a conceptual framework for reviewoftvet examining hrd and

A conceptual framework forexamining HRD and NHRD

linkages and outcomesReview of TVET literature

Meera Alagaraja and Pradeep KotamrajuOrganizational Leadership and Learning, University of Louisville,

Louisville, Kentucky, USA, and

Sehoon KimEducational Administration and Human Resource Development, Texas

A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA

AbstractPurpose – This paper aims to review technical vocational education and training (TVET) literature, identifydifferent components of the TVET system and develop a conceptual framework that integrates human resourcedevelopment (HRD) and national human resource development (NHRD) outcomes. The renewed focus ontechnical vocational education and training (TVET) is important for human resource development (HRD), as itexpands current understanding of its role in economic development through workforce training. National humanresource development (NHRD) perspectives recognize the role of TVET in linking regional and national economicdevelopment strategies. Furthermore, TVET’s focus on literacy education, poverty alleviation and inclusion ofmarginalized and vulnerable populations emphasizes social development outcomes that are critical for NHRD.Using this background, the integration of HRD and NHRD outcomes into one conceptual TVET framework foraddressing workforce, economic and social development outcomes has been proposed.Design/methodology/approach – A targeted literature review approach was used for exploringrelevant research on TVET systems, identifying the components which support and/or inhibit itseffectiveness and an integrative framework that connects education, workforce development, socialdevelopment and economic development was developed.Findings – Three major themes were identified. The first theme identifies nine sub-themes that make aneffectiveTVETsystem.Theseareasfollows:nationalTVETpolicy,regionalTVETpolicy,training,participation,curriculum, coordination of stakeholder institutions, individual and institutional attitudes toward skilldevelopment, managing supply-demand mismatches and economic and social development outcomes. Thesecond major theme underlines the increasing overlap and connection between workforce development, socialdevelopment and economic development strategies. In the third and final finding, effective TVET systems arepositionedasthe linkingpinconnectingthefourTVETcomponents (skills, education, innovationandknowledge)to the strategic goals of workforce development, economic development and social development.Originality/value – Integrating national and organizational-based HRD strategies is a unique focusand reflects the broader examination of the differences in the relationship between corporate HRD andmore traditional TVET systems. It is argued that the role of TVET in social and workforce developmentat the regional and societal level cannot be ignored. HRD and NHRD outcomes were integrated byutilizing TVET as a framework for linking economic, social and workforce development strategies.

An earlier version of this article was accepted from the AHRD International Conference 2013 inUSA.

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available atwww.emeraldinsight.com/2046-9012.htm

Review of TVETliterature

265

Received 26 January 2013Revised 16 October 2013,

19 October 2013Accepted 28 October 2013

European Journal of Training andDevelopment

Vol. 38 No. 4, 2014pp. 265-285

© Emerald Group Publishing Limited2046-9012

DOI 10.1108/EJTD-01-2013-0009

http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-01-2013-0009

Keywords NHRD, HRD, Economic development strategy, TVET model, Social development strategy,Workforce development strategy

Paper type Literature review

IntroductionA vibrant and effective technical vocational education and training (TVET) system hasa central role for enhancing the progress of developed and developing countries(Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2010; Symonds et al.,2011). This was not always the case. A cursory review of the historical development andtimeline of TVET indicates growth, development as well as challenges experienced bygovernment-led institutions over the past two centuries. The manufacturing andindustrial revolution that took place in the now advanced countries required developinga skilled workforce that produced the necessary innovation for attaining andmaintaining high standards of living (King and Palmer, 2010). For instance, in NorthAmerica, TVET acquired an equal but separate status for much of the 20th century(Gordon, 2008; Lynch, 2000); in Australia, TVET was a vehicle for the disadvantagedpopulation to better and lift themselves out of poverty (Polesel, 2010). Similarly, whenerstwhile colonies of these advanced nations received independence, they initially focused onlinking skill development to employment, and then to economic development. In these newlyindependent countries (e.g. India, Kenya), the role and involvement of TVET was viewed asa national strategic initiative for gaining self-reliance, particularly for those who were livingin poverty and earning subsistence incomes (Hartl, 2009; King and Palmer, 2010).

Despite the focus of TVET as an engine for employment growth and/or povertyreduction strategy, when it came to including it within an overarching economicdevelopment policy focus in the immediate post-colonial period, there emerged a sharedperception across many countries that such a strategy was ineffective. This perceptionpersisted for several decades till at least the 1990s (Hartl, 2009; King and Palmer, 2007).This perception rested on the fact that there was no prima facie evidence available forunequivocally establishing a positive relationship between TVET and overall economicdevelopment (Hartl, 2009; King and Martin, 2002; Oketch, 2007; Toner, 2011). Further,international organizations and donor agencies began emphasizing primary education,given its positive impact on economic and social development, which also underminedthe role of TVET institutions in national development (Organization of EconomicCooperation and Development, 2010). Thus, as national policy shifted focus toward thepromotion of primary education, TVET was relegated to a subsidiary status in thefollowing two decades (King and Martin, 2002; Oketch, 2007).

BackgroundThe reemergence of TVET as a premier strategy for raising income levels, addressingemployment and underemployment challenges and stabilizing incomes for vulnerablepopulations is a more recent phenomenon (World Bank, 1991). Three factors responsible forthe changing attitudes and perceptions on the role of TVET for enhancing development atthe organizational, local, regional and national levels were identified. Changing economicstructures fueled information technology and communication revolution, the rapid pace ofglobalization and, finally, but no less important, the transitioning of many lesser developingcountries into fast-growing, emerging nations. These global trends significantly contributedto the reemergence of TVET (King and Palmer, 2007, 2010). The rapid transformations led to

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changes in national and international policy, repositioning TVET systems once again at theforefront of economic development and social policy agenda for advanced, developing andunderdeveloped countries. In what follows, we provide a description of the TVET systemand its relevance to human resource development (HRD) and national human resourcedevelopment (NHRD).

What constitutes a TVET system?Toner (2011) identified four essential components of a TVET system: skills, education,knowledge and innovation. A vibrant TVET system requires alignment of theseelements to produce a self-reinforcing virtuous cycle of growth and development. Wepropose TVET as that integrative framework for catalyzing sustainable development ofhuman resources by linking organizational-level (HRD) and national-level (NHRD)strategies (Figure 1).

For instance, widespread skill development resulting from broad-based educationraises knowledge acquisition across skills and the education spectrum, all of which set thestage for continuous innovation. Connecting these four components – skills, education,knowledge and innovation – fundamentally addresses the development of human resourcesat the organizational, regional and national levels. We position TVET as the central linkingpin for building an integrative framework linking these components with workforcedevelopment, economic development and social development strategies at theorganizational and national levels (Garmise, 2009; Harper-Anderson, 2008; Heyns andNeedham, 2004; King and Palmer, 2010).

Relevance of TVET for HRD and NHRDThe policy context for HRD and NHRD is different in advanced countries from those ofdeveloping countries. The focus of TVET in advanced countries is workforce developmentand utilizing HRD to achieve that end. For example, in the USA, demand-driven sector- orindustry cluster-led strategies drive skill development where industry and market demandsstipulate workforce training (Garmise, 2009; Harper-Anderson, 2008). In developingcountries, TVET relies on supply-led systems, which emphasize individual skilldevelopment, particularly for the very poor, vulnerable and marginalized populations.

Figure 1.Current TVET role

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Employment growth, productivity and competitiveness are linked to poverty reduction, andsocial cohesion (King and Palmer, 2010). TVET initiatives in developing countries areprimarily geared toward improving literacy through primary and secondary education forsocial development.The recent economic downturn and global recession call for a renewed focus oneducation, knowledge, skills and innovation at organizational, regional and nationallevels. From this standpoint, we argue that the policy context for an integrative TVETframework can be the same for countries at different stages of development. Theframework is aimed at reexamining workforce, economic and social developmentstrategies by retaining an NHRD and HRD focus. TVET can serve as a multilevelstrategy for strengthening workforce development systems by increasing employee andemployer engagement in workforce training, education and retraining, as well asprovide access and equity for marginalized populations in developed and developingcountries. However, in both less and more advanced countries alike, the role of TVET inHRD or NHRD is, at best, unclear and, at worst, peripheral, making it difficult toconceptualize an integrative framework. The central research inquiry was thus toidentify various components for effective TVET systems, and address implications forHRD and NHRD. We argue that strong TVET systems can establish and sustain asimultaneous focus on workforce, economic and social development outcomes bycombining HRD and NHRD goals at organizational, regional and national levels. To doso, we identify critical components for effective TVET systems, and the relevance toHRD and NHRD were additional goals of inquiry.

Examining NHRD and HRD outcomesSeveral scholars recognize national HRD priorities as strategic, macro-level policyperspectives at the national level (Hasler et al., 2006; Lutta-Mukhebi, 2004; Osman-Gani,2004; Rao and Varghese, 2009). This is in addition to the emphasis on micro-levelperspectives, which has as its central focus, the study and practice of developing humanresources at the organizational level (Lee, 2004). The strategic macro-level perspectivesof HRD were aptly defined as NHRD and identified as a separate and legitimate domainwithin the field. Some HRD scholars argue that NHRD must address economic, politicaland socio-cultural imbalances (Hasler et al., 2006). Others restrict NHRD focus solely toeconomic development (Wang et al., 2008) or to education and culture (Rao, 2004) orsome combination of these outcomes (Alagaraja and Wang, 2012a, 2012b).

There is little agreement on the content and nature of NHRD outcomes. For example,NHRD priorities in Brazil address imbalances in economic and social developmentthrough the involvement of key stakeholders, namely, corporations, trade unions andeducation and government institutions (Hasler et al., 2006). Lutta-Mukhebi (2004)identified economic growth, education and development of the population for alleviatingpoverty and AIDS. Lynham and Cunningham (2006) suggest education, training anddevelopment of human resources as three important areas of NHRD focus for improvingeconomic and social development outcomes for South Africa. Although researchers (Wanget al., 2008) recommend that HRD should engage in “policy analysis and comparativestudies, as well as contributing to policy recommendations and implementation based ondevelopment economics” (p. 848), these recommendations are largely prescriptive in naturewith little implications for NHRD practitioners (Alagaraja, 2013). Our paper responds to thechallenges by identifying a broad range of outcomes for workforce, economic and social

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development strategies from the TVET literature. We utilize the TVET literature to examinethe linkages between HRD and NHRD outcomes. We do so by examining micro-levelperspectives offered by HRD which has workforce development and economic developmentas primary outcomes and the strategic macro-level perspectives offered by NHRD with afocus on economic and social development outcomes.

Despite its current ascendancy, there is still no consensus on what constitutes aneffective TVET system. We identify different components that constitute effectiveTVET systems and their connection to workforce, economic and social developmentstrategies. We develop an integrative framework of the TVET system that connectsHRD and NHRD goals at the organizational, regional and national levels. This is theprimary purpose. We define HRD as connecting skills, education, knowledge andinnovation in organizational settings and linkage to economic and workforcedevelopment outcomes. Further, we note NHRD’s focus on social development goalssuch as literacy and education. The literature review frames the HRD–NHRD linkage forintegrating organizational and national skill development initiatives through effectiveTVET systems. Doing so would enhance workforce, economic and social developmentand, by implication, sustain competitive advantage at organizational, regional andnational levels.

The paper reviews targeted contributions from the TVET literature. We develop aconceptual model utilizing the emerging themes and critical factors that support and/orinhibit effectiveness of TVET systems, identifying the relevance of these factors to HRDand NHRD, and the extent to which such integration can produce a virtuous cyclelinking education, skill development, knowledge and innovation to workforcedevelopment, economic development and social policy. We provide implications of thisintegrative linkage for HRD and NHRD research and practice. The method used in thetargeted review of literature is described in the following text.

MethodWe used a targeted literature review approach for exploring relevant research on TVETsystems, identifying the components which support and/or inhibit its effectivenesswithin an integrative framework that connects workforce development, socialdevelopment and economic development strategies. The literature review approachprovides rigorous, thorough and object review of contributions on these topics (Rojonet al., 2011). We also reviewed and synthesized evaluation measures of TVET from theliterature.

Article search procedureWe conducted an extensive and systematic search using the following keywords:vocational (technical and vocational) education, vocational (technical and vocational) training,VET (TVET), vocational program, vocational education system, workforce development andworkforce education. Databases were searched in international organizations such as UnitedNations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development; International Labour Organization; and the World Bank,and in academic databases including Academic Search Complete, Business SourceComplete, ERIC, Human Resource Abstracts, ABI/INFORM Global, Science Direct andVocational and Career Collection. Journals where multiple articles on TVET were publishedwere also searched: Journal of Vocational Education & Training, International Journal of

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Manpower and International Journal of Training and Development. The literature cited inthe articles obtained was also reviewed.

Selection criteriaWe selected journal articles and publications published in English from refereed andnon-refereed journal articles, research reports and book chapters. We limited the searchwithin a specific period (2000-2012). Then we reviewed abstracts, findings andsummary sections of the publications as the final step in shortlisting the articles. Finally,34 documents (27 journal articles, 7 research reports and book chapters) met ourselection criteria. We identified core themes relevant to TVET from this pool ofliterature. The core themes were analyzed, sorted and grouped under various categories.The categories were further refined and emerging linkages among them were noted forconsideration.

AnalysisThe pool of articles reviewed consisted of both developed and developing countries. Wereviewed the literature through content analysis, and identified three major themes. Thefirst theme identifies nine sub-themes that make an effective TVET system. Thesesub-themes identified from the literature review are as follows:

(1) national TVET policy;(2) regional TVET policy;(3) training;(4) participation;(5) curriculum;(6) coordination of stakeholder institutions;(7) individual and institutional attitudes toward skill development;(8) managing supply-demand mismatches; and(9) economic and social development outcomes.

The second major theme underlines the increasing overlap and connection betweenworkforce development, social development and economic development strategies. Inour third and final finding, we position effective TVET systems as the linking pinconnecting the four TVET components (skills, education, innovation and knowledge) tothe strategic goals of workforce development, economic development and socialdevelopment. To do so, we build a conceptual framework for understanding theintegrative role of effective TVETs for establishing and sustaining linkages fordeveloping human resources at the organizational level (HRD) and regional and nationallevels (NHRD). These are presented next.

FindingsOur findings extend traditional understanding of developing human resourcesprimarily in organizations to other non-organizational contexts. Furthermore, thisreview reframes the HRD–NHRD relationship in theory and practice by positioningTVET as an integrative framework for developing human resources and furthering

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economic, workforce and social development over time. In the following section, wepresent the three emergent themes.

Effectiveness of TVETWe identified several challenges in examining the effectiveness of TVET systems. Thefragmented and diffused policy structure that currently exists in developed anddeveloping countries was identified as a significant barrier for connecting workforce,economic and social development strategies. Data linking skills, education, knowledgeand innovation were unavailable for all countries (Toner, 2011; UNEVOC, 2012).Furthermore, Toner (2011) pointed out the difficulty in quantifying “the relationbetween skills, education, knowledge and innovation in that each of these variables canbe specified in many different ways through a range of proxy indicators, and because ofquality differences, there are major difficulties in comparing these variables over timeand across countries” (p. 59). We contend that these difficulties are not uncommon intraditional organizational settings, where HRD operates. Identifying indicators that canassess macro-level NHRD perspectives is even more challenging. We respond to thesechallenges by expanding the scope of our review to include indicators commonly used toassess the effectiveness of TVETs and apply them to the NHRD context.

As we argue later, connecting skills, education, knowledge and innovation for thedevelopment of the workforce economy and society is a necessary pre-condition foridentifying the components of an integrative TVET framework. This then begs thequestion as to what common factors between developed and developing countries typifyan effective TVET system, regardless of the growth and progress that a specific countrymight be undergoing. We present nine sub-themes to address this question in thefollowing section.

National TVET policyConnecting education, workforce development and economic development requiresdesigning policies at the federal level and ensuring regional, state-level and localimplementation (Harper-Anderson, 2008). Reforming TVET policies, as in the Europeancontext, harmonizes educational system goals for developing a globally competitiveworkforce (Trampusch, 2009). For example, common standards and assessment ofTVET systems such as the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and EuropeanCredit System enable greater transparency in the processes associated with skillsattainment, credentialing and certification (Garmise, 2009; Trampusch, 2009). Further,unique national imperatives such as compulsory military training (e.g. Israel) drivenational TVET policy (Neuman and Ziderman, 2003). Regardless of these uniqueimperatives, we found factors such as coherence, access and portability of skills assignificant goals for most national TVET policies (Heyns and Needham, 2004).Increased participation in TVET aided in reducing school dropout rates (Stone andLewis, 2012), establishing direct connections of the workforce to the labor market(Molgat et al., 2011) and successfully matched employer needs with individual skills(Neuman and Ziderman, 2003). Furthermore, the quality of TVET instruction andresponsiveness to employer needs characterize effective national TVET policies(Baqadir et al., 2011).

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Regional TVET policyRegional policy development approaches developed from formal national TVETpolicies yielded better outcomes, as they were sensitive to local and national demandand supply of the workforce (Billett and Seddon, 2004; Harper-Anderson, 2008). Forexample, Sung (2010) advocated for a sector-focused skill development strategy. Such astrategy identifies broad criteria such as funding, infrastructure, employeequalifications as well as employer participation for a specific industry space. Yet,despite these criteria, the TVET literature suggests that regional policies remainsomewhat ineffective, as they operate in different socio-cultural values, policyregulations and economic structures. Within a particular geographic region, theconnections between higher education institutions, community college systems andsocial partnerships with employers and workforce development staff could yieldstronger outcomes. In fact, Berry and Aram (2002) emphasize the importance ofgeographical considerations and invoke the need for stronger regional connectionsbetween TVET institutions and local firms. The long-term viability of localcommunities is closely linked to the long-term viability of local firms. Building thequality of the local workforce can be a significant factor for economic success of theregion, as it connects societal viability with firms that are involved in generatingeconomic wealth.

TrainingTraining is an important sub-theme, as it affects employers and employees in veryspecific ways. Offering incentives for employee and employer participation in traininginitiatives helps workforce development strategy in two ways. First, these incentivesleverage firm-level demands for workforce development which create value for HRD.Second, they foster a tight demand–supply linkage with the local workforce andalignment with regional economic development strategy (Garmise, 2009). These twofactors are critical considerations for HRD and NHRD initiatives.

Curriculum developmentMajor components of TVET policy include the development of curriculum content,modes of instruction, quality of instructors, sustaining participation and involvement ofpotential TVET stakeholders (Baqadir et al., 2011). An increased shared interest in thedevelopment of curricula, partnerships with employers, credentialing of educationalprograms, quality instructors and new modes of instruction address the increasingglobal skill shortage (Molgat et al., 2011). In addition, developing technical and generaleducation content were other factors that influenced TVET effectiveness. The design,development and evaluation of TVET curriculum thus contributes to workforcedevelopment strategy, and is likely to enhance HRD work in organizations. At a regionaland national level, curriculum development furthers NHRD goals. The cumulativemultilevel impact reinforces workforce and economic development strategies.

ParticipationEmployee or student participation in training offers strong evidence of decreasingunemployment as well as increasing reemployment of workers (Landmesser, 2011).Employers also have an important role and stake, as they can leverage existing TVETinfrastructures for creating a productive workforce. Contrary to reports that employers arereluctant to invest in training or retraining of workers (Walker, 2006), many firms offer

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pre-service and on-site practical training. A robust TVET infrastructure aimed at increasedparticipation from employers and employees also facilitates interrelationships betweentraining systems, workforce development systems, industry and market structures(O’Donnell et al., 2001). Furthermore, increased participation from marginalized populationsled to improved literacy rates and increased value in gross domestic product (Khilji et al.,2012). Stenberg (2007) reported an average to high returns on human capital accumulationbecause of TVET. Thus, redesigning existing TVET structures and institutions forimparting general skills and knowledge is likely to benefit marginalized populations byincreasing opportunities for access and equity. Therefore, leveraging TVET is not only animportant consideration for workforce and economic development, but also for socialdevelopment.

Coordination among stakeholder institutionsThe relationships and strength of stakeholder connections are crucial for achievingsustained economic development. Billett and Seddon (2004) recommend socialpartnerships between private sector, community and TVET organizations for capacitybuilding at the regional level. The regional partnerships sensitize TVET stakeholders tothe specific demands of the workforce, economic policies and other initiatives (e.g.school-to-work transitions). The stakeholder connections in fact address themuch-needed demand-side focus of labor supply that is often overlooked by privatesector organizations. Further, these connections also strengthen linkages betweendemand and labor force supply and highlight the wider contextual influences (e.g.societal and economic considerations, competing regulations) (Baqadir et al., 2011;O’Donnell et al., 2001; Garmise, 2009).

Employers’ involvement is critical in designing skills and qualification standards(Sung, 2010) and in the development of a strong training ethic (Baqadir et al., 2011;Trampusch, 2009). Employers articulate the broader workforce and economicdevelopment strategies through their stated business demands, which are linked totraining (Berry and Aram, 2002). Despite these inherent advantages, Trampusch (2009)notes that such increased involvement is also likely to increase TVET’s role, which inturn can reduce employer involvement.

Individual and institutional attitudes toward skills developmentThe obsolescence of skills and knowledge in today’s networked knowledge economy iscausing severe pressure on employers to invest in workforce retraining and training(Baqadir et al., 2011). Recent trends in globalization incentivized firms to invest inworkforce training and development for creating and sustaining competitive advantage(Harper-Anderson, 2008). Competitive firms, industries and sectors in this globalizednetworked knowledge economy are less dependent on financial incentives and localizedadvantages, as they rely more on a strong training ethic, and increasing the educationalattainment of workers in all age groups (Berry and Aram, 2002).

Furthermore, large firms also exercise greater influence on national training andeducational policy than small and medium enterprises (SMEs; Trampusch, 2009).Despite this undue influence of federal or national government, regional NHRDstrategy is likely to be more effective, as it is sensitive to the demands of all types offirms. We argue that effective TVET systems can retain a focus to meet the demands

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of organizational (HRD) and regional and national (NHRD) workforce training anddevelopment demands.

A stronger strategic framework creates a new channel for funding economicdevelopment strategies, streamlines the outflow of TVET graduates into the workforceby adapting them to emerging service sectors (Walker, 2006). Aside from the economicimperative, Heyns and Needham, (2004) suggest political imperatives (e.g. removal ofapartheid legacy in South Africa) as a rationale for creating TVET systems to includeboth formal and informal learning in the curriculum. Thus, the overarching emphasis onskill development across the spectrum of workers in the global market also motivatesour interest in linking workforce and economic development strategies. TVETs play animportant role connecting the two strategies, reinforcing a virtuous cycle of productivityand economic prosperity for the region.

Managing supply-demand mismatchesThe assessment of TVET systems must include a more ingrained analysis of therelationships that link labor supply and market demand. For example, Walker (2006)suggested broadening the TVET curriculum by increasing the number of courses tomatch participants’ educational background and their job responsibilities. A broadcurriculum not only covers a wide range of market needs, but also offers many careeroptions for TVET graduates. For example, the European Union integration has led to agreater integration of TVET curriculum and teaching. Additionally, national and globalinterests (e.g. EQF) also influence and shape the formulation and implementation ofTVET policies.

The availability of TVET opportunities for dropouts plays an important part inmanaging the supply and demand for graduates into the workplace. The route toemployment has become unpredictable, as the notion of jobs-for-life is fast disappearing(Walker, 2006). Furthermore, vertical (qualifications–job fit) and horizontal (qualifications–employment fit) mismatches in the labor market continue to impact wages and the quality ofwork life. In general, Western models of TVET systems suggest flexibility in respondingand engaging workers, which is not the case in developing countries (Majumdar, 2008;Walker, 2006).

Economic and social development outcomesIn the last sub-theme, we address economic and social development outcomes that arelikely to enhance regional and national competitiveness. For example, lowunemployment rates (Budría and Telhado-Pereira, 2009; Newhouse and Suryadarma,2011) and vocational education and employment fit (Baqadir et al., 2011; Béduwésssssand Giret, 2011; Budría and Telhado-Pereira, 2009; Neuman and Ziderman, 2003) wereidentified as importance outcomes of a robust workforce development strategy. Further,assessing the impact of community colleges on the log wages of participants (Neumanand Ziderman, 2003) and on mid-career education of TVET graduates (Stenberg, 2007)linked specific educational outcomes to individual benefits. The impact of productivity(Budria and Telhado-Pereira, 2009) on economic and social development at the regionallevel (Harper-Anderson, 2008), connecting TVET standards, credentialing andqualifications with economic competitiveness (Lassnigg, 2011) were suggested asrobust indicators for economic development strategy. We suggest the integration of

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both types of indicators as critical for achieving organizational, regional and nationalcompetitiveness.

Several scholars advocate TVET systems as a means for minimizing or eliminatingdisparities experienced by disadvantaged population groups in the society(Kammermann, 2010). For example, prioritizing pre-employment programs amelioratethe lack of support for disadvantaged populations based on ethnicity (e.g. Arabs inIsrael), and increasing their numbers in the workforce. However, inclusion ofimmigrants (Neuman and Ziderman, 2003); disabled youth and older workers(Kammermann, 2010); perceptions of inferiority; ans lack of self-esteem negativelyimpacted the effectiveness of TVETs (Heyns and Needham, 2004). We identifiedadditional barriers for TVETs: uneven supply and demand in the labor market (Baqadiret al., 2011), forced relationships with employers (Walker, 2006), weak socialpartnerships with key stakeholders and mismatch of jobs, qualifications and interests(Béduwé and Giret, 2011). Furthermore, the absence of sound application of theory andlack of practical experience (Heyns and Needham, 2004) also affected TVETeffectiveness. In what follows, we identify the relevance of the aforementioned ninesub-themes to HRD and NHRD to emphasize the interconnections between all the threemajor findings from the TVET literature with HRD and NHRD.

Relevance of the identified sub-themes to HRD and NHRDThe presence of the nine sub-themes increases the effectiveness of TVETs. EffectiveTVET systems must provide structure and expand workforce development initiativesto include regional development for achieving societal and economic goals. We thusinclude TVET policy as practiced in developing nations, which focus on providing basiceducation for all, including the most vulnerable and marginal populations. We alsoconsider employee and societal attitudes, which prevent full engagement in all types ofskill-based training in developed and developing countries. Our findings suggest thatTVETs serve as catalysts that connect broader goals such as skills, education,knowledge and innovation to workforce, economic and social development strategies.More importantly, we must recognize the central and fundamental role of skill building,education, knowledge and innovation as essential for all HRD and NHRD outcomes.

The comparison of economic, social and workforce development strategieshighlights the importance of skill development, education, training and retraining at theindividual (e.g. employees, adult learners), organizational (employers in private, publicand non-profit sectors), regional (cities, urban and rural towns), state and national levelsand forms the second main finding which is addressed in the following text.

Connecting TVET components to workforce development, social development andeconomic development strategiesWe identified four areas, namely, overarching goals, stakeholders, role in skilldevelopment and the targeted audience, for comparing workforce, economic and socialdevelopment strategies. The overarching goals of workforce development strategiesaim at enhancing a range of developmental priorities from pre-service training tolifelong learning opportunities. Social development strategies emphasize equity andaccess for marginalized populations. In sharp contrast, economic developmentstrategies target skill development for meeting marketplace demands. Table I displays

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Table I.Comparing workforce,social and economicdevelopment strategies(thematic analysis fromTVET literature)

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the similarities and differences in the approach of workforce development, socialdevelopment and economic development strategies.

In terms of stakeholders, workforce development strategy relies on higher educationsystem (universities) and other forms of post-secondary educational institutions(community colleges and private training institutes). These institutions rely on publicsources of funding. Large manufacturing organizations, SMEs, startups and localchambers of commerce and industrial sectors articulate the business need for skilldevelopment.

The role of the private sector in skill development is essential for economicprosperity. Investment in training and offering onsite apprenticeships help to managethe flow of labor from educational institutions to the workplace. The intended audiencesare adult learners who have undergone some level of basic education at a minimum. Theworkforce development strategy is geared toward supporting all types of students, evenas their academic inclination is highly variable. As a result, the focus on training is towarddeveloping instructional content, delivery and maintaining qualified instructors. The socialdevelopment strategy offers retraining and opportunities for learning for dropouts andmarginalized populations. Workforce and economic development strategies utilizemicro-level perspectives focused on enhancing organizational performance and thusaddress HRD priorities at the organizational level. Social development strategies are morelikely to address macro-level perspectives and inform NHRD policy decisions. Theprolonged duration of the current global recession calls for maximizing stakeholderinteractions and collaborations. Leveraging stakeholder collaborations across the threestrategies can optimize the already scarce resources available for education, knowledge,innovation and skill development, which are the four critical components of TVETs.

Integrating HRD and NHRD through a TVET frameworkWe offer broad perspectives for examining how TVET institutions, governments(national, regional and local), secondary and postsecondary educational institutions andprivate sector organizations together determine the strategies in building workforcecapability and capacity, and through what methods. This forms the third and finalfinding. The approaches these stakeholders can take are likely to be the result of anoverall national policy that combines HRD and NHRD, using TVET as the strategicdriver for developing skills and knowledge of individuals and strengthening andbalancing the demand and supply of labor, which reinforce workforce, economic andsocial development outcomes.

In addition to this perspective, we also offer a nuanced approach by first identifyingNHRD, TVET and HRD goals and then distilling and linking these goals into specificindicators for evaluating TVET effectiveness. We categorize these indicators based ontheir impact at the micro level (organizational) or macro level (regional, national).Furthermore, these indicators not only offer specific linkages for connecting HRD andNHRD outcomes but also provide an overview of TVET activities, and set benchmarksat national and global levels for sustaining competitive advantage.

Table II displays major TVET indicators and their linkage to HRD and NHRDoutcomes. Micro indicators tend to focus on the activities at the institution andindividuals. Thus, instructors, specific curriculum or content areas, learner engagementand performance are included under this category of indicators. These indicatorsrecognize important outcomes for workforce, social and economic development

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strategies, as they relate to education, skill training, knowledge and innovation atorganizational and regional levels.

Macro-level indicators consolidate educational systems and financial resources, anddevelop measures for tracking employment, education enrollment and learning impact,all of which constitute important components for assessing, comparing and contrastingnational TVET systems. From an NHRD perspective, the strategic and macro-levelindicators support human capital development at the national level (Osman-Gani, 2004).An important difference between macro- and micro-level indicators is that collaborativearrangements among the private sector, government and educational institutions offerways for identifying the utilization of appropriate TVET indicators at the national levelfor the former and the regional and organizational levels for micro-level policy decisionsfor the latter. Both macro- and micro-level factors underline the importance of providingaccess to education and participation, which are important outcomes for socialdevelopment. This concludes our findings.

A unified conceptual frameworkThe three major themes from the literature review provide an additional line of inquirythat is relevant to our inquiry: Are there differences in the ways in which HRD is appliedin advanced nations, and developing nations? We argue that there are more similaritiesthan differences, as long as the scope of the inquiry is limited to skill development. If thesame question is applied to NHRD, then the answer is not different, as long as workforcedevelopment, economic development and social development are linked and integrated.Using this background, we propose the integration of HRD and NHRD outcomes into a

Table II.Developing indicators formeasuring effectiveness ofTVET

Components SourceLinking TVETto HRD–NHRD

MicroInputs, process and outputs of institutions,staff and students

Coates (2007) HRD

Cost-effectiveness, management, place andtime, quality of the training (content andinstructors) and assessment process

Australian Quality Indicatorin VET (Blom and Meyers,2003)

HRD

Learner engagement, employer andcompetency building

Coates (2009) HRD

Competencies (basic/occupational/specific),institutional conditions and individual contexts

Baethge and Arends (2008) HRD

MacroEducation system (beyond public education),link to occupation and learning outcome (skills,knowledge and competency)

European QualificationsFramework (Markowitschand Luomi-Messerer, 2007)

NHRD

Finance, access/participation, quality ofteaching and learning process and relevance tolabor market needs

TVET indicators of EuropeanTraining Foundation (ETF,2012)

NHRD

The outputs of education institution, theimpact of learning, financial and humanresources investment, access to education andparticipation and the learning environment

OECD education indicators(OECD, 2011)

NHRD

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unified conceptual TVET framework that has broad applicability for developing anddeveloped countries, as shown in Figure 2.

Our conceptual framework unifies HRD, NHRD and TVET efforts. We organizecritical TVET indicators (macro and micro level) that suggest ways for increasing the valueand effectiveness of NHRD, TVET and HRD, as well offer ways for evaluating these efforts.The micro- and macro-level indicators offer a snapshot for aligning HRD–NHRD initiativesthrough effective TVET systems. We also conceptualize TVET systems as necessaryinstitutional arrangements for responding to rapidly transforming market environments.Furthermore, the micro- and macro-level indicators address the broader and overarchingnational focus of workforce development, economic development and social developmentstrategies.

We identified HRD (organizational level) and NHRD (regional and national levels)and how they inform micro and macro perspectives for developing human resources.Our research raises interesting questions about the boundaries for defining HRD andNHRD. We recommend additional inquiry to address the theoretical confusion andrecommend future research to clarify boundaries. We also cannot fully rule out otherdevelopment strategies (e.g. political, socio-cultural) that developed and developingcountries can leverage for building their human resources with or without utilizing theTVET framework. Finally, our utilization of a targeted review of literature was focusedon HRD and NHRD outcomes. We recommend future studies on this topic to includeliterature on TVET that addresses knowledge and innovation from intellectual capitalperspectives (Tomé, 2004).

Figure 2.A conceptual TVET

framework integratingHRD and NHRD outcomes

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ConclusionsOur conceptual framework reinforces the importance of HRD by emphasizing skilldevelopment, education, innovation and knowledge in organizational contexts. Thebroad focus of the framework extends the relevance of these TVET components toinclude NHRD imperatives. Furthermore, by combining workforce, social and economicdevelopment strategies, the TVET framework further integrates these overarchingmacro-level strategies at multiple levels. We also developed macro- and micro-leveloutcomes for assessing TVET effectiveness. From a theoretical standpoint, theexamination of TVET system not also supports a systemic approach toward developinghuman resources but also combines capitalistic and utilitarian views (economicdevelopment strategy) with humanistic perspectives (workforce and social developmentstrategies).

The comparisons between economic, social and workforce development strategiesreinforce the potential role of TVETs in developing human resources. Furthermore, thecomparison highlights the importance of skill development, education, training andretraining at the individual (employees and adult learners), organizational (private,public and non-profit sectors), regional (cities, urban and rural towns), state and nationallevels. We believe this is an important contribution, as our findings reframe currentunderstanding of NHRD and its relationship to HRD. We focused on skill development,education, innovation and knowledge as significant sources for sustaining competitiveadvantage at the individual, organizational and national levels. Effective TVETsystems thus call for a renewed focus and integration of HRD and NHRD priorities.

Implications for NHRD research and practiceThe findings have important implications for NHRD research. First, by positioningTVET as a central linking pin, we integrate relevant outcomes associated with HRD andNHRD and develop a conceptual framework that offers broad multilateral approachesfor sustaining workforce, economic and social development, as a result of broad-basededucation, raising knowledge acquisition through skill development, all of which set thestage for continuous innovation. Previous theoretical NHRD studies (Cho and McLean,2004) have suggested that integrating workforce development initiatives at nationallevels is beneficial for achieving improved economic and social development outcomes.More recent empirical NHRD studies (Arthur-Mensah and Alagaraja, 2013) suggestTVET as a framework for addressing NHRD challenges at the regional, state andnational levels. However, both types of studies overlooked TVET’s role in establishingthe HRD–NHRD linkage, identifying indicators of TVET effectiveness and theirinfluence on economic, social and workforce development outcomes. Our results showthat the real picture is far more complex, as different sets of HRD and NHRD indicatorsinfluence the aforementioned development outcomes. These findings urge us toincorporate TVETs into the HRD–NHRD literature for improving implementationoutcomes related to workforce development strategy at the organizational, regional,state and national levels. Specifically, the findings suggest that depending on thealignment of HRD–NHRD–TVET goals and objectives, organizational-, regional- andnational-level strategies may become more beneficial for also attaining economic andsocial development outcomes. The conceptual framework examines the potential rolefor TVET and extent of linkage and congruence with HRD and NHRD outcomes and canthus offer more theoretical insights into the nature of HRD–NHRD relationship.

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As a contextual factor, the economic downturn has influenced the effect ofstakeholder institutions on economic, workforce and social development outcomes.Therefore, it is crucial to examine the extent of institutional involvement andpro-activeness in leveraging TVET, as well as identifying HRD and NHRD needs acrossa spectrum of geographic (local, regional, state and national) contexts and industries toharvest favorable development outcomes. Several regional workforce developmentinitiatives led by organizations such as Toyota, Siemens and Mercedes-Benz in the USAovertly demonstrate proactivity for integrating HRD–NHRD outcomes throughinstitutional arrangements which act in many ways as TVETs, although they assume adifferent label (e.g. community colleges, regional education boards). In other countries,integrated HRD–NHRD outcomes can be accomplished through unified TVETframeworks. In the global race for economic dominance, developing human resourceswill characterize the overarching strategic priorities of employers, governments andindividual citizens. From this standpoint, the important role and effectiveness of TVETsystems cannot be overstated.

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About the authorsMeera Alagaraja is Assistant Professor in the Organizational Leadership and Learning programat University of Louisville. Her research interests focus on the HRD role in strategy formulationand implementation, performance improvement and learning in organizations. Meera Alagarajais the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]

Pradeep Kotamraju is currently the Deputy Director, National Research Center for Career andTechnical Education (NRCCTE), University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky. Kotamraju hasworked in several senior administrative positions in higher education and workforce developmentagencies in Minnesota, and has taught college- and university-level Economics and Statistics atseveral higher education institutions in Minnesota. He has written several publications andmonographs, and made numerous presentations, in the area of student success in career andtechnical education, workforce development in the United States and in the area of economic andsocial development in non-OECD countries, with a particular focus on India.

Sehoon Kim is a PhD student in the Department of Educational Administration and HumanResource Development at Texas A&M University. He previously worked in the HR field in Korea.His research interests include work hours, talent management, NHRD and brain drain.

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