history"of"Tokyo."He"selected"which"sources"to"use"based"on"interest,"availability,"and"how"well"a"GIS"program"handled"the"data,"among"other" factors."The"resulting"sources"came"from"topographic" maps," census" maps," census" information," corporate" histories," planning"reports"and"maps,"and"agency"records."These"data"were"harvested"to"obtain"information"regarding" transportation," land" ownership," land" use," commercial" and" industrial"activities,"governmental"boundaries,"economic"conditions,"and"other"features.3""He"then"used"this"data"to"create"an"electronic"historical"atlas"that"can"be"queried"and"used"for"analysis. 4 "Although" entering" all" the" data" into" a" GIS" was" timeCintensive," Siebert"described" the" advantages" of" GIS" for" an" historian:" By" linking" historical" spatial"information" to" corresponding" geographic" features" in" a" computerized" cartographic"database," geographic" information" systems" make" it" possible" to" record," display," and"evaluate" relationships" between" types" of" information" that" were" in" hardCtoCcompare"formats"or"spread"over"many"sequential"historical"maps.5"The"resulting"map"provides"a"visual"reference"that"can"more"easily"convey"the"complicated"relationships"between"the"data.""

2"Loren"Siebert,"Using"GIS"to"Document,"Visualize,"and"Interpret"Tokyos"Spatial"History,"Social+Science+History"24/"3"(2000):""538."3"Ibid.,"552C553."4"Ibid.,"541."5"Ibid.,"538."

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What"is"GIS?"In" her" introduction" to" an" issue" of" Social+ Science+ History" devoted" to" Historical" GIS,"geographer"Anne"Kelly"Knowles"defined"GIS"as"a"spatial"database"that"integrates"mapCbased" information" about" the" historical" location" of" certain" entities" (such" as" census"districts," industrial" firms,"or" rivers)"with"quantitative"or"qualitative" information"about"those"entities"(such"as"population,"product,"or"level"of"pollution).6"Delineating"between"GIS"and"Historical"GIS,"Knowles"maintained"that"the"key"difference"between"historical"GIS"and"the"vast"majority"of"GIS"practiced"today"is"that"its"source"data"typically"include"archival"material"that"must"be"converted"from"analog"to"digital"form.7"Perhaps"because"of" these" reasons," Ian" Gregory," a" Senior" Lecturer" in" Digital" Humanities" at" Lancaster"University,"and"Richard"Healey,"a"Geography"professor"at"the"University"of"Portsmouth,"defined" GIS" as" a" database" technology" rather" than" a" software" primarily" concerned"with"mapping:""" A"GIS"is"a"specialized"form"of"database"because"each"item"of"data,"be"it"a"row"of"

statistics,"a" string"of" text,"an" image,"or"a"movie," is" linked" to"a"coordinateCbased"representation"of" the" location" that" the"data" refer" to."Thus,"GIS" combines" spatial+data" in" the" form" of" points," lines," polygons," or" grid" cells,"with" the" attribute+ data"held" in" conventional" database" form." This" provides" a" structure" that" is" able" to"answer"queries"not"only"about"what+features"are" in" the"database,"but"also"where"they"are"located."This"is"what"makes"a"GIS"unique."8"

"More" recently,"Gregory"and"Paul"Ell,"Director"of" the"Centre" for"Data"Digitisation"and"Analysis" in" the" School" of" Geography," Archeology" and" Palaeoecology" at" Queens"University"in"Belfast,"stated"that"in"simplest"terms,"GIS"is"a"type"of"software,"but"argued"that"historians"should" think"of" it"not"as"a" type"of" software"but"as" tools" that" software"offers. 9 "In" this" context," they" defined" GIS" using" Englands" Department" of" the"Environment" definition:" [a]" system" for" capturing," storing," checking," integrating,"manipulating," analysing" and" displaying" data" which" are" spatially" referenced" to" the"Earth.10"There" are"now"many" examples" of" how"geographicallyCintegrated"history"has"

6"Anne"Kelly"Knowles,"Introduction,"Social+Science+History"24/3"(Fall"2000):"452."7"Ibid."8"Ian"N."Gregory"and"Richard"G."Healey,"Historical"GIS:"Structuring,"Mapping,"and"Analysing"Geographies"of"the"Past,"Progress+in+Human+Geography"31/5"(2007):"638C9."9"Ian"N."Gregory"and"Paul"S."Ell,"Historical+GIS:+Technologies,+Methodologies+and+Scholarship"(Cambridge:"Cambridge"University"Press,"2007):"3."10"Department"of"the"Environment,"Handling+Geographic+Information:+Report+of+the+Committee+of+Enquiry+Chaired+by+Lord+Chorley+HMSO"(London,"1987),"quoted"in"Gregory"and"Ell,"Historical+GIS,"3C4.""

8

been" used" to" enhance" historical" research" and" visualize" historical" information" in" new"ways.11"""Advantages"of"GIS"for"Historians"With" these"definitions" in"mind,"what" can"GIS"do" for"historians?"Fiona"Black,"Bertrum"MacDonald,"and"J."Malcom"Black"emphasized"the"context"a"GIS"project"can"provide"by"collecting"various"types"of"data"into"an"appropriate"location"in"time"and"space.12"Some"of" these"data" include"numerical," textual," and"visual" sources."Highlighting" the" specific"areas"in"which"GIS"can"assist"book"historians,"the"authors"noted"that""

GIS" technology" offers" book" historians" the" opportunity" to" visualize," synthesize,"and"analyze"a"wide"array"of"relevant"demographic,"economic,"and"bibliographic"variables" from" disparate" source" databases." Numerous" possibilities" exist" for"creating"new"knowledge"or"at" least"examining"more"broadly"some"of"the"issues"that" concern" us:" for" example," literacy" rates" affecting" the" numbers" of" readers;"numbers" of" readers" affecting" the" markets" perceived" by" booksellers" and"publishers;"and"national"or"ethnic"background"of"settlers"affecting"the"perception"of"the"importance"of"education"and"print"culture"generally."Data"relating"to"all"of"these"factors"have"been"or"will"be"put"into"database"format"by"scholars,"whether"or"not"they"are"yet"thinking"of"GIS"as"an"analytical"tool.13""

Gregory"and"Ell"pointed"out"that"another"advantage"of"GIS"for"historians"is"that"it"can"challenge" existing" theories" or" orthodoxies.14"Geoff" Cunfers" On+ the+ Great+ Plains:+Agriculture+ and+ Environment" provides" a" good" example" of" how" this" can" be" done.15"Discussing"the"recent"historiography"on"the"interactions"between"people"and"the"land"in"the"Great"Plains"area,"Cunfer"explained"that"most"historians"have"been"fairly"pessimistic"about" how" humans" have" treated" nature," citing" the" work" of" Donald" Worster" in"particular. 16 "In" Dust+ Bowl:+ The+ Southern+ Plains+ in+ the+ 1930s, 17 "Worster" argued" that"capitalist" forces" drove" farmers" beyond" ecological" sustainability." Cunfers" analysis"

11"For"a"robust"list"of"historical"studies"which"incorporate"GIS,"see"http://www.hgis.org.uk/bibliography.htm,"accessed"on"24"September"2013."12"Fiona"A."Black,"Bertrum"H."MacDonald,"and"J."Malcom"W."Black,"Geographic"Information"Systems:"A"New"Research"method"for"Book"History,"Book+History"1/1"(1998):11.""13"Ibid.,"18.""14"Gregory"and"Ell,"Historical+GIS,"16."15"Geoff"Cunfer,"On+the+Great+Plains:+Agriculture+and+Environment"(College"Station:"Texas"A&M"University"Press,"2005),"9."16"Ibid."17"Donald"Worster,"Dust+Bowl:+The+Southern+Plains+in+the+1930s"(New"York:"Oxford"University"Press,"2004"[1979])."

9"

provided"a"much"more" complicated"explanation,"however."His"book"propose[d]" that"the" interaction" between" people" and" the" rest" of" nature" is" much" more" complex" and"ambiguous"than"either"a"progressive"or"a"declensionist"narrative"allows.18"Cunfer"wove"together" data" from" several" decades" and" sources," interpolating" them" in" a" GIS." In"particular,"he"used"population"data,"soil"data,"climate"data,"agricultural"data,"and"map"data" in"his" analysis"of" the"Dust"Bowl.19"On+the+Great+Plains" also"demonstrates" the"vast"amount"of"data"a"GIS"can"handle,"which"makes"possible"projects"that"are"much"larger"in"scope"than"would"be"feasible"without"this"software.""Any"historian"can"benefit"from"using"GIS,"regardless"of"field"or"sources,"because"of"its"incorporation"of"both"quantitative"and"qualitative"data,"which"reintroduces"the"spatial"component"of" the"human"past."For"example," the" jurisdictional" territory"of"a"sixteenthCcentury" French" court" can" be" roughly" determined" by" using" the" town" names" given" in"court"records"over"the"span"of"one"monarchs"reign."Or"the"migration"of"population"in"the"late"twentiethCcentury"United"States"can"be"plotted"by"using"federal"and"state"census"records."The" rise"and" fall"of" the"Atlantic" slave" trade" can"be"mapped" from" the"African"ports"that"were"sources"for"slaves,"through"the"various"ports"of"call"across"the"Caribbean,"to"the"important"slavery"depots"of"North"America."Church"records"can"be"used"to"track"the" spread" of" Protestantism" across" communities" or" of" Christianity" across" the" New"World."These"are"just"a"few"of"the"many"types"of"project"for"which"GIS"can"be"used"to"help"visualize"and"answer"common"historical"research"questions.""GIS"Software"Packages"Now"that"we"have"provided"a"little"background"on"how"historians"can"and"have"used"GIS,"we"will"consider"some"of"the"GIS"programs"available."There"are"many"openCsource"and" commercial"GIS" programs,20"which" have"different" strengths" and"weaknesses." The"most"popular"commercial"GIS"software"is"ArcGIS"from"ESRI,"a"company"that"develops"GIS" products" and" services" and" which" has" played" a" crucial" role" in" setting" industry"standards."This"software"not"only"allows"for"data"management"and"analysis"regarding"geographic" places," but" has" the" potential" for" map" visualization" in" 2D" as" well" as" 3D."Model"Builder"within"ArcGIS"allows"a"user"to"run"a"series"of"tools"on"an"area"of"a"map"and"then"apply"those"same"tools"to"other"geographic"locations"on"the"map."ArcGIS"also"provides" products" such" as" developer" tools," mobile" GIS," and" servers" for" GIS." Many"government" agencies" and" private" corporations" employ" ArcGIS" for" uses" such" as"

18"Cunfer"2005,"10."19"Ibid.,"241C262."20"OpenCsource"programs"are"ones"that"are"not"only"free,"but"allow"the"user"to"access"the"actual"program"source"code."This"means"that"computerCsavvy"users"can"write"their"own"functions"to"customize"the"program"to"better"suit"their"needs."

10

conservation,"land"development,"and"education."However,"there"are"several"drawbacks"to" ArcGIS," including" its" steep" learning" curve," high" price" (around" $3,000.00)," and" the"copyright"issues"inherent"in"nonCopen"source"software.""Google" Earth" is" a" free" program" that" depicts" a" virtual" globe," with" geographical" and"mapping" information," although" it" is" not" a" complete" GIS" program." The" free" version"provides" limited"functionality,"although"Google"Earth"Pro"can"be"purchased"and"does"provide" more" functions." Google" Earth" uses" satellite" images" to" offer" impeccable" 3D"images"of"the"Earth,"but"it"is"difficult"to"add"data"to"those"images."Therefore,"its"biggest"drawback"is"the"inability"to"use"it"to"generate"customized"maps"for"data"analysis.""Wikimapia" is"similar" to"Google"Maps"in"that" it" is"an"online"map"and"satellite" imagery"site."However,"it"also"allows"users"to"add"information,"such"as"notes"or"pictures,"to"any"location."Users"can"also"add"features"such"as"roads"and"rivers."Thus,"Wikimapia"offers"a"bit"more" functionality" than"Google"Earth."Both"of" these"programs"allow"one" to" locate"specific"points"on" the"globe,"but"do"not"allow" for" the"user" to"enter"qualitative"data"or"create"a"map"using" that"data,"making" them"unsuitable" for"any"sort"of"geographicallyCintegrated" history." There" are"many" other" commercial" and" openCsource"GIS" programs"available." However," they" tend" to" fall" into" the" same" categories:" too" expensive" for"educational"use,"or"too"limited"for"historical"data"analysis."""MapWindow"GIS" is" an" open" source" program" that" offers" great" potential" for" historical"geographic"data"analysis,"and"it" is" free"for"all"users."However,"due"to"the"complicated"nature" of" fullyCfunctional" geographic" information" systems," which" is" their" greatest"benefit," there" is" a" steep" learning" curve" a"user"must" overcome" to" employ"any"of" these"programs."Our" goal"with" this" training"manual" is" to" help" users"manage" this" curve" by"presenting" the" essential" concepts" and" techniques" of" MapWindow" GIS" in" ten" short"chapters"with"handsCon"exercises."We"have"also" focused"only"on" those"aspects"of"GIS"that"are"useful"for"historians"and"other"social"science"and"humanities"scholars,"omitting"the" tools" designed"more" for" researchers" in" the" natural" sciences."We"hope" that" even" a"busy" educator" or" a" class" of" interested" students" can" master" the" basics" of" GIS" in" one"semester" by" completing" a" chapter" each" week," allowing" the" user" to" apply" GIS" to"historical"source"materials.""What"is"MapWindow"GIS?"MapWindow"GIS"is"an"openCsource"GIS"program"used"by"GIS"analysts,"technicians,"and"programmers"worldwide."MapWindow" is" free" to" both" users" and"developers," and" the"source"code"for"the"program"can"be"acquired"by"anyone"and"added"to"or"altered"to"suit"their"purposes.""It"is"the"most"widely"used"openCsource"GIS"for"the"Windows"operating"

11"

system," with" over" 6000" downloads" per" month" from" the" MapWindow" website,"www.mapwindow.org." MapWindow" can" perform" many" of" the" same" tasks" as" a"commercial" GIS" program," such" as" ArcGIS." Thus,"MapWindow" provides" an" excellent"opportunity"for"those"interested"in"learning"about"GIS"without"having"to"spend"money"on"a"commercial"GIS"suite."The"exercise"for"this"chapter"will"be"to"download"and"install"this"program.""Currently" there" are" two" versions" of" MapWindow." MapWindow" 4" is" a" highly" stable"program"that"has"been"around"in"one"form"or"another"since"2005.""It"is"currently"in"stage"4.8"of"development"and,"by"all"estimations,"will"continue"to"be"used"and"improved"upon"for"years"to"come."MapWindow"6"was"released"in"its"later"testing"stages"in"the"spring"of"2011." While" MapWindow" 6" represents" the" future" of" the" MapWindow" project,"MapWindow" 4" was" chosen" for" this" manual" because" it" is" a" more" stable" version," and"version"6" is"still"being"debugged"and"developed." In" this"manual,"we"will"be"using"the"MapWindow" 4.8.6" release," which" we" will" make" available" along" with" the" training"manual"itself.""Things"to"know"about"using"a"GIS"program"File"organization" is"a"key"component"of"any"GIS"project."A"GIS"project" is"made"up"of"several"files"of"different"types,"all"of"which"must"be"found"easily"by"the"software;"these"files"are"automatically"generated"when"a"GIS"project"is"created"and"saved."Because"each"GIS"project"is"made"up"of"many"files,"we"strongly+recommend"that"you"designate"a"folder"on"your" computer"desktop" for"all" files"associated"with"MapWindow."This"will" ensure"that"all" the"necessary"files"are"in"the"same"location"and"that"MapWindow"can"find"the"necessary" files" as" you"work" on" a" project." As" you"work" through" the" exercises" in" this"manual," you" should" create" a"new"subfolder"within"your"MapWindow" folder" for" each"GIS"project"created"by"the"exercises."As"historians"are"well"aware,"managing"files"in"an"organized" fashion" can" save" a" great" deal" of" time" on" a" project." This" organization" is"particularly"important"because"of"the"timeCintensive"nature"of"a"GIS"project."Much"of"the"time" that" goes" into" a"GIS" study" is" devoted" to" the" preparation" of" the" data" needed" for"results.21"Many"scholars"estimate"that"as"much"as"80%"of"the"time"spent"on"a"project"will"be" spent" on"data"preparation." If" data"must" be"processed" from"analog" to"digital" form,"preparation"time"could"be"even"more"intensive."Moreover,"no"GIS"program"can"open"a"project"unless"it"can"locate"all"of"the"affiliated"files,"which"must"be"in"the"same"location."Therefore,"organization"in"GIS"is"vital"for"saving"time"and"for"overall"efficiency.""

21"Anne"Kelly"Knowles,"Introduction,"Social+Science+History"24/"3"(Fall"2000),"463."""

12

Incorporating" historical" research" into" a" GIS" has" distinct" advantages." Converting,"plugging"in,"and"analyzing"historical"data"can"lead"to"new"types"of"research"questions"and"discoveries."MapWindow"GIS"provides"an"opportunity" for"historians" to" include"a"powerful" geospatial" component" in" their" research" at" no" cost," unlike" commercial" GIS"suites."Thus,"MapWindow"GIS"offers"much"to"historians"seeking"to"incorporate"a"better"sense" of" time" and" space" in" their" research." In" this" first" exercise," you" will" learn" to"download"MapWindow"GIS"to"your"personal"computer."The"next"chapter"will"focus"on"some"of"the"nuts"and"bolts"of"GIS"and"will"show"you"one"of"the"ways"in"which"GIS"can"deal"with"population"data."""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

13"

EXERCISE!1"Our"first"exercise"will"show"you"how"to"download"and"install"MapWindow"GIS"version"4.8.6," so" that"you" can"become" familiarized"with" the" software" interface"before" learning"how"to"use"the"program.""Task:""Our" task" for" this" exercise" is" to" download" and" install" MapWindow," and" to" become"familiarized"with"its"layout." Step"1:""Before"downloading"the"software,"you"should"close"any"other"programs"you"may"have"running"on"your"computer,"such"as"MSWord."Open"your"browser"(Explorer,"Firefox,"etc.),"and"go"to"http://www.mapwindow.org/downloads/MapWindowx86FullCv48FinalCinstaller.exe." Note:"Rather"than"copying"and"pasting"the"URL"into"your"browser,"type"the"URL"described"in"step" 1" into" your" browser," and" press" Enter." This" will" enable" you" to" download"MapWindow"4.8.6.""We" caution" our" users" that" copying" any" URL" from" a" PDF" document" and" pasting" it"directly"into"a"web"browser"might"lead"them"to"downloading"inaccurate"data.""""""""""""""""""

14

Step"2:"When" the" download" is" finished," click" on" the" button" Run" to" install" MapWindow"[Figure"1.1].""

"Figure"1.1:"Download"Complete"message."

"Note:""If"you"are"running"Windows"7,"you"will"need"to"close"your"browser"once"the"download"is"finished."There"will"now"be"a"MapWindow"icon"on"your"desktop"for"the"installation"program."Click"on"this"icon"to"run"the"installation."""""""""""""""""

15"

Step"3:""Depending"on"your"version"of"Windows,"you"may"see"a"Security"Warning"stating"that"it"might"not"be"safe"to"install"the"software"[Figure"1.2]."Disregard"this"warning"and"click"on"the"Run"button.""

"

"Figure"1.2:"Security"Warning."

Step"4:""You"will"be"asked"to"select"the"setup"language"[Figure"1.3]."Select"the"language"of"your"choice"and"then"click"on"OK."

"

"Figure"1.3:"Select"Setup"Language."

"

16

Step"5:""The"final"step"is"the"MapWindow"GIS"Setup"Wizard"[Figure"1.4]."Click"on"Next."It"may"take"a"few"seconds"for"the"following"screen"to"appear:""

"Figure"1.4:"MapWindow"GIS"Setup"Wizard."

Step"6:""The"MapWindows"License"Agreement"window"will"open"[Figure"1.5]."Choose"the"option"I"accept"the"agreement"and"then"click"on"Next.""

"Figure"1.5:"License"Agreement."

"

17"

Step"7:""The"next"screen"will"show"some"information"describing"what"is"new"in"this"version"of"MapWindow."Click"on"Next.""

"Figure"1.6:"What"is"new"in"MapWindow."

"Step"8:""Next,"you"will"be"asked"if"you"would" like" to"donate"some"money"to" the"MapWindow"project"[Figure"1.7]."Please"consider"helping"to"fund"the"MapWindow"project,"although"you"are"under"no"obligation"to"do"so,"and"then"click"on"Next.""

"Figure"1.7:"Donate"to"MapWindow."

"

18

Step"9:"The"next"screen"will"ask"where"you"would"like"MapWindow"to"be"installed"[Figure"1.8]."Click"on"Next"to"install"the"program"in"its"own"folder.""

"Figure"1.8:"Select"Destination"Location."

"Step"10:""You"will"now"be"asked"to"Select"components"to"be"installed"[Figure"1.9]."Choose"Full"installation"and"click"on"Next.""

"Figure"1.9:"Select"Components"screen."

""

19"

Step"11:"After"the"selection"is"done,"you"will"be"asked"if"you"would"like"MapWindow"to"be"listed"as"a"program"in"your"Start"Menu"[Figure"1.10]."If"you"would"like"MapWindow"to"be"in"your"Start"Menu,"click"on"Next."If"you"do"not"want"a"shortcut"in"the"Start"Menu,"select" the"box" in" the"bottom" left"marked"Dont" create"a"Start"Menu" folder"and" then"click"on"Next.""""

"Figure"1.10:"Select"Start"Menu"Folder."

"Step"12:"Now" that" you" have" chosen" your" installation" options," you" are" ready" to" install"MapWindow."Click"on"Install"to"begin"[Figure"1.11]:""

"Figure"1.11:"Ready"to"Install"window."

20

Step"13:""You"will"see"the"Completing"the"MapWindow"GIS"Setup"Wizard"screen"[Figure"1.12]."You"can"leave"all"three"options"selected,"or"just"choose"Start"MapWindow"GIS.""When""you"have"chosen"your"options,"click"on"Finish.""

"Figure"1.12:"Completing"the"Setup"Wizard."

"Step"14:""MapWindow" will" open" and" you" should" see" the" MapWindow" main" page," with" the"Welcome"to"MapWindow"screen"[Figure"1.13]."Close"the"Welcome"screen"and"take"some"time"to"examine"the"software."""

"Figure"1.13:"MapWindow"home"screen."

21"

Step"15:""After"you"close"the"Welcome"screen,"you"will"see"the"basic"MapWindow"screen."There"are"some"aspects"of"this"screen"that"you"should"be"familiar"with."The"first"thing"to"know"is"that"the"large"window"that"takes"up"most"of"the"screen"is"called"the"Map"pane."The"smaller"window"on"the"upper"left"is"the"Legend"pane."This"pane"is"used"for"many"of"the"basic"operations"in"MapWindow,"and"you"will"become"very"used"to"using"it."Below"the" Legend" pane" is" the" Preview" pane." This" pane" is" not" used" very" often" for" our"purposes,"although"it"is"good"for"you"to"recognize"what"and"where"it"is.""Step"16:""You"should"feel"free"to"play"with"the"buttons"across"the"top"of"the"screen,"and"to"open"the"dropCdown"menus."MapWindow"includes"some"sample"data"you"can"play"with," if"you"would"like.""

"Figure"1.14:"The"MapWindow"main"screen,"containing"the"Map,"Legend,"and"

Preview"panes.""

Congratulations!" You" have" successfully" downloaded" and" installed"MapWindow"GIS."You"are"now"ready"to"move"onto"Chapter"2,"which"will"teach"you"how"to"(1)"add"layers,"(2)"change"layer"colors,"and"(3)"create"a"choropleth"map"of"the"United"States."

! 22"

CHAPTER(2:(Getting(Started(with(MapWindow(GIS(Now"that"we"have"discussed"how"one"can"incorporate"GIS"into"historical"research,"we"can" begin" to" explore" how"MapWindow"GIS" allows" the" user" to" synthesize" visual" and"spatial"data" for"analysis."First,"however,"we"will"explain"a" few"basic" terms" in"order" to"help"you"understand"how"GIS"programs"function."This"explanation"will"make"it"easier"for"you"to"understand"how"the"software"is"used"and"to"complete"the"exercises"at"the"end"of"each"chapter.""A(Few(Definitions(It" is" important"to"understand"certain"terms"related"to"geographic" information"and"GIS"before"starting"to"use"MapWindow."For"much"of"this"manual,"we"will"be"working"in"a"vector( data(model." (A" vector" data"model" uses" geographical" coordinates" to" represent"spatial"data."The"spatial"data"are"represented"as"geometric"points,"lines,"and"polygons."Points(in"GIS"have"no"size,"area,"or"width," though"a"symbol"for"a"point"does."A"point"symbol"shows"a"vertex"at"which"the"lines"of"longitude((x)"and"latitude((y)"cross."Points"allow"a"user"to"assign"a"precise"geographical"location"to"the"map"[Figure"2.1]."They"can"represent"anything"from"cities"to"fire"hydrants,"to"deaths"caused"by"yellow"fever.""

"Figure(2.1:(Port(Louis,(the(capital(of(Mauritius,(is(represented(as(a(point.(

(Lines( are" made" up" of" a" series" of" vertices," or" connected" points," that" may" be"representative"of"length,"but"typically"not"width"[Figure"2.2]."Lines"may"represent"rivers"or"streets,"though"they"are"not"limited"to"these"things."(

! 23"

"Figure(2.2:(The(Nile(River(is(depicted(by(a(line(composed(of(several(vertices(of(

coordinates,(represented(as(points.((

Polygons" are" a" group" of" connected" lines" and" are," therefore," shapes" that" represent" an"area,"whether"that"area"is"geographical"or"political"in"nature"[Figure"2.3]." "Examples"of"polygons"are"states,"countries,"continents,"geographical"regions,"etc."A"complete"map"in"GIS"is"composed"of"some"combination"of"points,"lines,"and"polygons,"all"of"which"can"be"userMdefined"or"downloaded"from"various"online"libraries."(

"Figure(2.3:(Australia(is(an(example(of(a(polygon.(

"These"various"types"of"geographic"data"are"portrayed"in"MapWindow"GIS"as"layers."A"layer" in"GIS"represents"one" type"of"geographic"datum." In"other"words,"using" layers" is"similar" to"placing"several"overhead"projector"transparencies"over"each"other,"and"each"layer"can"only"contain"one"type"of" information"(points," lines,"or"polygons)."To"move"a"

! 24"

layer"on"top"of"another"layer,"the"user"can"click"and"drag"the"layer"name"to"the"desired"location"in"the"Data"Layers"area"of"the"Legend(pane."The"Map(pane"is"where"the"data"layers"are"drawn."Figure"2.4"shows"a"map"of" the"United"States"made"up"of"a"polygon"layer"containing"the"states,"a"line"layer"of"the"rivers,"and"a"point"layer"with"city"data."(

(Figure(2.4:(A(map(of(the(U.S.(with(layers(stacked(on(top(of(one(another.(

"Along" with" points," lines," and" polygons," vector" data" can" store" attributes" that" are"associated"with" specific" coordinates."Attributes" in" a"GIS" could" be" names," population"information," homes," crops," or" any" number" of" things."An" example" of" attribute" data" is"seen"in"Figure"2.5."In"this"example,"we"can"see"the"attributes"listed"for"various"countries,"including" cities," country" name," geographical" subMregion," geographical" region," and"capital"cities.""

! 25"

(Figure(2.5:(An(attribute(table(in(MapWindow(GIS.(

"The"process"of"viewing," creating,"and"using"various"kinds"of" symbols" in"GIS" is" called"symbology."At"the"end"of"the"chapter,"the"exercise"will"teach"you"how"to"use"symbology"tools"to"create"a"choropleth(map."A"choropleth"map"is"a"thematic"map"in"which"areas"are" shaded" in" proportion" to" the" measurement" of" the" data" variable" being" depicted"[Figure"2.6].""

"Figure(2.6:(This(choropleth(map(shades(each(state(based(on(its(foreignUborn(

population(according(to(the(1900(U.S.(Census."

! 26"

A"vector"data"model"project" is" saved" in"a"unique" file" format"known"as"a"shapefile."A"project"can"be"saved"at"any"stage,"without"being"an"end"result."It"is"important"to"note"the"distinction" between" a" layer" and" a" shapefile." While" layer" files" are" used" to" visualize"shapefiles," a" layer" is" not" a" data" format."A" shapefile" is" comprised" of" several" different"files," including" layer" files."Required" files"contained"within"a"shapefile" include" the" .dbf"file"(database"file),"and"a".shx"file"(shape"index"format)."Any"given"shapefile"may"have"many"other"file"extensions"associated"with"it."Some"of"these"files" in"MapWindow"may"include" .mwsr" (rendering" file)," .prj" (project" file)," .sbn" (spatial" index" of" features)," .sbx"(also" a" spatial" index" of" features)," and" a" .shp.xml" file" (provides" metadata" in" an" .xml"format)."A"shapefile"will"only"open"in"a"GIS"program"if"all"of"these"associated"files"are"loaded"properly."You"can"guarantee"that"all"of"the"required"files"will"be"loaded"together."For"instance,"if"you"are"working"with"a"roads"shapefile,"a"country"shapefile,"and"a"cities"shapefile" in"MapWindow,"and"you"would" like" to"save"all"of" these"shapefiles" together,"this" can" be"done" by" saving" everything" together" as" a" project" [Figure" 2.7]."A"project" in"MapWindow"is"saved"as"a".mwprj"file."Saving"an"entire"project"permits"users"to"pick"up"a"project"where"they"left"it"during"the"previous"work"session,"and"it"allows"the"program"to"do"the"file"management."""

"Figure(2.7:(Saving(a(project.(

"Once" created"or" loaded" into"MapWindow," the" layers" can"be" assigned"a"projection."A"projection"takes"a"spherical"portion"of"the"Earths"surface,"large"or"small,"and"attempts"to"place"that"area"on"a"flat"surface,"such"as"a"computer"screen"or"a"piece"of"paper,"while"keeping" the" features" of" that" area" as" intact" as" possible.(We"will" discuss" projection" in"greater" detail" in" chapter" 3." There" are" many" other" geographic" and" GIS" concepts" and"terms"that"will"need"to"be"defined"as"you"become"proficient"in"MapWindow."These"will"be"defined"as"they"arise"in"future"chapters,"and"when"you"find"it"necessary"to"remember"any"of"the"concepts"and"terms,"you"may"consult"the"glossary."

! 27"

EXERCISE(2(Often"historians"are" interested"not"only"in"the"size"of"a"population,"but" in" its"makeup:"for"instance,"the"percentage"of"immigrants"in"the"population."GIS"can"allow"us"to"convey"such"data"in"a"visual"way"with"a"choropleth"map."""Task:"For" this" exercise,"we"will" create" a" choropleth"map" that"displays" the"percentage"of" the"population"that"was"foreignMborn"for"each"state"in"the"United"States"in"1900."(Step(1:(Remember"that"for"good"file"management,"each"project"(thus,"each"exercise)"should"be"saved"to"its"own"subfolder."Therefore,"the"first"thing"to"do"is"to"create"a"folder"on"your"desktop" to" store" your" MapWindow" files;" we" recommend" that" you" name" this" folder"Exercises.""(For"each"exercise,"you"should"create"a"subfolder"for"the"data"used"in"that"exercise"and"for" the" results" of" the" exercise." For" this" exercise," that" subfolder" should" be" labeled"Exercise"2.""Note:"If" you" are" using" Windows" 7," this" subfolder" will" be" created" when" you" unzip" the"shapefiles"folder.""Step(2:(Next,"we"are"going"to"download"a"folder"containing"three"shapefiles:"the"United"States"with" the" percentage" of" the" foreignMborn" population" in" 1900," the" major" rivers" of" the"United"States,"and"the"major"cities"of" the"United"States."We"will"be" loading"these" files"into"MapWindow"so"that"we"can"see"and"modify"the"map.""Go"to"http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wpMcontent/uploads/exercises/exercise2.zip""You"will"be"asked"if"you"want"to"save"the"folder"containing"the"shapefiles."Click"Save"to"start"the"download"of"the"folder."""Note:(This" link"will"not"open"a"web"page." It"will"open"a"window"asking"you" if"you"want" to"save"the"folder."The"files"for"this"exercise"are"zipped."If"you"are"running"Windows"7,"you"

! 28"

can" extract" the" files" from" this" folder" by" rightMclicking" on" the" folder" and" choosing"Extract"all."If"you"are"not"using"Windows"7,"and"you"do"not"have"a"program"that"will"open"zipped"files,"please"go"to"http://www.winzip.com"to"get"WinZip,"and"follow"the"instructions"to"extract"the"files."""Once" you" have" unzipped" the" shapefile," the" following" files" should" appear" in" your"Exercise"2"subfolder:"USrivers.shp,"UScities.shp,"UnitedStates1900.shp."You"may"see"other"files"with"different"extensions"in"the"folder,"depending"on"which"operating"system"you"used."Now"you"are"ready"to"use"the"new"data"in"MapWindow.""Step(3:(Open" the"MapWindow" application."MapWindow" is" a" large" program," so" it" may" take"several"seconds"for"it"to"open.""Step(4:(

"Click"the" "button.""Navigate"to"the"folder"where"you"saved"the"UnitedStates1900"shapefile."This"should"be"your"gExercise"2"folder."""Select" the" shapefile" UnitedStates1900.shp" and" open" it;" this" opens" the" layer" in"MapWindow." You" should" be" able" to" see" a"map" depicting" the" United" States" on" your"screen.""Step(5:(

Use" the" Pan" button" "" to"move" your"map," and" the" In" "" and" Out" ""buttons"to"zoom"in"and"zoom"out.""

(Note:((Do" not"worry" if" the" colors" of" the"United" States" are" not" the" same" colors" that" you" see"depicted" in" this" exercise." GIS" software" randomly" assigns" colors" when" a" layer" is" first"opened."""""

! 29"

Step(6:(Now" that" the"United" States" layer" has" been" loaded,"we"will" add" the"major" cities" and"rivers"as"additional"layers.""

Click"the"Add"button" ".""Go"to"the"folder"where"the"USrivers"and"UScities"shapefiles"are"saved."This"should"be"your"Exercise"2"subfolder."""Open"the"UScities"and"USrivers"shapefiles"by"repeating"the"procedure"used"to"open"the"UnitedStates1900"shapefile."""Your"screen"should"look"like"[Figure"2.1]:""

"Figure(2.1:(Map(of(the(United(States."

"Step(7:(Now"we"will"turn"off"the"rivers"and"cities"layers."Go"to"the"Legend"pane"in"the"leftMhand"corner"of"your"screen"and"locate"the"Data"Layers"list"[Figure"2.2]."Uncheck"the"Usrivers"and"Uscities"layers"to"turn"them"off.""

"

! 30"

"Figure(2.2:(Shapefile(layers,(with(icons(indicating(the(point,(line,(and(polygon(layers.("Notice"that"the"icons"shown"below"the"layer"titles"in"Figure"2.2"represent"point,"line,"and"polygon"layers,"and"that"both"UScities"and"USrivers"are"unchecked,"indicating"that"they"are"turned"off."""After"you"have" turned"off" the"UScities"and"USrivers" layers," look"at"your"map" [Figure"2.3]."You"should"see"a"map"of" the"United"States"with"each"state"outlined,"but"with"no"other"details.""

"Figure(2.3:(Map(of(the(United(States(with(the(rivers(and(cities(layers(turned(off.((Step(8:(Now"that"we"have"learned"to"load"layers"and"to"turn"them"on"and"off,"we"will"learn"how"to"store"and"manipulate"the"data"associated"with"a"layer."To"do"this,"we"will"examine"the"attribute"information"stored"in"the"UnitedStates1900"shapefile."""

! 31"

Go"to"Data"Layers"in"the"Legend"pane.""RightMclick"the"UnitedStates1900"layer."""Select"Attribute"Table"Editor.""This"will"open"the"Attribute"Table"Editor"window"[Figure"2.4]."Notice"that"there"are"horizontal"and"vertical"scroll"bars"you"can"use" to"see"more"of" the" file."Locate" the" field"column" labeled"FB1900."This"column"contains" the"percentage"of" the"population" that"was"foreign"born"for"each"state"in"the"year"1900."""

"Figure(2.4:(Attribute(Table(Editor.(The(field(FB1900(shows(the(percentage(of(

foreignUborn(citizens(in(each(state.("Step(9:((To"depict" the"percentages"of" foreignMborn" individuals" in" the"U.S." in" 1900,"we"need" to"apply"colors"to"depict"the"various"percentages."We"can"do"this"by"using"a"color"ramp,"which"assigns"a"color"value"based"on"the"percentage"value"of"the"chosen"attribute.""Close"the"Attribute"Table"Editor."""Go"to"the"Layers"tab"in"the"Legend"pane."

! 32"

RightMclick"the"UnitedStates1900"layer.""Choose" gPropertiesg" from" the" dropMdown"menu." You"will" see" the" Layer" properties"window"[Figure"2.5]:""

"Figure(2.5:(Layer(properties(window.(

""""""""""""""""

! 33"

Go"to"the"gCategoriesg"tab,"as"seen"in"Figure"2.6."This"tab"lets"us"select"which"data"field"we"want"to"break"into"categories,"and"to"assign"a"color"scheme"to"those"categories.""

"Figure(2.6:(Categories(option(under(Properties.(

(((((((((((((((

! 34"

Step(10:((In" gNumeric" Fields,g" choose" FB1900" from" the" dropMdown" menu." This" tells"MapWindow"to"use" this"data" in" the"coloring"scheme." In"Color" scheme,"click" the" "button."The"Color"schemes"list"window"will"appear"[Figure"2.7]."""

"Figure(2.7:(Color(schemes(list.(

(Click"Edit."The"color"scheme"editing"window"will"appear."Choose"white"for"Color"1"and"blue"for"Color"2,"as"shown"in"Figure"2.8,"and"click"Ok.""

(Figure(2.8:(Color(scheme(editing(window.(

""

! 35"

You"will"see"your"chosen"coloring"scheme"in"the"Color"schemes"list."Click"Ok."The"window"will"close"and"you"will"be"back"at"the"Categories"window.""

"Figure(2.9:(Color(schemes(list.(

("""""""""""""""""""""

! 36"

Step(11:(In"the"Categories"window,"go"to"Color"scheme."In"Color"scheme,"choose"the"blue"and" white" coloring" scheme" that" you" created," as" Figure" 2.10" shows." In" Categories,"under"Classification,"select"the"value"5."Make"sure"that"FB1900"is"selected"in"the"Numeric" Fields" column." Finally," click" Generate" in" the"upperMright" corner," and" then"click"Ok.""

"Figure(2.10:(Layer(Properties(window.(

""""""""""""""

! 37"

Now"your"map"should"look"like"[Figure"2.11].""

"Figure(2.11:(Choropleth(map(with(coloring(scheme(applied(to(it.(

(Step(12:(Now,"to"view"the"percentage"of"foreignMborn"population"in"any"state,"click"the""

" ""button"on"MapWindowis"menu"bar,"and"then"click"the"state."" "(((((((((((

! 38"

Step(13:((To"save"your"project,"go"to"Project,"and"in"Project,"choose"Save"As"[Figure"2.12]""

(Figure(2.12:(Save(As(option(in(the(Project(menu.(

"Name"your"project"Exercise"2"and"click"Save"[Figure"2.13].""

(Figure(2.13:(Save(As(window.(

! 39"

If"you"would"like"to"check"and"make"sure"that"your"project"has"saved"properly,"close"MapWindow"and"then"reopen"it."On"the"entry"screen,"you"should"now"see"Exercise"2.mpwprj"under"the"Open"a"project"icon"[Figure"2.14].""

"Figure(2.14:(Exercise(2(now(shows(under(Open(a(project.(

Congratulations!" You" have" generated" a" choropleth" map" and" used" a" color" ramp" to"highlight"aspects"of"the"data"associated"with"the"map."You"should"now"feel"comfortable"with" the"MapWindow" interface." Feel" free" to" repeat" any" portion" of" this" exercise"with"which"you"would" like"more"practice," including" changing" the" colors"used" to" represent"the"foreignMborn"population"percentages.""You"are"now"ready" to"move" to"Chapter"3." In" that" chapter,"you"will" learn"some"of" the"basics"of"cartography,"including"the"importance"of"selecting"the"correct"projection,"and"you"will"apply"this"knowledge"to"a"map"of"France.""

(

! 40#

CHAPTER(3:(Datum(and(Map(Projection(All# maps,# whether# of# your# hometown# or# of# the# universe,# are# two7dimensional#representations#of#a#three7dimensional#space,#which#means#that#all#maps#have#a#certain#level# of# distortion.# This# distortion# may# not# matter# much# when# the# map# is# of# the#universe#or#even#of#our#galaxy,#but#when#the#map#depicts#the#Earth#or#any#region#of#the#Earth,# the# issue# is# more# important.# Because# the# Earth# is# an# irregular# spheremore#specifically,# the#Earths# shape# is#described# as# an# irregular# ellipsoida# transformation#must# occur# to# place# a# three7dimensional# area# of# the# Earth# on# a# flat# surface.# This#transformation# is# called# projection.# Many# different# projections# exist,# and# which#projection# is# chosen# by# a# cartographer# depends# on# the# purpose# for# which# the#geographic#data#are#displayed.##(Longitude# and# latitude#were#developed# in# order# to#determine# the# location#of# specific#positions# on# the# earths# surface.# Longitude# is# anchored# by# the# prime# meridian,# an#imaginary#line#which#is#determined#to#be#0#and#which#circles#the#earth#from#the#North#Pole# to# the#South#Pole,#dividing# the# earth# into# the#Eastern#and#Western#hemispheres.#Longitude#is#measured#by#degrees,#from#0#to#180,#with#either#a#West#or#an#East#direction.#Lines# of# latitude# cross# lines# of# longitude.# The# equator# is# the# equivalent# of# the# lateral#prime#meridian,#and#it#divides#the#world#into#the#Northern#and#Southern#hemispheres.#Hence,# the# latitude# of# a# place# on# the# earth#will# be# between# 0# and# 90,#with# either# a#North#or#a#South#direction.#Degrees#can#be#divided#further# into#minutes#and#seconds.#Calculating#an#exact#location#on#the#earths#surface#requires#determining#the#locations#longitude#and#latitude#to#an#exact#degree,#minute,#and#second.#If#you#have#ever#used#a#GPS,#you#have#seen#the#nine7digit#notation#used#for#geographic#locations.#A#GIS#draws#on#libraries#of#GPS#data#to#calculate#different#map#projections#for#you.##The#lines#of#longitude#and#latitude#essentially#create#a#grid#of#the#Earths#surface,#which#is# important# for#mapmaking#because# it#provides#a#way#for#users# to#assign#geographic#coordinates#to#their#data.#This#grid#must#be#mated#to#an#estimate#of#the#shape#and#size#of#the#Earth,#and#this#estimate#is#referred#to#as#a#datum.#A#datum#provides#a#model#of#the#Earth# as# an# ellipsoid;# because# the#Earth# is# not# a# perfect# ellipsoid,# there# are#many#different#datums#(correct#plural#for#this#use#of#the#word#datum;#not#data)#to#express#its#irregular#shape.#When#the#datum#model#is#expressed#in#longitude#and#latitude#(and#often# elevation)# data,# the# result# is# commonly# called,# in# the# GIS#world,# a# geographic(coordinate(system.#Among#the#most#common#datums#are# the#World#Geodetic#System#1984#(WGS#1984),#the#North#American#Datum#83#(NAD83),#the#North#American#Datum#27# (NAD27),# and# the# European# Terrestrial# Reference# System# 1989# (ETRS89).# When#creating#a#map,#it#is#important#first#to#assign#a#datum#to#give#meaning#to#the#location#of#your#data.#Hundreds#of#datums#have#been#created,#and#each#of# them#will# introduce#a#

! 41#

measure#of#distortion#to#the#final#map,#depending#on#the#area#of#the#Earths#surface#in#which#the#cartographer#is# interested.#Fortunately,#you#do#not#have#to#worry#about#the#mathematical#basis#of#datums;#you#just#have#to#remember#to#pick#one#at#the#beginning#of#any#project,#before#you#start#working#on#a#map.#Once#a#datum#has#been#selected#for#a#project,#the#second#stage#is#to#assign#a#type#of#map#projection.#Different#projections#are#selected#for#different#communication#purposes.##Basics(of(Map(Projection#Because#the#Earth#cannot#be#represented#accurately#on#a#flat#surface,#such#as#a#piece#of#paper#or#a# computer# screen,#every#map#projection#presents# some#sort#of#distortion.#A#projection#may# seek# to# preserve# various# properties# of# a#map,# such# as# area,# shape,# or#distance,#but#a#projection#cannot#preserve#all#of#these#things#at#once.#Often,#a#projection#will#seek#a#balance#to#preserve#as#much#of#the#area,#shape,#and#distance#as#possible,#thus#making#each#of#them#slightly#distorted.#(Although# it# is# difficult# to# classify# the# different# types# of# projection,# Judith# Tyner# has#separated# projection# properties# into# four# types:# a)# equivalence# of# an# area;# b)#preservation#of#angles#or#of# the#shape#of#small#areas;#c)# linear#scale;#and#d)#direction.1#Equivalence#of#area#or#equal#area#maps#preserve#area#scale.#Conformal#or#orthomorphic#projections# preserve# angles# or# the# shape# of# small# areas.# These# projections# are# best# at#preserving# small# features,# such# as# a# bay# or# peninsula. 2 #Linear# scale,# also# called#equidistant# projection,# shows#distances# correctly.#Direction#projections# are# also# called#azimuthal# or# zenithal# projections;# they# will# represent# the# correct# distances# between#places#when#the#calculations#are#made#from#the#center#point#of#the#map.#Of#the#many#projections#available,#each#has#distinctive#advantages#and#disadvantages#depending#on#the#scale#and#purpose#of#your#map.#To#visualize#the#difference#a#projection#can#make,#see# Figure# 3.1.#Note# the# stretch# that# occurs# in# the# image# on# the# right#when# the#map#projection#used#for#the#image#on#the#left#is#changed#to#another#projection.#####

1#Judith#Tyner,#Principles*of*Map*Design#(New#York:#The#Guilford#Press,#2010),#1017122.#2#Ibid.,#102.#

! 42#

#Figure(3.1:(The(image(on(the(left(is(a(North(America(Albers(Equal(Area(Projection.(On(

the(right,(the(image(was(reprojected(into(a(NAD(1983(UTM(Zone(20N.#(Cylindrical,(Conical,(and(Azimuthal(Projections(All#projections#take#a#three7dimensional#image#and#map#it#onto#a#two7dimensional#map.#The#three#most#common#ways#of#doing#this#mapping#are#by#using#cylindrical,#conical,#and#azimuthal#projections.#A#cylindrical#projection,#in#essence,#wraps#a#geometric#plane#around#the#Earth:# in#this#example,#only#touching#around#the#equator#(see#Figure#3.2).3#The#result#is#a#planar#representation#of#the#Earth.#With#this#cylindrical#projection,#there#is#less#distortion#around#the#equator#and#more#around#the#Polar#Regions.###

#Figure(3.2:(This(image(demonstrates(how(cylindrical(projections(are(created.(

#If#the#plane#was#wrapped#around#the#poles,#rather#than#the#equator,#the#distortion#to#the#map#would#be#less#at#the#poles,#and#it#would#increase#closer#to#the#equator.##A#conical#projection#places#a#cone#over#a#part#of#the#earth.#A#conical#projection,#taken#from# the# vantage# point# of# the#North# Pole,# can# be# seen# in# Figure# 3.3.4#With# a# conical#projection,#area#is#preserved,#but#not#scale#and#shape.##

3#Miller#Cylindrical#Projection,#from#the#Wikimedia#Commons#(commons.wikimedia.org).#4#Polar#Conical#Projection,#from#the#Wikimedia#Commons#(commons.wikimedia.org).#

! 43#

#Figure(3.3:(A(conical(projection.#

#An#azimuthal#projection#uses#a#planar#surface#and#places#it#across#a#single#point#of#the#Earths# surface.# Azimuthal# projections# preserve# direction# from# a# certain# point.#Adopting#this#goal#means#that#shape#and#area#are#increasingly#distorted#from#the#center#point#of#a#map.#The#Lambert#azimuthal#projection#is#shown#in#Figure#3.4.5#The#point#at#which#the#planar#surface#touches#the#Earth#in#the#Lambert#azimuthal#projection#is#0#N#and#0#E,#south#of#the#West#African#country#of#Ghana.#Notice#how#much#more#distorted#both#the#Polar#Regions#and#the#equatorial#edges#are#in#this#map.#

5#Lambert#Azimuthal#Projection,#from#the#Wikimedia#Commons#(commons.wikimedia.org).#

! 44#

#Figure(3.4:#This(image(portrays(an(azimuthal(projection(with(its(center(point(just(

south(of(Ghana.(#

The# Universal( Transverse( Mercator# (UTM)# is# a# projected# coordinate# system# that#divides#the#earth#into#60#zones.#UTM#applies#the#Transverse#Mercator#map#projection,#is#based# on# a# specific# cylindrical# projection.# UTM# coordinate# systems# seek# a# balance#between#preserving#shape,#area,#distance,#and#direction.#As#historians#are#interested#in#different# parts# of# the# world,# it# is# good# to# learn# which# UTM(s)# fall# inside# of# your#region(s)#of#interest.#UTM#projections#can#be#a#good#fit#for#many#GIS#users#if#their#area#of#concern#falls#entirely#within#a#UTM#zone.#Figure#3.5#lists#all#60#of#these#UTM#zones.6#One#of#the#benefits#of#using#UTM#projections#is#that#each#zone#is#fairly#small,#making#it#easier#to#minimize#distortions.# 6#UTM#60#Zones,#from#the#Wikimedia#Commons#(commons.wikimedia.org),#via#the#Wikipedia#article#Universal#Transverse#Mercator#coordinate#system,#http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Transverse_Mercator_coordinate_system,#accessed#on#9#January#2014.#

! 45#

#Figure(3.5:(The#Universal(Transverse(Mercator((UTM)(system(of(dividing(the(Earth(

into(60(projections.((Other(Types(of(Datums(While# some# types# of# datum# are# regional,# national,# or# global# in# scope,# there# are# also#much#more#localized#ones.#For#example,#in#the#United#States,#the#state#plane#coordinate#system# is#widely#used,# and#Beijing,#China,# also#has# its# own# coordinate# system.#These#coordinate# systems#were# developed# in# order# to# preserve# as#much# area,# distance,# and#shape#accuracy#as#possible.#For#many#historians#and#other#social#science#and#humanities#scholars,# the#WGS84#datum#will#be#the#best#choice.#However,# if#your#research#topic# is#focused#on#a#very#small#area,#like#a#single#city,#or#on#a#very#large#area,#such#as#an#entire#continent,#a#different#datum#may#work#better#for#the#cartographic#visualization#of#your#information.##In#the#following#exercise,#we#will#apply#what#you#have#learned#regarding#datums#and#map#projections.#While#going#through#this#exercise,#it#is#important#to#remember#that#in#terms# of# mapmaking,# there# is# not# a# single# correct# projection.# The# proper# projection#depends# upon# the# purpose# of# each# individual# map.# Cartography# is# a# form# of#communication,# and# the# projection# you# select# will# depend# on# what# you# wish# to#communicate# with# your# map.# Most# of# the# exercises# in# this# manual# will# use# a# UTM#projected#coordinate#system#for#cartographic#projects.#

(

! 46#

EXERCISE(3(Of# the#hundreds#of#digital#maps#available#online,#many#have#not#been#projected,#and#others#may#have#been#assigned#a#projection#that#is#not#the#best#one#for#a#particular#use.#Therefore,#it#is#important#to#know#how#to#apply#a#projection#to#a#digital#map.#(Task:((For# this# exercise,# we# are# going# to# take# an# unprojected# map# of# France# and# apply# an#appropriate#projection#to#it.##Step(1:(((Go#to#http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wp7content/uploads/exercises/exercise3.zip###Save#this#shapefile#in#your#Shapefiles#folder#in#a#subfolder#labeled#Exercise#3,#and#unzip#the#shapefile.#You#will#see#the#France.shp#file#in#your#Exercise#3#subfolder.##Note:##If#you#are#using#Windows#7,#the#subfolder#will#be#created#for#you#when#you#unzip#the#file.##Step(2:(To#load#this#shapefile,#open#the#MapWindow#application.###

Click#the# #button.##Navigate#to#your#jExercise#3#subfolder.##Select#the#shapefile#France.shp#and#open#it#as#a#layer#in#MapWindow#[Figure#3.1].#The#colors# of# your# map# may# be# different# from# those# in# the# map# used# to# illustrate# this#exercise.#As#you#can#see,#the#map#of#France#is#distorted.#We#need#to#apply#a#projection#to#correct#that#distortion.##

! 47#

#Figure(3.1:(Map(of(France(without(projection.(

Step(3:(As#you#have# learned,# there# are#many#datums# and#projected# coordinate# systems# from#which# to#choose,#and#some#of# these# favor#different#areas#of# the#globe.#For#France,#we#should# use# the#WGS# 1984# (World# Geodetic# System# 1984)# datum# and# the#WGS# 1984#UTM#Zone#30N#projection.#As#we#explained#in#the#chapter,#UTM#stands#for#Universal#Transverse#Mercator.#We#are#using#zone#30N#because#France#falls#within#zone#30#of#the#Northern#hemisphere.##To#be#able#to#choose#a#projection,#you#will#need#to#switch#from#the#Layers#view#to#the#Toolbox#view#in#the#Legend#pane#on#the#left#side#of#the#screen#[Figure#3.2].##

! 48#

#Figure(3.2:(]Toolbox](view(in(the(Legend(pane.(

Step(4:((To# determine# if# a# datum# or# a# geographic# coordinate# system# has# been# applied# to# the#shapefile# of# France,# go# to# Projections,# in# the# Toolbox# menu,# and# in# Projections,#double7click# Identify# Projection.# This# will# open# the# Identify# Projection# window#[Figure#3.3].###

! 49#

#Figure(3.3:(]Identify(projection](window.(

#In# Select# layer,# choose# France,# and# then# click# the# Identify# button.#You#will# see#that#the#Projection#string#window#is#blank#because#a#projection#has#not#been#applied#to#the#shapefile.###To#assign#the#WGS#1984#datum,#click#Cancel#to#go#back#to#Projections,#and#double7click#Assign#Projection#to#Shapefile#to#open#the#Assign#Projection#window#[Figure#3.4].###

! 50#

#Figure(3.4:(]Assign(Projection](window.(

Click#the#+#button#(shown#on#the#bottom#of#the#right#half#of# the#screen)#to#open#the#Select# layers# window.# Select# the# France# layer,# as# shown# in# Figure# 3.5,# and# click#Ok.###

#Figure(3.5:(Select(layers(window.(

#

! 51#

Now# that# the# France# layer# has# been# selected,# this#window#will# close# and# you#will#return#to#the#Assign#Projection#screen.###Select# the# Geographical# folder# in# the# file# list# on# the# left# side# of# the# screen.# In# the#Geographical#folder,#click#WGS#84,#and#then#click#the#Assign#button#[Figure#3.6].###

#Figure(3.6:(WGS(84(in(the(Geographical(folder.(

#You#will#see#a#message#stating#that#the#projection#was#successfully#assigned#to#the#file#[Figure#3.7].#The#datum#has#been#assigned,#and#you#are#halfway#to#success!##

#Figure(3.7:(Successful(projection(message.(

((

! 52#

Step(5:((Now#that#we#have#applied#the#WGS84#datum,#we#need#to#select#the#correct#UTM#zone#to#give#us#a#map#projection;#the#one#for#France#is#UTM#zone#30N.###Close# the# Assign# Projection#window# and# in# the# Projections# toolbox,# double7click#Reproject#Shapefile.#This#will#open#the#Reproject#Layers#window#[Figure#3.8].##

#Figure(3.8:(]Reproject(Layers](window.(

######

! 53#

Click#the#+#button#and#select#the#France#layer,#as#you#did#in#step#4.#In#the#folder#World#on#the#left#side#of#the#window,#choose#the#subfolder#WGS#84#[Figure#3.9].###

#Figure(3.9:(]WGS(84](subfolder.(

###############

! 54#

Click#the#+#symbol#next#to#the#WGS#84#to#expand#the#subfolder#and#scroll#down#to#the# folder# labeled# UTM# Northern# Hemisphere,# and# then# click# the# +# symbol# to#expand#the#UTM#Northern#Hemisphere#subfolder.#In#UTM#Northern#Hemisphere,#choose#WGS#84#/#UTM#zone#30#N#[Figure#3.10],#and#click#the#Reproject#button.##

#Figure(3.10:(]WGS(84/UTM(zone(30(N](projection.(

You#will# see#a#window#displaying# the#projection#results# [Figure#3.11].#Once#you#have#confirmed#the#results,#click#Close.##

#Figure(3.11:(]Projection(checking(results.](

(

! 55#

Step(6:(After#you#have#closed#the#Projection#checking#results#window,#you#will#see#a#message#stating# that# the# projected# layer# could# not# be# added# to# the# map# [Figure# 3.12].#Dont(worry# # this# just#means# that# you#will# have# to#manually# add# the# reprojected# layer# to#MapWindow.##

#Figure(3.12:(Projection(message.(

#Close#the#Projection#message#window,#and#then#close#the#Reproject#layers#window.##

Click#the#Add# button#to#open#the#Add#Map#Layer#window,#and#navigate#to#your#Exercise#3#subfolder.#You#should#see#a#new#shapefile#named#France.WGS#84##UTM# zone# 30N,# as# shown# in# Figure# 3.13.# Select# this# shapefile# and# click# the# Open#button.###

! 56#

#Figure(3.13:(]Add(Map(Layer](window.(

#You#will#notice#that#the#new#map#does#not#appear#on#the#screen.#That#is#because#we#need#to#tell#MapWindow#to#show#the#new#one.##In#the#Legend#pane,#switch#to#the#Layers#view,#right7click#the#newly#added#layer,#and#choose#Zoom#to#Layer#from#the#drop7down#menu#[Figure#3.14].###

#Figure(3.14:(Zoom(to(Layer(in(the(Layers(menu.(

! 57#

Now# you# will# see# that# you# have# a# new#map# of# France# with# a# projected# geographic#coordinate#system#added#to#it#[Figure#3.15]:##

#Figure(3.15:(Correctly(projected(map(of(France.(

#Congratulations!#You#now#have#a#correctly#projected#the#map#of#France.#Save#this#new#file#to#your#Exercise#3#subfolder;#we#will#be#using#it#for#future#exercises.###If# you#do#not# yet# feel# comfortable#with#datums# and#projections,#we# suggest# that# you#save# this#map,# and# then# repeat# this# exercise# choosing# other# datums# and# projections.#This#repetition#will#give#you#a#sense#of#how#the#various#projection#systems#will#redraw#the#map,#and#familiarize#you#with#the#process#of#projecting#a#coordinate#system.##When#you#are#ready#to#continue,#move#on#to#the#next#chapter,#which#will#introduce#you#to#the#basics#of#cartography#so#that#you#can#produce#informative,#easy7to7read#maps.##

! 58#

CHAPTER(4:(Cartography(With#this#chapter,#we#place#in#your#hands#a#particularly#powerful#way#to#communicate#your#ideas.#Cartography#is#the#study#and#practice#of#producing#maps.#It#is#possible#that#the#majority#of#the#human#brain#has#evolved#to#deal#with#the#visual.#This#centrality#of#visual#perception#makes#cartography#a#superb#form#of#communication#among#humans.#Indeed,# cartographic# communication# is# so# powerful# that# those# producing#maps#must#take#care#that#they#do#not#convey#false#information.1##Map# production# combines# elements# of# art,# science,# and# technology.# Because# mapCmaking# generally# involves# scaling# down# a# representation# of# the# Earths# surface,# the#process# comes# with# inherent# limitations.# Good# cartography# seeks# to# minimize# those#limitations# as#much# as# possible.#However,# it# is# important# to# realize# that# no#map# can#show# everything.#What# the# cartographer# decides# to# include# in# a#map# should# largely#depend#upon#the#scale#and#purpose#of#the#map.#While#there#is#not#a#hard#and#fast#set#of#rules# for# cartographic# design,# there# are# some# general# guidelines# that#we# can# discuss.#Much#of#this#discussion#is#based#on#Judith#Tyners#Principles*of*Map*Design.2##Elements(of(a(Map(Most#maps#include#items#to#make#it#easier#for#the#reader#to#understand#the#meaning#of#the#map.#Such# items# include#titles,# legends,#a#north#arrow#or#compass#rose,#and#some#indication#of#the#size#of#the#region#shown#on#the#map,#usually#by#including#a#scale#bar.#The#title#of#a#map#should#be#concise#but#descriptive#of#the#subject#of#the#map.#A#legend#should#explain# the#symbols#used#on# the#map.# If#a# legend# title# is#deemed#necessary,# it#should#be#different#from,#but#a#concise#and#effective#complement#to#the#map#title.#The#legend#should#include#all#symbols#on#the#map,#along#with#their#meanings.#A#compass(rose#or#north(arrow#provides#a#directional#orientation#for#the#map.#Using#a#compass#rose# or# north# arrow# is# particularly# helpful#when#dealing#with# a# geographic# area# that#may#not#be#familiar#to#your#map#readers.#As#always,#your#design#decisions#should#be#determined# by# the# purpose,# audience,# intended# use# of# your# map.# Scale( shows# the#representative#units#of#measurement#of# the#map.#There#are# three#ways# to# show#scale:#with#a#ratio,#in#words,#or#by#a#bar#scale,#and#MapWindow#can#show#scale#in#all#of#these#ways.##An#example#of#a#scale#based#upon#ratio(is#this#expression:#1:250,000.#This#type#of#scale#is#particularly#useful#because#a#ratio#transcends#units.#The#scale#of#a#map#can#also#

1#Edward#R.#Tufte,#Envisioning*Information#(Cheshire,#CT:#Graphics#Press,#1990).#As#soon#as#possible,#you#should#read#two#inexpensive#books#by#Mark#Monmonier,#published#by#the#University#of#Chicago#Press:#How*to*Lie*with*Maps#(1996),#and#Mapping*It*Out:*Expository*Cartography*for*the*Humanities*and*Social*Sciences#(1993).#2#Judith#Tyner,#Principles*of*Map*Design#(New#York:#The#Guilford#Press,#2010).#

! 59#

be# expressed# in#words:# one# inch# represents# ten#miles.# A# scale# bar# depicts#map# units#graphically,#such#as:#

# ##You#must#understand#how#cartographers#employ#the#terms#large(scale#and#small(scale,#because# the# concepts# are# often# confused.# For# example,# when# comparing# maps# with#ratios#of#1:250,000#and#1:1,000,#one#might#assume#that#the#1:1,000#scale#is#smaller#and#the#1:250,000#is#larger;#however,#the#opposite#holds#true.#If#the#map#unit#represents#one/oneCthousandths# of# the# area# of# the# map,# it# is# larger# than# a# unit# representing# one/two#hundred#fiftyCthousandths#of#that#area.#Thus,#a#scale#of#1:1,000#is#larger#than#a#scale#of#1:250,000.#The#cartographic#standard#is#that#the#larger#the#area#represented#by#the#map,#the#smaller#the#scale.#To#see#this#concept#visually,#compare#Figures#4.1#and#4.2.##

(Figure(4.1:(This(smallCscale(image(shows(a(large(area.(

! 60#

#Figure(4.2:(This(large(scale(map(shows(a(smaller(area(than(in(figure(4.1.((

(Layout(and(Planning(Along#with#the#legend,#compass#rose,#and#scale,#there#are#other#aspects#to#a#good#map#that# can# make# the# map# easier# to# read# for# the# viewer.# When# designing# a# map,# it# is#important#to#consider#these#various#elements.#Obviously,#the#geographic#component#of#your#map#should#make#up#the#largest#portion,#but#there#are#other#components#of#a#map#that#can#make#the#information#more#easily#understood#by#the#viewer.#Tyner#suggested#that#cartographers#pay#particular#attention#to#the#design#elements#of#the#map,#including#clarity,#order,#balance,#contrast,#unity,#and#harmony.#She#noted#that#all#the#elements#of#a#map#are#interdependent,#including#topic,#audience,#lettering,#purpose,#scale,#color,#and#symbols.#3#Imagine#that#each#map#element#carries#with#it#a#weight,#based#upon#its#size#and#color.#Each#weight#should#be#balanced#in#such#a#way#that#the#map#includes#all#the#information# needed,# without# these# other# elements# overshadowing# the# graphic# map#itself.# Figures# 4.3# and# 4.4# illustrate# the# difference# between# a# balanced# map# and# an#unbalanced#one.##

3##Ibid.,#19C23.#

! 61#

#Figure(4.3:(This(map(has(balanced(all(of(the(map(elements(across(the(page.(

(#

#Figure(4.4:(The(layout(of(this(map(is(not(wellCbalanced(and(is(difficult(to(read.(

! 62#

Lettering*Text#in#a#map#serves#several#purposes:#to#label,#to#explain,#to#direct#the#user#to#specific#features,#to#establish#a#hierarchy,#or#to#show#size.#Here#are#some#general#guidelines#for#formatting#and#placing#text#on#a#map:##

1)#Water#features,#such#as#rivers#and#lakes,#are#labeled#in#italics.#With#rivers,#the#name#should#follow#the# line#representing#the#river#and#be#repeated#throughout#the#map#if#the#river#is#a#long#one.#Lakes#and#other#bodies#of#water#should#have#the#name#inside#if#it#fits;#if#not,#it#should#be#placed#completely#outside#the#body#of#water.##2)#Roads,#railroads,#and#other#linear#features#are#labeled#like#rivers,#except#they#are#not#italicized.##3)#Mountain# ranges,# regions,# and#other# areas# typically# have# text# that# is# spread#throughout#the#respective#space.##4)#When#point#symbols#are#used# to#represent# locations#of#places,# such#as#cities,#there#is#a#hierarchy#of#optimal#places#to#locate#the#name#in#relation#to#the#point.#The#best#place#is#off#the#topCright#of#the#point;#the#next#best#is#the#bottom#right,#then# topCleft,#or# if#none#of# these# is#possible,# the#bottomCleft.# If#other# features# in#the#map#do#not#allow#for#the#best#convention,#place#the#label#in#the#best#location#possible# [see#Figure#4.5].#As#always,#you#are# concerned#about#achieving# clarity#and#legibility.##

#Figure(4.5:(In(this(example,(because(of(the(path(of(the(river,(the(best(location(for(the(

city(name(is(topCleft,(rather(than(topCright.((

While# the# simplest# solution# may# be# to# place# text# near# a# point# feature# on# a# map,#cartographic# guidelines# suggest# that# if# the# text# can# be# placed# in# the# optimal# position#

! 63#

using#cartographic(masking,#the#cartographer#should#do#so.#If#we#look#at#Figure#4.5,#we#can#see#that#if#we#just#put#the#text#St.#Paul#to#the#topCright#of#the#point#representing#the# city,# we# would# obscure# parts# of# both# the# line# indicating# the# river# and# the# one#indicating# the# state# border.# Cartographic# masking# allows# the# mapCmaker# to# create# a#small#polygon#across#those#features#in#such#a#way#that#the#city#name#can#be#located#in#the#proper#position#without# obscuring# the# line# features.# For# example,# in# Figure# 4.6,# a#cartographic#mask#was#placed#through#the#Mississippi#River#in#order#to#provide#a#space#for#the#name#St.#Paul.###

#Figure(4.6:(Map(depicting(the(label(for(St.(Paul(using(cartographic(masking.(#

Masks#can#be#performed#with#many#different#colors,#if#necessary,#by#creating#as#many#different#colored#polygons#as#needed.#We#used#the#same#fill#color#for#the#background#of#our#label,#and#set#the#border#color#to#clear,#so#that#the#label#box#around#the#text#would#disappear.#In#this#way,#cartographic#masking#enables#users#to#display#lettering#in#a#lessCcluttered#manner.#Any#decision#to#employ#cartographic#masking#must#be#based#on#the#purpose#of#the#map.#For#example,#if#the#Mississippi#River#were#the#main#subject#of#the#map,#we#would# probably# not#wish# to# cut# up# that# feature#with# repeated# cartographic#masking.##Color(When#used#properly,#color#can#enhance#cartographic#visualization;#however,#poor#color#choices# can# obscure# important# aspects# of# a# map.# Arthur# Robinson4#suggested# three#

4#Arthur#H.#Robinson#(1915C2004),#of#the#University#of#WisconsinCMadison,#introduced#Owens#to#cartographic#design#and#the#history#of#cartography.#Before#Robinsons#death,#Owens#was#able#to#tell#him#

! 64#

reasons#for#using#color#in#cartography:#first,#it#can#clarify#and#simplify#the#information#on#the#map#by#increasing#the#number#of#visual#levels#and#unifying#the#elements#on#the#map;#second,#color#choices#can#strongly#influence#the#reactions#of#the#map#reader;#and#finally,#color#can#markedly#affect#how#the#reader#perceives#the#map.5#Color#also#attracts#attention#and#leads#the#eye#to#the#most#relevant#areas#of#the#map.#For#this#reason,#mapCmakers#should#choose#colors# that#are#not#overly#showy#and#that#share# the#same#tonal#values.#It#is#also#a#good#idea#to#use#only#as#many#colors#as#are#needed#to#highlight#the#information#you#want#your#map# to# convey;# too#many# colors# can#distract# the# eye# and#make#it#more#difficult#for#the#user#to#comprehend#the#purpose#of#the#map.#Color#often#carries# cultural# perceptions,# too;# for# example,# among# most# linguistic# groups,# red# is#generally# recognized# to# indicate# heat,# while# blue# is# usually# interpreted# as# cool.#Therefore,# it# is# important# that# your# color# choices# be#made#with# these# perceptions# in#mind.# Unwise# color# choices# can# lead# the# map# viewer# to# misunderstand# the# maps#purpose#and#the#information#the#map#is#meant#to#convey.###Also,#you#should#communicate#to#your#audience#information#about#the#creator#of#your#map#(you)#and#the#decisions#you#made#about#projection.#In#other#words,#put#your#name#on#your#map#with#some#indication#of#your#affiliation.#Tell#your#audience#the#datum#and#projection# you# used# in# creating# the#map.# Remember# that# your# choices# of# datum# and#projection#will# have# an# impact# on# the#way# that# your#map# appears,# and# sophisticated#viewers#will#want#to#know#what#choices#lay#behind#the#map#they#see.#Also,#depending#on#the#nature#of#your#map,#you#may#wish#to#include#a#concise#indication#of#the#sources#of#the#information#on#which#the#map#is#based.##Although#it#is#impossible#to#discuss#in#detail#every#aspect#of#cartography#in#one#chapter#(see#note#1#on#the#books#of#Mark#Monmonier),# those#we#have#discussed#will#help#you#add#meaning#to#your#map.#As#you#become#more#familiar#with#mapmaking#and#the#use#of#MapWindow,# it#will#become#easier# for#you# to#keep# these#elements# in#mind#as#you#design# your#maps.#Also,# just# as# you#would# do#with# a#written# text,# you# should# have#colleagues# read# your# map# to# make# sure# that# its# purpose# and# meaning# are#communicated#clearly.#They#can#also#evaluate# if#your#map# is# interesting#and#original;#these# are# important# issues# in#making#use# of# a#powerful# form#of# communication.#Our#exercise# for# this#chapter#will# take# the#correctly#projected#map#of#France#we#created# in#Exercise#3,#and#teach#you#how#to#turn#it#into#a#properlyCbalanced#finished#map.##

about#the#proposed#GISCbased#graduate#program#at#Idaho#State#University#and#about#the#Cartography:#History#and#Design#course#Owens#was#creating.#He#was#the#author#of#the#influential#Robinson#projection#for#a#world#map.#5#As#summarized#in