“A failure is not always a mistake, it may simply be the best one can do under the circumstances. The real mistake is to

stop trying.” B. F. Skinner

Welcome to Week 6 of Functional Curriculum

Article Review #3 is canceledInstructional plan for functional skills due

May 18thInstructional plan for communication skills

due May 25thInstructional plan for academic skills due

June 1stImplementation plan (for one of your

instructional plans) is due June 8th, we will have class that day. Please attend.

What is self-determination?

What are specific skills students can be taught to promote self-determination?

What is the process for assessing students with moderate to severe disabilities?

What is this process called?

In designing instruction what are the general strategies (there are two)? Hint….Remember …. A,B,C.

Assessing Receptive Communication Skills• Receptive skills for a specific

activity need to be identified

• What does the student do to demonstrate that the message has been received and understood?

• Document what forms of communication seem to be best understood

Assessing Expressive Communication Skills• Any attempt by the student to start,

maintain, or end a communicative exchange should be noted.

• How the students communicates (the form)—Skill level?

• Why the student is communicating (function/intent)—different forms of communication for different purposes?

• What the student talks about (content)—information on breadth of skills and accessibility?

Assessing current communication

Communication Matrix by Charity Rowland http://www.communicationmatrix.org/en/

(designs to learn website)

Organized by communication function List of behaviors Not used, emerging or mastered

Communication Ecological Inventory Worksheet

(Figure 8-10, p.249, Best, Heller, Bigge, 2005)

1. Ask: Where does the student spend time? (environment, sub-environment, activities)

2. Select Activity: (e.g., ordering food)

3. Observe: (for vocabulary used in activity)• List Expressive Vocabulary used in the activity• List Receptive Vocabulary used in the activity

4. Review listed words and determine which words & skills need to be taught to the student.

Stages of Learning

0102030405060708090

100

0 10 20 30

Trials

Per

cen

t C

orr

ect

Acquisition

Fluency

MaintenanceGeneralization

Adaptation

Examples Teaching reading in second grade

Objective: Hailey will read at 100 words correct per min with the Open Court text.

Acquisition: Fluency: Maintenance: Generalization:

Example

Decrease problem behavior Objective: Mikai will not hit, kick or bite

others on the playground. Mikai will play cooperatively with others on

the playground without hitting, kicking, or biting for 5 consecutive days.

Acquisition: Fluency: Maintenance: Generalization:

Instructional Activities (acquisition) Direct instruction

Systematic teaching of target skills: reading, math, social-behavioral skills

MODEL LEAD TEST

direct instruction (“little di”): Steps

Gain attention … ”Everyone eyes on me.” Review previous material to:

Check for understanding to ensure students rememberHow previous material is relevant to new material

State goal State Expectations Positively

New content in small steps Explicit Instruction, range of examples, logical sequence)

ModelDemonstration of the skill

Lead Prompted (guided) practiceUnprompted practice

Test Independent practice

Instructional Concepts State expectations positively Explicit instruction Range of examples Logical sequencing

Instructional Concept #1

State Expectations Positively

Teach them what you do want them to do

Ineffective Instruction

• Sets the occasion for student failure

Teaching Behaviors

No elbowing others

No kicking No hitting No pinching No biting No scratching Etc. . .

2+2 is not 1 2+2 is not 2 2+2 is not 3 2+2 is not 5 2+2 is not 6 2+2 is not 7 Etc. . .

Behavior: Peer Relations

Academic Skill:Addition

Teaching Behaviors

Hands and feet to self or

Respect others

2+2 = 4

Behavior: Peer Relations

Academic Skill: Addition

Instructional Concept #2

Explicit Instruction

Be Direct

What is the Best Way to Facilitate Academic Success?

? Teaching - teacher structures a lesson, models skills, and leads students through practice or key skills.

? Facilitate - teachers sets up activities wherein students discover key skills.

? Support - teachers simply oversee students and offer support for whatever they do.

Should we teach, facilitate, or just support?

Explicit Instruction

• Direct Comparison Meta-AnalysisFavor explicit instruction 87.3 %Tie 0.6 %Favor other methods 12.1 %

• Students of all ages and abilities• Academic and social behaviors• Especially effective with low performers• Very successful with disadvantaged students

Large-Scale Research and Meta Analyses

Instructional Concept #3

Range of Examples

Show all the possibilities

Effective Instruction

• Effective example selection and sequencing

• Task analysis

• Facilitate success

• Delivered at the level of the student

Effective instruction is:

INEFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION• INEFFECTIVE MODELS

•

• INEFFECTIVE PRACTICE

• - •

•• TESTING OUTCOMES

• -

Walk on green Walk on green Don’t walk on red

Walk on green Don’t walk on red

Green light =WalkYES

NO LIGHT =?

= ?

FAILURE

Instructional Concept #4

Logical Sequencing

Juxtapose positive and negative examples

INEFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONINEFFECTIVE MODELS

INEFFECTIVE PRACTICE

-

TESTING OUTCOMES

-

FAILURE

= osh = osh= osh

= osh = osh

Osh = ?

EFFECTIVE MODELS

EFFECTIVE PRACTICE-

TESTING OUTCOMES

-

EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

= osh = osh= osh

Osh =

= not osh

= not osh = osh

RED SIDED RECTANGLESUCCESS

= osh

Instructional Sequence

• Presentation - tell and model• Recitation - student Q & A• Individual Work - with teacher feedback

-make sure students get it• Group work

-activities, experiments, etc.-chance to discover application to real world

• Test - Make sure they have skill fluency

Instructional Sequence

• Model: Structured, Clear Be direct with multiple examples & non-examples

• Lead: High levels of opportunities to respond (OTR), success– Individual Work - with clear teacher feedback

-make sure students get it– Group work

-activities, experiments, etc.-chance to discover application to real world

• Test - Make sure they have skill fluency

Instructional Methods

• Students with intellectual disabilities learn best when instructional methods are explicit, systematic, and derived from empirical research such as the following practices (Heward, 2003)

Heward, 2003• Assess each student’s present levels of performance to

help identify and prioritize most important instructional targets.

• Define and task-analyze the new knowledge or skills to be learned

• Design instructional methods and activities so the student has frequent opportunities for active student response in the form of guided and independent practice

• Use mediated scaffolding (provide and then fade prompts so student can respond to natural occurring stimuli)

Heward, 2003 continued

• Provide systematic consequences for student performance in the form of contingent reinforcement, instructional feedback, and error correction.

• Incorporate fluency-building activities into lessons• Incorporate strategies for promoting generalization

and maintenance of newly learned skills• Conduct direct and frequent measurements of student

performance, and use those data to instructional decisions.

Specialized Teaching Strategies

• Visual modality strategies– Visual supports, visual schedules, activity boards,

rule scripts, video modeling,

• Task analysis & chaining– Forward, backward, interrupted

• Discrete teaching trials• Prompting systems, time-delay, • Antecedent & Consequence strategies

1. Select a needed skill by using ecological inventory results (remember activity analysis/ADAPT) to identify a functional and age-appropriate skill that is an important target for a particular student.

2. Define the target skill simply, including a description of the settings and materials most suited to the natural performance of the task.

3. Perform the task and observe peers performing the task, using the chosen materials in the natural setting.

4. Adapt the steps to suit the student’s abilities; employ as needed the principle of partial participation

5. Validate the task analysis by having the student perform the task, but provide assistance on steps that are unknown so that performance of all of the steps can be viewed.

6. Revise the task analysis so that it works; explore adding simple, nonstigmatizing adaptations to steps that appear to be unreasonable in an unadapted form

1. State steps in observable terms.2. Steps are ordered in logical sequence.3. Written in second-person singular (“You”) so

that they could serve as verbal prompts.4. Use language that is not confusing to the

student, with the performance details that are essential to assessing performance enclosed in parentheses e.g., Walk down the hallway (thru lobby to the left).

Task analysis & chaining Total task, forward, backward

Antecedent Strategies Visual modality strategies

Visual supports, visual schedules, activity boards, rule scripts, video modeling,

Time-delay, Prompting systems

Consequence strategies Differential reinforcement & error correction

Discrete Teaching TrialsPivotal Response Training

Total Task Training: Instruction begins by starting with the first step in the chain

and teaching each successive step in order until the chain of responses is completed.

Successful with all sorts of chained tasks Works best if the chain is not too long (chained tasks can be

subdivided or a single training trial can be too lengthy). Main advantage: all teaching opportunities are used (each

step is taught each time) and the task is completed. May produce faster learning than other chaining methods. More natural approach than the other options

Begin instruction by starting with the student performing any learned steps in order up to the first unmastered response, at which point instruction occurs.

Remainder of chain completed by teacher or by student with assistance

Useful with many self-care routines and chained academic tasks (e.g., use of number line, telephone dialing, calculator use, etc.)

May be stigmatizing when assistance with unlearned part of the task is obvious…so think of how to do this and respect student’s dignity

Backward Instruction begins by helping the student perform the

entire chain up until the last step of the chain, at which point instruction occurs.

Useful with many self-care routines Advantage over forward chaining: student is being

assisted through the task, completes the task quickly, and gets reinforcement early in learning.

May also be stigmatizing, respect student’s dignity

With all of these chaining strategies reinforcement is given quickly (e.g., praise) after each response and again at the end of the chain (e.g., a short break)

Chained: multi-step behaviors E.g. sweeping the floor, playing UNO, ordering food

Discrete: stand alone (e.g., naming people, matching numbers to quantities, reading words)

It is sometimes hard to distinguish the difference, depending on the learner

Following the use of the toilet, Marc will wash his hands by completing 8 of 10 task steps independently

When asked to circle a word (e.g., nap, mop, map) that matches a picture on a worksheet, Marc will correctly circle the word 75% of the worksheet for two probes in a row

When given a slant board to hold his papers and a template to limit the range of writing, Marc will print all of the letters of the alphabet from a model 100% of the time on two probes in a row.

During lunch time at school, Marc will complete 10 of the 12 steps independently: get in line, go to cafeteria….etc….and return to the classroom.

Time Delay Constant (CTD; Miracle et al., 2001) Progressive (Wolery et al., 1992)

Prompting Systems Gestural, verbal, pre-recorded auditory prompts,

pictorial prompts, model prompts, physical prompts, mixed prompts

System of Least Prompts (or least-to-most prompting

Most-to-Least Prompts

Commonly used to teach single, discrete behaviors such as sight words and naming objects : Attention Cue: “Get Ready” Task Direction: target stimulus + “read this” Delay period: Pause 4 to 5 seconds Effective Prompt: verbal, gestural, etc.

Prompt must have worked in the past/ know that prompt works

Ex: Teacher reading the sign followed by student imitating teacher’s words

First several trials use zero-second delay period to provide initial instruction Ex: “Read the sign” & immediately say “walk”

After initial trials, insert delay period

Similar to CTD, but more effective for students with severe disabilities

Difference is: gradually increases the time delay period between the direction and the prompt

Go from zero-second to 1-s (for several trails), then 2-s (for several trials, then 3-s, etc….

Because delay period is gradually increased, more likely that the student will not be lost between direction and prompt

AKA: least-to-most prompting OR least intrusive prompting OR increasing assistance

Uses a brief waiting period Then, present hierarchy of increasingly intrusive

prompts (minimal prompt to maximum prompt) e.g., gestural, verbal, partial physical, full physical

Provide a prompt on each trial with only the minimum intensity necessary to get the behavior to occur

Most commonly used for teaching chained tasks (Doyle et al., 1988)

Work with a partner and do the following: 1. Task analysis of steps to complete2. Determine a least-to-most hierarchy of

prompts Example: 1.No prompt (time delay for 5 seconds)2.Indirect verbal prompt (“what’s next?”)3.Direct verbal prompt (“Do ____”)4.Partial physical prompt (nudge hand)5.Fully physical assistance (fully guide hand)

Opposite of the system of least promptsAKA: Decreasing assistance procedure Simultaneously providing target stimulus

AND most intrusive prompt on the first set of trials

Eliminates most errors that tend to occur in early learning trials.

Commonly used with individuals with very severe/profound disabilities—start with full physical with verbal direction

Visual Supports-Use of visual symbols & objects

Visual SchedulesActivity BoardsRule Scripts/ Social StoriesVideo Modeling

Determine Form of Representation Object that will be used in activity Object that is symbolic of activity/area Photograph Icon Picture/word combination Single word Phrases or sentences

For more information go to http://www.teacch.com/

One item at a time, signifying transitionTwo items, signifying first—then sequenceThree or four items, up to an hour2 hoursHalf dayFull day

One item at a timeLeft to right sequenceTop to bottom sequenceMultiple rows

Carry object to be usedCarry visual cue to be matched (in basket,

box, pocket, on VELCRO)Turn over visual cue on schedule as

completedMark off visual cue on schedule as

completed

Teacher takes schedule information to student

Stationary schedule in central location on table

Stationary schedule in central location on shelf or wall

Portable schedule: “pull-off” segment of schedule

Portable schedule: on clipboardPortable schedule: in notebook

Teacher takes schedule information to student

Student goes to schedule with transition symbol: From same room, schedule within view From a variety of locations

Student travels to schedule using verbal cue From same room, schedule within view From a variety of locations

Student spontaneously checks schedule

Treatment and Education of Autistic and Communication related handicapped CHildren-http://www.teacch.com/

-Established in the early 1970s by Eric Schopler

-Structured Teaching Model -Physical organization, scheduling, visual (picture and color) approach, use of reinforcement strategies

Differential reinforcement Reinforcing correct (desired) responses, while withholding

reinforcement for incorrect (non-desired) responses. Determine reinforcers through preference assessments to

ensure effectiveness Always pair with natural consequence (e.g., if completion

of task results in praise, pair external reinforcer with verbal praise)

Schedules of reinforcement Frequency and pattern behaviors are reinforced Ratio (according to # of responses) or interval (passage

of time in relation to performance) schedules

Fixed: absolute predetermined number Ratio (Fixed ratio; every 10 correct responses) Intervals (Fixed intervals; every 10 seconds)

Variable: changing, non-fixed number of reinforcements, but offer reinforcement on a schedule that is an average of the reinforcement pattern selected. Variable ratio: (VR:5=average of every fifth

response; e.g., after 3, 7, 2, 8 [total 20..avg 5] Variable interval: (VI:5=average of every five

minutes; same example above)

1. During acquisition stage of learning more instances of behavior should be encouraged by the continuous provision of small amounts of contingent reiforcement (e.g., a smile and task-specific praise, fulfilling a request, “high five”, or “Yes!”) instead of large amounts of reinforcement given less often.

2. After a higher rate or more accurate behavior has been established, reinforcers should be faded slowly from a continuous to a fixed schedule, which requires more behavior for each reinforcement.

This will strengthen the behavior as the student learns to tolerate periods of nonreinforcement instead of abruptly giving up & not responding when reinforcment is not forthcoming

Because students may learn to predict when reinforcement will occur, uneven patterns may result (e.g., rewarded for cleaning every Friday…won’t clean until Friday…vs random spot checks), so switch to a variable schedule

based on average of every fifth time, but may occur after 2nd behavior or 10th behavior…student doesn’t know so continues working hard!

Reinforcers must be assessed periodically so that they continue to be reinforcing to the student.

Wise to offer students the opportunity to choose their reinforcer from a group of preferred activities/items.

Reinforcers must be suited to student’s chronological age, the activity, and the learning situation.

Aim for replacing less appropriate reinforcers with ones that have more availability in the natural environments encountered by the student.

The more immediately a reinforcer is presented following the peformance of the behavior, the greater will be its effect.

Errors include: incorrect responses, problem behavior, and nonresponses Missed steps in a chained response Discrimination errors in a discrete behavior (e.g.,

signing “eat” instead of “help”) Taking longer than the expected response latency

Want to determine if it is an error due to “can’t do or won’t do” If can’t do…need to re-teach or use different prompting

system (think antecedents). If won’t do…need to look at motivation/function &

reinforcement schedule

During acquisition: Gently interrupt errors with a prompt After an error provide feedback (pause, hold up

index finger, say “not quite”) and give another immediate opportunity to perform while increasing the assistance (as in a system of least prompts).

Gently stop an error and see if a student will self-correct. Direct the student to the relevant task stimuli, add prompts as needed.

Reinforce any self-corrections

Wait for student to self-correctIf this does not occur, give assistance to

correct the error.Simplify those responses that are

frequently missed or performed incorrectlyGently interrupt errors and provide several

immediate opportunities to practice the missed response (or steps in chained task) that are frequently missed.

Directions: 1. Based on the task analysis for the focused

routine/skill complete an instructional plan for each routine/skill (i.e., functional skill, academic skill, communication skill)

2. Modify your task analysis recording form to indicate the teaching schedule, materials, and prompting procedures, etc. to be used. Please submit your modified task analysis form with this assignment.

3. Complete the instructional plan for your student using the format provided.

Directions: 1. Select one of your completed instructional plans and

implement the plan with the student for at least 3 sessions. 2. Record data completely on the task analysis recording

form. Make sure to include anecdotal information using the back of the task analysis recording form. Please submit your completed task analysis form with this assignment.

3. Complete the implementation plan for your student using the format provided.

4. Please include your previously submitted instructional plan that was used to guide the implementation, as some changes may have occurred in that plan before implementation.