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W Stimulants

m Hallucinogens

W Marijuana

m Prevention

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Students will be able to:

1 Define psychoactive drugs, and explain thecycle of dependence, tolerance, andwithdrawal.

2 Describe the physiological and psychologicaleffects of alcohol.

3 Describe the physiological and psychologicaleffects of stimulants.

4 Describe the physiological and psychologicaleffects of hallucinogens.

s Describe the physiological and psychologicaleffects of marijuana.

6 Discuss factors associated with drug use andwith the prevention of drug use.

lVocabulary ff Key Terms:

psychoactivedrug depressants cocaine lysergicaciddiethylamidedependence stimulants amphetamines (LSo)withdrawal caffeine hallucinogens ecsfas'ltolerance nicotine mar'Juana

Module26 Drugs 493

Most adults and young adults in this country regularly takepsychoactive drugs, chemical substances that alter mood,behavior, or perceptions. Surprised? If so, perhaps you don'tassociate the phrase "psychoactive drug" with the three mostcommonly used psychoactive substances: caffeine, alcohol, andnicotine. These everyday chemical substances are drugs; assuch, they can induce an altered state of consciousness. Theyalso can lead to dependence-a state of physiological or psy-chological need to take more of a drug after continued use.Notice that we say dependence, not addiction. The concept ofaddiction, which has been applied freely to so many socialbehaviors, has lost much of its meaning. Addicted to love?Addicted to television? Addicted to popcorn? True addictionsseriously disnipt a person's ability to function in everyday life.

Gambling and Internet use can sometimes fit this description, but fewother behaviors do. For the purposes of this module, vqe use the termdependence instead of addiction to discuss psychoactive drugs.

When users are deprived of a drug they are dependent on, they havesymptoms of withdrawal (usually discomfort and distress). You mayexperience withdrawal if you normally drink a few cans of caffeinatedcola daily and then go on a weekend camping trip where no soda isavailable. If you experience grogginess, develop a headache, and "miss"your cola, you are demonstrating caffeine dependence.

Withdrawal symptoms often resemble the opposite of a psychoac-tive drug's intended effect. For a heroin user, this means that the brief,drug-induced episodes of euphoria, relaxation, and slowed breathingwill give way to prolonged depression, restlessness, and abnormallyrapid breathing after the drug wears off (Feldman & others, 1997).Withdrawal is even worse in those with a long history of drug use.Regular drug use leads to tolerance, a reduced response to the dmg,which prompts the user to take larger doses to achieve the same pleas-urable effects previously obtained by lower doses (see Figure 26.1).

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psychoactive drugChemical substance that alters

perceptions, mood, or behavior.

dependenceState of physiological, psycho-logical, or both types of need totake more of a drug affer contin-ued use.

Bigeffect

Drugeffect

Figure 26.1 Tolerance Theinitial effect of a psychoactive

drug is not the same as the ef-fect that occurs with repeateduse. As the user's body devel-ops tolerance to the drug, in-

creasing amounts will be neededto achieve the same effect.

withdrawalDiscomfort and distress that fol-

Iow when a person who is de-pendent on a drug discontinuesthe use of that drug.

tolerance

Reduced responsiveness to adrug, prompting the user to takelarger doses to achieve the samepleasurable effects previously ob-tained by Iower doses.

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effect

Small 'k Large

Drug dose

494 Cognitive Domain Consciousness Chapter

Response tofirst exposure

After repeatedexposure, more

drug is neededto produce sameeffect

So, for example, a new drinker may get a "buzz" from one beer, butafter drinking regularly over weeks, the person will develop a toler-ance for alcohol and may require two or three beers to achieve thatsame feeling. With this increased intake, the person's body must strug-gle to clean out the increased toxins and cope with the rising bloodalcohol level. You'll read more about the effects of alcohol next.

We'll study four kinds of psychoactive dnigs: depressants, stimu-lants, hallucinogens, and marijuana. Most discussions of drugs andtheir effects use these four categories, but the drug-taker's expectationsand mood can cause some drugs to jump outside the boundaries of anyone classification. For example, alcohol is a depressant, but it can havea wildly stimulating effect on a drinker who expects to feel stimulated,such as an excited fan celebrating a World Series championship.

Alcohol: A Depressant

THIN KING CR?TICAL LY What are the physiological and psychologicaleffects of drinking alcohol?

Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activity and slow bodyfunctions.

Alcohol is the second most used psychoactive drug in the world.(Caffeine is first.) Like any depressant, alcohol slows thinkjng andimpairs physical activity. Alcohol is unique among the depressants inthat its use is largely recreational: People drink to "unwind," for thetaste, or to increase sociability at a party.

Alcoholic beverages vary widely in the amount of alcohol they con-tain. Beer is 3.5 to s percent alcohol, wine between 9 and 12 percent, andthe hard stuff like whiskey a whopping 40 percent. One 12-ounce can ofbeer would have about the same effect as 4 ounces of wine or 1 ounce of

hard liquor (see Figure 26.2). The average 150-pound man takes aboutan hour to metabolize the alcohol from one beer. If he drinks more than

one beer per hour, his blood alcohol content (BAC) quickly increases.Alcohol also affects women and men differently. Women and girls

are more likely to experience liver and brain damage after drinkingless extreme amounts than their male counterparts (National Centeron Addiction and Substance Abuse, 2003). A man and a woman whoboth weigh the same and drink the same amount of alcohol will have

Figure 26.2 What Do WeMean by "One Drink"? One1 2-ounce can of beer has

about the same amount of

alcohol as 4 ounces of wine

or 1 ounce of whiskey.depressantsDrugs (such as alcohol andsedatives) that reduce neuralactivity and slow body functions.

Module26 Drugs 495

different amounts of alcohol in their bloodstreams an hour later for at

least three reasons (Julien, 2004):

Men typically have 50 percent more of an enzyme responsible forbreaking down (metabolizing) alcohol. Men rid themselves ofalcohol faster.

Pound for pound, men have more blood in their vascular systems,so alcohol is diluted more in men.

A higher percentage of body fat in women tends to concentrate morealcohol in blood plasma than in men, which raises BAC in women.

In most states, a BAC of O.08 percent is legal intoxication. However,the selection of O.08 as the cutoff is arbitrary, which means a personmay not necessarily be able to drive safely with a lower BAC. Accordingto the federal Department of Transportation, truck drivers are notallowed to drive at O.04, and pilots should test no higher than O.02 aftergoing 24 hours without a drink. Behavioral impairment can begin at0.01. Even at this low BAC level, the time it takes to react increases, asdoes the likelihood of accidents.

But if alcohol depresses the nervous system, why do so many peoplereport feeling "enlivened" or stimulated after drinking small amounts?Indeed, how do we explain the following?

Ren6 is normally quiet but talks a mile a minute aJier drinking abottle of hard lemonade.

Nicholas is usually mild mannered but becomes aggressive afterdowning a couple beers.

Juanita is a penny-pincher but leaves the server a huge tip after anevening of scotch on the rocks at a bar.

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Preventing Problems Students,faculty, and chaperones at this

Nebraska high school are allrequired to take a Breathalyzertest to gain entry to the prom.

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The answer lies in the brain area most affected by alcohol. Alcoholtends to shut down the parts of your brain responsible for controllinginhibitions and making judgments. So, poor decisions and unrestrainedbehaviors are typical in those under the influence of alcohol. This helpsexplain another example of alcohol-induced bad judgment: Mostdrinkers, even after scoring at or above O.08 on a Breathalyzer test, judgethemselves capable of driving home from the bar (Denton & Krebs, 1990;MacDonald & others, 1995). It also may help explain the many fights,accidents, and unwanted sexual advances that involve drinking. Alcoholintoxication dramatically increases the probability that we will act outthe inappropriate or dangerous urges we keep in check while sober.

Alcohol also impairs memory. I remember a former college class-mate who, when questioned on Saturday morning after a night ofdrinking, couldn't remember what he'd done, where he'd been, and whohe'd been with the night before. He vigorously denied statements I hadheard him make just 12 hours earlier. My classmate lost these Fridaynight memories partly because alcohol suppresses the processing ofrecent events into long-term memory. Alcohol also plays another pecu-liar trick with our memory: Experiences from the intoxicated state maynot transfer to the sober state (Eich, 1980). Finally, alcohol suppressesREM (dream) sleep, which further disrupts memory storage.

The recreational use of alcohol often gets out of hand, leading todependence, health problems, accidental injuries, or death. No otherdrug has generated more problems, concern, or controversy than alcoholhas in this country. For evidence, look no fi?irther than our Constitution,where 2 of the 27 amendments deal solely and directly with alcohol (seealso "Psychology in the Real World: The Question of Alcoholism," page498). The combined yearly deaths from all illegal drugs are still fesserthan the number of alcohol-related deaths each year (Siegel, 1990).

THINKING CRITICALLY SUMMARY Alcohol is a depressant, so itsmain effects are to reduce neural activity and slow body functions. Alcoholalso slows the parts of the brain that control inhibitions and judgments.Alcohol affects men and women differently because of differences inenzymes that metabolize alcohol, in blood volume, and in body fat. Mostpeople use alcohol responsibly, but others become dependent, leading tohealth problems, accidental injuries, or death.

Stimulants

THIN KIN G C RITICALLY What are the physiological and psychologicaleffects of stimulants?

Alcohol is a depressant that reduces neural activity and slows bodyfunctions. Next, we review stimulants, dnigs that excite neural activityand speed up body functions. This category includes caffeine, nicotine,cocaine, and amphetamines. And one of those-caffeine-is the mostused psychoactive dnig in the world.

stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine,and the more powerful ampheta-mines and cocaine) that exciteneural activity and speed up bodyfunctions.

Module26 Drugs 497

caffeine

Stimulant found in coffee, choco-late, tea, and some soft drinks.

Caffeine

Caffeine is the stimulant found in coffee, tea, cocoa, and cola. As manyas 80 percent of the adults in this country consume some form of it daily(Julien, 2004). Many choose coffee as their caffeine delivery system.Coffee causes bad breath, stains your teeth, looks like motor oil, keepsyou from sleeping, and tastes awful the first several times you drink it.Even after becoming hooked, many coffee drinkers require cream andsugar to force it down. So why do millions drink it every day? Because as-ounce cup of coffee contains about 100 milligrams of caffeine. Caffeinerewards the user with a sense of increased energy, mental alertness, andforced wakefulness, which prompts continued use regardless of taste.With sluggishness sent packing, a caffeine dependency settles in.

498 Cognitive Domain Consciousness Chapter

Il,,,.,sB '!.- ')i '=.,, ,J';%:i' rr!uii l7l':'j:" :'ill '! =l 'l"':"'ii:':'9i7j'l'j 'l" l@ , "v il'f lV...lThe fluestian of AlcnhnlismHalf of all beer, wine, and liquor consumed in this : the questions distributed by the National lnstitutecountry is swallowed by only 10 percent of the l on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (see Table

population.Manyofthoseincludedinthat10per- :, 26.1).Answering"yes"toanyofthequestionsin-

i cent are alcohol dependent. lf you suspect that a :, dicates an alcohol problem of some sort. Answer-l family member or friend is dependent on alcohol l ing "yes" to several of the questions may indicate(an alcoholic), you might ask that person to read : alcoholism.

Do You Have an Alcohol Problem?

If you can answer "yes" to even one of these questions, consider seeking

advice about your use of alcohol.

1 . Has someone close to you sometimes expressed concern about your drinking?

2. When faced with a problem, do you often turn to alcohol for relief?3. Are you somehmes unable to meet home or work responsibilities because of

drinking?

4. Have you ever required medical attention as a result of drinking?

5. Have you ever experienced a blackout-a iotal loss of memory while stillawake-when drinking?

6. Have you ever come into conflict with the law in connection with your drinking?

7. Have you often failed to keep the promises you have made to yourself aboutcontrolling or cutting out your drinking?

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Unfortunately, as with so many psy-choactive drugs, regular caffeine use pro-duces tolerance, as well as dependence.One cup no longer provides the artificiallift, so the caffeine drinker pours anothercup or buys another soda. And thenanother. If you take in 200 or more mil-ligrams of caffeine per day, you will prob-ably experience withdrawal symptomson a day you go without. Caffeine with-drawal includes headache, agitation, andtiredness, and the intensity of the with-drawal is tied directly to the normalamount of caffeine ingested daily. Whenthe coffee pot runs dry, even mild-man-nered tempers end on a short fuse.

I greatly underestimated the power of caffeine dependence early inmy teaching career. It was my turn to start the 100-cup coffeemaker inthe teacher's lounge by 7:00 A.M., and I simply forgot to do it. You'venever seen so many adults become cranky so quickly as withdrawal setin, with no caffeine fix in sight. At lunch that day, a caffeine-deprivedteacher jokingly suggested I be arrested for failure to percolate.

Although researchers have not found long-term damaging effectsfrom small daily doses of caffeine (the equivalent of two cups of coffee),you are wise to avoid becoming addicted to caffeine. Getting the sleepyou need is infinitely better for your body (and attitude) than artificial-ly stimulating a sleep-deprived brain.

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Drug Dependence? Caffeinedependence may occur withas little as two cups of coffee(200 milligrams) per day.

Nicotine

Nicotine, the stimulant found in tobacco, ranks up there with alcoholand caffeine in the most used drug category. The stimulating effects ofnicotine are similar to those of caffeine, but nicotine usually enters thebody in a cloud of thick, deadly smoke from a cigarette. Nicotine isextremely addictive and does not stay long in the body. For a nicotine-dependent smoker, this means lighting up frequently to sustain thee'EEect. The statistics on smoking are bone chilling (Julien, 2004):

6000 American teenagers will light up for the first time today.3000 of them will develop a smoking habit.

1000 of them will die from smoking-related diseases.

31000 nonsmokers will die this year from heart disease contractedby inhaling passive smoke.

Another 4000 nonsmokers will contract lung disease from second-hand smoke this year.

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Stimulant found in tobacco.

Module26 Drugs 499

Smoker's Lung Thelung on the lefk was ahealthy, normal lung.The lung on the right

belonged to a smoker.We can't always seethe damage smoking

causes.

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Nearly 450,000 smokers will die in the United States this year alonebecause of their tobacco use. The good news about smoking, if that'spossible, is that we've seen a 90 percent decline in the number of adultswho smoke or chew tobacco (also a deadly habit) over the past 35 years(Rose & others, 1999). Nicotine replacement therapies, where nicotinecomes into the body through chewing gum, nasal sprays, or patchesworn on the skin, have helped thousands kick the tobacco habit.

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cocaine

Stimulant derived from leaves of

the coca plant.

For centuries, some South American people have chewed the leaves ofthe coca plant for medicinal and religious purposes and to increaseendurance. It wasn't until the 1850s that scientists identified, purified,and named the active ingredient-cocaine, a stimulant derived fromthe leaves of the coca plant (Julien, 2004). In the 1880s, Americans usedcocaine as a surgical anesthetic, among other medical uses.

Austrian physician Sigmund Freud prescribed cocaine in the early1900s as a treatment for depression and chronic fatigue. He quicklyreversed his stance after discovering cocaine's horrible side effects, whichinclude dependence, tolerance, and depression after you quit taking it.Freud then declared cocaine the "third scourge," after alcohol and heroin.

Like Freud, Coca-Cola endorsed cocaine during the late 1800s, includ-ing about 60 milligrams of the active ingredient from the coca plant inevery serving. Coke ran an advertising campaign several years ago callingitself, "the real thing." Well, from 1896 to 1904, Coke was indeed the realthing. The company changed the formula, replacing cocaine with caffeine.

In 1910, President William Howard Taft labeled cocaine "publicenemy number one"; soon after, the drug was banned. The advent ofless expensive but still illegal amphetamines in the 1930s replacedrecreational cocaine use for many Americans. Cocaine made a regret-table comeback in the late 1970s, with the introduction of inexpensivecocaine crystals called crack.

500 Cognitive Domain Consciousness Chapter

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Cocaine and crack cocaine produce a strong euphoric effect but aneven stronger crash. The user is instantly dependent, craving morecocaine to temporarily overcome the crash. All this places considerablestrain on the cardiovascular system, leading to instant death in somecases. Crack and cocaine users also can experience frightening feelingsof paranoia and suspicion.

.Amphptamines?mmm>

Amphetamines are drugs that stimulate neural activity and speed upbody functions. I grew up hearing amphetamines called speed or uppers,words that still characterize amphetamines' stimulating effects. What Ididn't grow up hearing about was the cheaper and more dangerousamphetamine derivative, methamphetamine (also called crystal andcrank).

Amphetamines' effects include restlessness, high blood pressure,insomnia, agitation, loss of appetite, and a state of hyperalertness. Aswith most stimulants, tolerance builds quickly, and to get high, long-time amphetamine abusers have been known to take doses 10 times theamount that would be lethal for a first-time user (Julien, 2004).

Methamphetamine is more potent than regular amphetamines. And"ice" is to methamphetamine as "crack" is to cocaine. A major differ-ence is that ice stays in your system much longer than crack cocaine.Drug researcher Robert Julien (2004) warns of methamphetamine'sdangers: When referring to fast runners who help improve a team'schances of victory, football, soccer, and track coaches often use the col-orful figure of speech, "Speed kills." For high doses of methampheta-mine, "speed kills" is not a figure of speech.

amphetamineSDrugs that stimulate neural activi-ty, speeding up body functions.

Module26 Drugs 501

THINKING CR?TICALLY SUMMARY The generaleffectof allstimu-lants is to speed up neural activity and body functions. Regular use of anystimulant can lead to tolerance for the drug, and users can experience with-drawal effects after they stop using it. The most commonly used stimulantsare caffeine and nicotine. More powerful stimulants like cocaine and amphet-amines lead quickly to powerful and dangerous drug dependencies. Theeffects of these drugs and withdrawal effects can be life threatening.

Hallucinogens

THINK?NG CR?TICALLY

effects of stimulants?What are the physiological and psychological

Hallucinogens-sometimes called psychedelics -are drugs that distortperceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.The most commonly used hallucinogens were first made in a laborato-ry. Most labs producing these dn?igs today are illegal. Let's take a closerlook at two hallucinogens, LSD and ecstasy.

hallucinogensPsychedelic (mind-manifesting)drugs, such as LSD, that distortperceptions and evoke sensoryimages in the absence of sensoryinput.

lysergic acid diethylamide(LSD)Powerful hallucinogenic drug; al-so known as acid.

ecstasyAlso called MDMA, this hallu-cinogenic drug produces loweredinhibitions, pleasant feelings, andgreater acceptance of others.

mari3uanaLeaves, stems, resin, and flowersfrom the hemp plant that, whensmoked, Iower inhibitions andproduce feelings of relaxationand mild euphoria.

LSD

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a powerful hallucinogenic drugthat is sometimes called acid. The first LSD experience by a human wasan accident. Albert Hoffman, a Swiss chemist who first synthesized LSDin 1938, accidentally ingested the drug in April 1943 and found himself"seized by a peculiar sensation of vertigo and restlessness. Objects, aswell as the shape of my associates in the laboratory, appeared to under-go optical changes" (Hoffrnan, 1994). Hoffman's experience is similar tothose who have taken an "acid trip," where visual distortions, detach-ment from reality, and panic are common. Acid trips vary from personto person. Some people experience a mildly pleasant or mildly unpleas-ant reaction; others have nightmarish or deadly experiences. A panic-stricken LSD user, unable to detect the difference between reality andfabrication, can be dangerous not only to himself but also to others.

Consciousness-altering LSD is made in the laboratory, but other hallu-cinogens are found in nature. Mescaline (from the peyote cactus) andpsilocybin (from certain mushrooms) both produce perceptual disniptionof time and space. Some states allow the use of these drugs for centuries-old religious ceremonies, but all states outlaw them for recreational use.

Ecstasy

The hallucinogenic drug ecstasy (3, 4-methylendioxy-N-methylamphet-amine, or MDMA) produces lowered inhibitions, pleasant feelings, andgreater acceptance of others. Ecstasy was first manufactured more than80 years ago, but this amphetamine derivative is experiencing a rebirth

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502 Cognitive Domain Consciousness Chapter

of sorts today. It is closely associatedwith "rave" dances, where hundreds

of partygoers pack in shoulder toshoulder and dance to techno music

for most of the night. The stimulating?effects of the drug enable dancers tomaintain the frenzied pace longerthan they normally could.

The drug is seductive because it isrelatively inexpensive, but its physio-logical and mental costs can beextremely high. Even moderate usersmay experience permanent braindamage, losing memory, concentra-tion, and verbal reasoning skills(McCann, 1999; Morgan, 1999).

THINKING CR?TICALLY SUMMARY Hallucinogens cause changesin how we perceive the world. Different hallucinogens produce different kindsof distortions of reality Some people may experience mild or moderate hallu-cinations that they report as pleasant, but some hallucinations can be disturb-ing and even harmful. Repeated use of any hallucinogen can affect cognitiveabilities, induding memory, concentration, and communication skills.

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take ecstasy. Thelong-term conse-quences of this druginclude permanentbrain damage andmemory loss.

Marijuana

THIN Kl NG CRITICALLY What are the physiological and psychologicaleffects of marijuana?

It was used to make rope as far back as 8000 E!.c. It was used for med-ical purposes in China in 5000 ?3.c. and for religious purposes in Indiain 2000 E3.c. It comes from the cannabis sativa, or hemp, plant and iscalled ganja, sinsemilla, pot, hash, Mary Jane, dope, weed, bhang, andmany more names. Most often, it's called marijuana, and it is theleaves, stems, and flowers from the hemp plant. When smoked, mari-juana lowers inhibitions and produces feelings of relaxation and mildeuphoria. Its use among high school seniors is on the rise.

Marijuana doesn't fit neatly into any of the categories we've dis-cussed thus far, for several reasons:

Its behavioral effects are similar to those of low doses of alcohol

but different in that high doses do not suppress breathing and arenot lethal.

m Compared with LSD, it produces only mild hallucinogenicexperiences.

Its chemical structure does not resemble that of hallucinogens.

Module26 Drugs 503

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For these reasons, we've given marijuana its own category in thismodule.

Marijuana's active ingredient, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC),was isolated in 1964. When smoked, THC heightens sensitivity to tastes,smells, and sounds. THC can stay in a regular user's body for months,producing a kind of reverse-tolerance effect. That is, the user can takesmaller subsequent doses to induce the "high" feeling again because ofthe amounts of THC already stored in the body. Withdrawal is unpleas-ant and occurs within 48 hours of nonuse. Symptoms include depres-sion, insomnia, nausea, cramping, and irritability.

As with most psychoactive drugs, marijuana's temporary pleasurescome at a long-ternn cost:

Pot smoke is far harder on your lungs than cigarette smoke (Wu &others, 1988).

Brain cell loss accelerates with large doses (Landfield & others, 1988).

Memory is still impaired long after marijuana's effect has worn off(Pope & Yurgelun-Todd, 1996; Smith, 1995).

Marijuana seems to suppress the immune system, making it harderfor your body to fight off disease and infection (Childers &Breivogel, 1998).

Several states have passed laws allowing marijuana to be adminis-tered under a physician's supervision for certain medical conditions.There is some evidence suggesting THC counteracts both nauseaaccompanying cancer's chemotherapy treatments and several terribleside effects of AIDS (Benson & Watson, 1999).

THINKING CR?TICALLY SUMMARY Marijuana is a psychoactivedrug that lowers inhibitions and produces feelings of relaxation and mildeuphoria. The effects of marijuana are similar to effects of drugs from othercategories discussed in this module, but marijuana does not fit well into onecategory Use can produce mild hallucinations (like the hallucinogens) and amild sedative effect (Iike the depressants). Continued use has negativehealth effects and withdrawal effects are unpleasant, but some doctors pre-scribe marijuana for specific medical conditions, such as the nausea thataccompanies chemotherapy

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Prevention

THI NKING C RIT?CAL LY What factors help prevent the use of danger-ous psychoactive drugs?

Consider these questions:

1. Is education related to psychoactive drug use?

2. Is hopelessness related to dependence?

3. Is genetics a factor in the development of dependence?

504 Cognitive Domain Consciousness Chapter

4. Are your peers' attitudes toward drugs important?

The answer to all of these questions is "yes."

1. Education is related to drug use. Roughly 15 percent of U.S. collegedropouts smoke, as do a whopping 42 percent of high schooldropouts (Ladd, 1998).

2. Hope matters. Those who believe their lives are meaningless aremore likely to take drugs (Newcomb & Harlow, 1986).

3. Genetics plays a role. Geneticists have, for example, found a geneoccurring more often among alcohol-dependent people thanamong others (Noble, 1993).

4. Peers count. If the friends you hang out with ;+zever light up or drinkalcohol, there is a good chance you won't either.

If a person is already dependent on some psychoactive substance,effective treatment is essential. However, prevention, or inoculationagainst ever starting on drugs, is even more important. There are threevital sides to prevention's triangle:

A clear understanding of the painful long-term costs of psychoactivedrug use, despite pleasurable, short-term rewards (see Table 26.2)

Positive environments that increase self-esteem and foster determi-

nation in teens

Associating with peers who are adept at saying "no" or willing tolearn how to refuse

. Toble 26.2 .

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A Guide to Selected Psychoactive Drugs

Type Pleasurable Effects

Depressant Initial high followed by relaxationand disinhibition

Rush of euphoria. relief from pain

Drug

Alcohol

Adverse Effects

Depression, memory loss, organdamage, impaired reactions

Depressed physiology, agonizingwithdrawal

Anxiety, restlessness, and insomniain high doses: uncomfortablewithdrawal

Irritability. insomnia, hypertension,seizures

Heroin Depressant

Caffeine Stimulan( Increased alertness and

wakefulness

Methamphetamine Stimulant("speed,'a 'acrank,?"ice")

Cocaine

Euphoria, alertness, energy

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Stimulant Rush of euphoria, confidence,energy

Nicotine Arousal and relaxation, sense of

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Mariluana Mild hallucinogen Enhanced sensation, relief of pain, Disrupted memory, lung damagedistortion of (ime, relaxation from smokel Ecstasy (MDMA) Hallucinogen Euphoria, disinhibition Brain damage, depression, fatigue

Cardiovascular stress. suspicious-ness, depressive crash

Heart disease, cancer (from tars)Stimulan(

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Module26 Drugs 505

Figure 26.3 Self-Reports ofDrug Use Among High School

Seniors Reported use of alco-hol, marijuana, and cocaine

declined among high schoolseniors from 1979 to 1992.

Since then, alcohol and co-caine use have declined slight-

ly or held steady, butmarijuana use has increased,

with drug paraphernalia be-coming easier to purchase in

local stores.

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reportingdrug use

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a93 '95 '97 'gg 2001

Drug use among high school seniors dropped steadily from 1979 to1992 but, as Figure 26.3 indicates, marijuana use has unfortunatelybeen on the rise since (Johnston & others, 2002). However, peer groupswho disapprove, an understanding of the physiological and psycholog-ical costs of drug use, and positive self-regard could help renew a down-ward trend. Will you be a part of the solution?

THINK?NG CRITICALLY SUMMARY Researchidentifiesseveralrisk

factors that correlate with drug use: dropping out of school, feelings ofhopelessness or despair, genetic history of drug abuse in families, andassociating with a peer group that accepts drug use. Researchers also iden-tified the most important behaviors that seem to "immunize" a person againstusing psychoactive drugs: education about the harmful effects of the drug,positive environments that support and enhance self-esteem, and connectionwith a peer group that does not accept or encourage drug use.

'l? tl=Z Thinking About Drugs

LEARNING GOAL 1: Define psychoactive drugs,and explain the cycle of dependence, tolerance,and withdrawal.

wa Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances thatalter mood, behavior, or perceptions.

s Drug dependence is a state of physiological orpsychological need to take more of a drug aftercontinued use.

wa Withdrawal symptoms refer to the discomfort anddistress drug users experience when they aredeprived of a drug they are dependent on.

ws Regular drug use Ieads to tolerance, a reducedresponse to the drug, which prompts the user totake Iarger doses to achieve the samepleasurable effects.

LEaRNlNG GOAL 2: Describe the physiologicaland psychological effects of alcohol.

s Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activityand slow body functions. Alcohol slows the partsof the brain responsible for controlling inhibitionsand making judgments.

506 Cognitive Domain Consciousness Chapter