6. stories - 京都大学 · props roles entry-conditions results: scene1 entering scene2 ordering....

Conversational Informatics, January 16, 2019

Copyright © 2019, Toyoaki Nishida, Atsushi Nakazawa, Yoshimasa Ohmoto, Yasser Mohammad, At ,Inc. All Rights Reserved.

6. Stories

Toyoaki NishidaKyoto University

Storytelling and comprehension

Experience

Story

Inclusive, interactive drama (screen play)

Story understanding

Storytelling

Drama production

Virtual actors

Framing experiences

Story telling and comprehension

AI challenges

1. AI helps people enjoy (or consume) stories

2. AI helps people produce stories

3. AI that can understand stories

4. AI that can tell stories

5. AI that can play as an actor

6. AI that can produce (inclusive, interactive) dramas

"Mary socked John."

"Mary punched John."

"Mary hit John with her fist."

"John was socked by Mary."

"Marie a donne un coup de poing a Jean."

"Maria pego a Juan."

Story understanding and generation

[Schank 1975]

Action: PROPELActor: MaryObject: FistFrom: MaryTo: John

Margie

(1) John went to New York.

PTRANS(p:John, o:John, from: X, to:New York)

(2) John gave the book to Mary.

ATRANS(p:John, o:OWNERSHIP(book), from:John, to:Mary)

(3) John loaned the book to Mary.

ATRANS(p:John, POSSESSION(book), from:John, to:Mary)

(4) John sold his car to Bill.

ATRANS(p:John, OWNERSHIP(car), from:John, to:Bill)

ATRANS(p:Bill, OWNERSHIP(money), from:Bill, to:John)

(5) Who yelled me at six in the morning?

SPEAK(p:?, o:sounds, from:?, to:I, at:6a.m., VOLUME:loud)

(6) John pushed the table to the wall.

PTRANS(p:John, o:table, from:X, to:Y=PROXIMITY(wall)) by(PROPEL(p:John, o:table, from:X, to:Y)))

=>position(table, from:LOC(X), to:LOC(Y)=PROXIMITY(wall))

(7) J killed M.

DO(p:John)=> =(M, from:PHYS.ST.(>-10), to:PHYS.ST.(-10))


[Cullingford 1981] Cullingford, Richard E: SAM and Micro SAM. In Roger C. Schank, & Christopher K. Riesbeck (Eds.), Inside computer understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981 (p. 78) [Schank 1977]

John went to a restaurant. He ordered a hot dog. The waiter said they didn’t have any. He asked for a hamburger, When the hamburger came, it was burnt. He left the restaurant.

Q1: Did John sit down in the restaurant?A1: Probably.Q2: Did John order a hot dog?A2: Yes. Q3: Did John eat a hot dog?A3: No, the waiter told John the management was unable to give it to him.Q4: What did the waiter serve John?A4: The waiter served John a hamburger.Q5: Why didn’t John eat the hamburger?A5: Because the hamburger was overdone.Q6: Did John pay the check?A6: No John was angry because the hamburger was overdone and so he left the restaurant.

SAM (Script Applier Mechanism)

SCRIPT: RESTAURANTPROPSROLESENTRY-CONDITIONSRESULTS:SCENE1 ENTERINGSCENE2 ORDERING


Dynamic Memory

Information about how memory structures are ordinarily linked in frequently occurring combinations, is held in a memory organization packet or what we shall henceforth call a MOP. … In order to account for reconstructive memory, and the ability to generalize and learn from past experience, I am proposing that a memory structure exists that I call a MOP. [p. 83]

Structures that represent this abstract, domain-independent, information we call Thematic Organization Points or TOPs. TOPS are responsible for our ability to:1. Get reminded of a story that illustrates a point. 2. Come up with adages such as, “A stitch in time saves nine” or “Neither a borrower nor a

lender be” at an appropriate point.3. Recognize an old story in new trappings.4. Notice co-occurrences of seemingly disparate events and draw conclusions from their

cooccurrence.5. Know how something will turn out because the steps leading to it have been seen before.6. Learn information from one situation that will apply in another.7. Predict an outcome for a newly encountered situation. [p. 111]

[Schank 1982]


Text that BORIS can understand

1. Richard had not heard from his college roommate Paul for years. Richard had borrowed money from Paul which was never paid back. But now he had no idea where to find his old friend. When a letter finally arrived from San Francisco, Richard was anxious to find out how Paul was.

2. Unfortunately, the news was not good. Paul's wife Sarah wanted a divorce. She also wanted the car, the house, the children, and alimony. Paul wanted the divorce, but he did not want to see Sarah walk off with everything he had. His salary from the state school system was very small. Not knowing who to turnto, he was hoping for a favor from the only lawyer he knew. Paul gave his home phone number in case Richard felt he could help.

3. Richard eagerly picked up the phone and dialed. After a brief conversation, Paul agreed to have lunch with him the next day. He sounded extremely relieved and grateful.

4. The next day, as Richard was driving to the restaurant, he barely avoided hitting an old man on the street. He felt extremely upset by the incident, and had three drinks at the restaurant, when Paul arrived Richard was fairly drunk. After the food came, Richard spilled a cup of coffee on Paul. Paul seemed very annoyed by this so Richard offered to drive him home for a change of clothes.

…

[Lehnert+ 1983]


Q/A with BORIS

2. Unfortunately, the news was not good. Paul's wife Sarah wanted a divorce. She also wanted the car, the house, the children, and alimony. Paul wanted the divorce, but he did not want to see Sarah walk off with everything he had. His salary from the state school system was very small. Not knowing who to turnto, he was hoping for a favor from the only lawyer he knew. Paul gave his home phone number in case Richard felt he could help.

[Lehnert+ 1983]

Q1: What was the letter about?A1: PAUL AND SARAH WERE GETI'ING A

DIVORCE.Q2: Did Paul write Sarah?A2: NO, IT WAS NOT SARAH, LETTER.

IT WAS RICHARD WHO GOT THEQ3: Why was Paul upset about the

divorce?A3: PAUL AND SARAH WERE FIGHTING

OVER THE FAMILY POSSESSIONS.

Q4: What did Paul do for a living?A4: PAUL WAS A TEACHER.Q5: What did Sarah want?A5: SARAH WANTED TO HAVE THE CAR

AND THE HOUSE AND THE KIDS AND THE ALIMONY.

Q6: Why did Paul write to Richard?A6: PAUL WANTED RICHARD TO BE HIS

LAWYER.


Q/A with BORIS

4. The next day, as Richard was driving to the restaurant, he barely avoided hitting an old man on the street. He felt extremely upset by the incident, and had three drinks at the restaurant, when Paul arrived Richard was fairly drunk. After the food came, Richard spilled a cup of coffee on Paul. Paul seemed very annoyed by this so Richard offered to drive him home for a change of clothes.

[Lehnert+ 1983]

Q1: Why did Richard eat out with Paul?A1: RICHARD WANTED TO DISCUSS THE

DIVORCE CASE WITH PAUL.Q2: What happened to Richard on the

way to the restaurant?A2: RICHARD ALMOST RAN OVER AN

OLD MAN.Q3: Why did Richard get drunk?A3: RICHARD WAS UPSET ABOUT

ALMOST RUNNING OVER THE OLD MAN.

Q4: What happened at the restaurant?A4: RICHARD SPILLED COFFEE ON PAUL.

Q5: How did Richard feel when the coffee spilled’?

A5: RICHARD WAS UNHAPPY.Q6: Why did Richard spill the coffee?A6: RICHARD WAS DRUNK,Q7: When did Richard almost hit the old

man?A7: WHILE RICHARD WAS DRIVING TO

THE RESTAURANT.Q8 Where did Richard have lunch with

Paul?A8: AT A RESTAURANT.


MOPs, Meta-MOPs, and TAUs

1. Episodes in BORIS are reconstructed dynamically out of several MOPS, META-MOPS and TAUS.2. A MOP (Memory Organization Packet) is a configuration of Conceptual Dependency units formed into

a discrete knowledge structure by a standard set of semantic links. 3. META-MOPS are like MOPS, except they are more abstract. META-MOPS are important because they

represent knowledge about an event which cannot be captured at the MOP level.

[Lehnert+ 1983]

M-BORROW

MM-FAVOR

M-DIVORCE

MM-LEGAL-DISPUTEFriend-A Friend-B

Want-favor

Ask-for-favor

Persuaded

Do-favor

Thematic obligation

Thematic obligation

i

a mm

ii

LenderBorrower

Want-object

Ask-for-object

Give-object

Want-to-return

Give-object-back

Convinced-to-lend

Want-returned

MOP links: IPT-friendship MM-favor

MM-business-contract

i

ai

m

m

i a

Spouse-A Spouse-B

Want-terminate-marriage


Possible conflict

Contested divorce

Want-family-possessions


Possible conflict

Contested settlement

MM-legal-disputeMOP links: conflict

Disputee-A Disputee-B

Goal-A Goal-Bconflict

dispute

Get-lawyer-A

Judge

Get-lawyer-B

i i

Decision-A Decision-B

a a


Memory overlay

BORIS must realize not only that the divorce has caused a legal dispute, but also that the issue under dispute within MM-LEGAL-DISPUTE involves a property and custody settlement. BORIS accomplishes this by “overlaying” one knowledge structure on another. An ‘overlay’ occurs by specifying which component in one knowledge structure is equivalent to another component within some other knowledge structure.

[Lehnert+ 1983]

M-divorce

MM-dispute

Dispute

…

Get-lawyer-A

MM-professional-service

MM-service

…

Pay-money

MM-favor

…

Do-return-favor

M-lawyer

Take-case

…

petition

…

Contested-settlement


TAUs

[Lehnert+ 1983]

TAU-DIRE-STRAITS: Paul doesn't know who to turn to.TAU-CLOSE-CALL: Richard nearly kills an old man.TAU-REG-MISTAKE: Richard spills coffee on Paul.TAU-HIDDEN-BLESSING: Paul realizes his problems are solved.

represents knowledge about how people feel and react when they are in a crisis.

TAU (Thematic Affect Unit)s are used to capture aspects of both Plot Units and TOPS.


The Episodic memory of BORIS

[Lehnert+ 1983]

BORIS’s episodic memory consists of fragmentary instantiations of MOPs,META-MOPs and TAUs. The central organizing concept is that of an 'episode’ or an instantiation of interrelated knowledge structures. An episode is analogous to a script except that it is dynamically constructed out of other relevant knowledge structures rather than statically organized.

MM-personal-communication

M-letter

MM-legal-dispute

M-divorce

TAU-dire-straights RT-lawyer

M-lawyer

MM-Professional-service

Legal-meet and MM-Social activity

MM-meetingTAU-regrettable-mistake

M-vehicle-accidentTAU-close-call

M-drive

M-imbibe alcohol

Propel (liquid)

EP1 EP0

MM-favor

M-borrow

Return-favor

EP2

EP4

MM-personal-communication

M-phoneEP3

EP5

M-driveEP6

M-restaurant

M-meal


Story tellingTALESPIN

TELESPIN is a program which makes up stories by simulating a world, assigning goals to some characters and saying what happens when these goals interact with events in the simulated world. The reader/user gets to supply much of the information about the initial state of the world, such as the choice of characters and the relationships between one character and another.

TALESPIN is, among other things, a program that tests goal and planning apparatus that we have set up. The program tells stories by violating a goal state for one of the characters that it knows about and then creating a plan to achieve the goal.

[Meehan 1981]


CHOOSE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERS FOR THE STORY:(BEAR BEE BOY GIRL FOX CROW ANT HEN LION DOG WOLF MOUSE CAT GOAT CANARY)

(BEAR BEE BOY CANARY)

JOHN BEAR IS AT A CAVE. A BEEHIVE IS AT AN APPLE TREE.IRVING BEE IS AT THE BEEHIVE. SONE HONEY IS AT THE BEEHIVE. IRVING BEE HAS THE HONEY.

SAM ADAMS IS AT A HOUSE.WILMA CANARY IS AT A NEST.

CHOOSE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING PROPS:(BREADCRUMPS CHEESE BASEBALL)()

CHOOSE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS:(BERRIES FLOWER RIVER WORM)(BERRIES WORM)

[Meehan 1981, p. 210]

SOME BLUEBERRIES ARE AT A BUSH.A WORM IS AT A PATCH OF GROUND.

WHO KNOWS ABOUT THE BLUEBERRIES?1: WILMA CANARY 2: SAM ADAMS 3: IRVING BEE 4: JOHN BEAR4

JOHN BEAR THINKS THAT THE BLUEBERRIES ARE AT THE BLUSH.

HOW HUNGRY IS JOH BEAR?1: VERY 2: SOMEWHAT 3: NOT VERY 4: NOT AT ALL4

JOHN BEAR IS NOT VERY HUNGRY.

WHO KNOWS ABOUT THE WORM?1: WILMA CANARY 2: SAM ADAMS 3: IRVING BEE 4: JOHN BEAR2

SAM ADAMS THINKS THAT THE WORM IS AT THE PATCH OF GROUND.


THIS IS A STORY ABOUT…1: WILMA CANARY 2: SAM ADAMS 3: IRVING BEE 4: JOHN BEAR2

HIS PROBLEM IS THAT HE IS …1: HUNGRY 2: THIRSTY 3: HORNY 4: TIRED1

SAM ADAMS IS SOMEWHAT HUNGRY.SAM ADAMS WANTS TO GET SOME BERRIES.SAM ADAMS WANTS TO FIND OUT WHERE SOME BERRIES ARE.

DOES SAM ADAMS LIKE WILMA CANARY?1: A LOT 2: A LITTLE 3: NOT MUCH 4: NOT AT ALL2

SAM ADAMS WANTS WILMA CANARY TO TELL SAM ADAMS WHERE SOME BERRIES ARE.

DOES SAM ADAMS FEEL DECEPTIVE TOWARDS WILMA CANARY? 1: A LOT 2: A LITTLE 3: NOT MUCH 4: NOT AT ALL4

[Meehan 1981, p. 210]

DOES SAM ADAMS FEEL COMPETITIVE TOWARDS WILMA CANARY?1: A LOT 2: A LITTLE 3: NOT MUCH 4: NOT AT ALL2

SAM ADAMS DECIDES THAT WILMA CANARY MIGHT WANT SAM ADAMS TO GIVE WILMA CANARY A WORM.SAM ADAMS WANTS TO ASK WILMA CANARY WHETHER WILMA CANARY WILL TELL SAM ADAMS WHERE SOME BERRIES ARE IF SAM ADAMS GIVES WILMA CANARY A WORM.SAM ADAMS WANTS TO GET NEAR WILMA CANARY.SAM ADAMS WALKS FROM THE HOUSE TO THE GROUND BY THE REDWOOD TREE BY GOING THROUGH A VALLEY THROUGH A MEADOW. SAM ADAMS IS AT THE GROUND BY THE REDWOOD TREE.

WILMA CANARY THINKS THAT SAM ADAMS IS AT THE GROUND BY THE REDWOOD TREE.

SAM ADAMS ASKS WILMA CANARY WHETHER WILMA CANARY WILL TELL SAM ADAMS WHERE SOME BERRIES ARE IF SAM ADAMS GIVES WILMA CANARY A WORM.

Writing Façade: A Case Study in Procedural Authorship

How can a story be structured to incorporate interaction, yet retain a satisfying, well-formed plot when experienced by the reader/player?

Recast player interactions within a story in terms of abstract social games.

[Mateas 2010, p. 183-207]


Approach

• Divide the narrative into multiple fronts of progression, often causally independent, only occasionally interdependent.

• build a variety of narrative sequencers to sequence these multiple narrative progressions.

• A reactive-planning language called “A Behavior language” (ABL) manages both parallel and sequential behaviors interrelations such as sub-goal success and failure, priority, conflict, preconditions, and context conditions.

• Façade’s primary narrative sequencing occurs within a beat: a group of behaviors organized around a particular topic. Façade beat is comprised of anywhere from 10 to 100 joint dialogue behaviors (JDBs) written in ABL.

[Mateas 2010, p. 183-207]


• Each beat itself is a narrative sequencer, responsible for sequencing a subset of its joint discourse behaviors (JDBs) in response to player interaction.

• Only one beat is active at any time.

• There are two typical uses of JDBs within beats: as beat goals and beat mix-ins. A beat consists of a canonical sequence of narrative goals called beat goals.

• In addition, to the beat goals, there is a set of meta-behaviors, called handlers, which wait for specific interpretations of player dialogue (discourse acts), and modify the canonical sequence in response, typically using beat mix-ins.

• The drama manager (the highest-level narrative sequencer) sequences dramatic beats according to specifications written in a custom drama management language.

[Mateas 2010, p. 183-207]


• DiPlayerArrives

• TripGreetsPlayer

• PlayerEntersTripGetsGrace

• GraceGreetsPlayer

• ArgueOverRedecorating

• ExplainDatingAnniversary

• ArgueOverItalyVacation

• FightOverFixingDrinks

• PhoneCallFromParents

• TransitionToTension2

• GraceStormsToKitchen

• PlayerFollowsGraceToKitchen

• GraceReturnsFromKitchen[Mateas 2010, p. 183-207]

• TripStormsToKitchen

• PlayerFollowsTripToKitchen

• TripReturnsFromKitchen

• TripReenactsProposal

• BlowupCrisis

• PostCrisisTherapyGame

• RevelationsBuildup

• Revelations

• EndingNoRevelations

• EndingSelfRevelationsOnly

• EndingRelationshipRevelationsOnly

• EndingBothNotFullySelfAware

• EndingBothSelfAware

Façade’s 27 beats.

McKee’s theory on Scenario writing

• Story: is a series of acts that build to a last act climax or story climax which brings about absolute and irreversible change. [p. 42]

• Act: is a series of sequences that peaks in a climactic scene which causes a major reversal of values, more powerful in its impact than any previous sequence or scene. [p. 39]

• Sequence: is a series of scenes—generally two to five—that culminates with greater impact than any previous scene. [p. 38]

• Scene: is an action through conflict in more or less continuous time and space that turns the value-charged condition of a character‘s life on at least one value with a degree of perceptible significance. Ideally, every scene is a story event. [p. 35] Event means change. A story event creates meaningful change in the life situation of a character that is expressed and experienced in terms of a value. [p. 33]

• Beat: [is] the smallest element of structure. A beat is an exchange of behavior in action/reaction. Beat by Beat these changing behaviors shape the turning of a scene. [p. 37]

[McKee 1997]

Beats

[McKee 1997]

BEAT#1 (00:56:44)

VENDOR>ILSA: You'll not find a treasure like this in all Morocco, Mademoiselle.ILSA: (ignores)VENDOR>ILSA: Only seven hundred francs

BEAT#2 (00:56:48)

RICK>ILSA: You're being cheated.ILSA: (takes a second to compose herself. She glances at Rick, then with polite formality turns to the Vendor.) ILSA>VENDOR: It doesn't matter, thank you.

@ BAZAAR-LINEN STALL

VENDOR>ILSA: Ah . . . the lady is a friend of Rick's? For friends of Rick we have a small discount. Seven hundred francs, did I say? (holding up a new sign) You can have it for two hundred.RICK>ILSA: I'm sorry I was in no condition to receive visitors when you called on me last night.ILSA>RICK: It doesn't matter.VENDOR> ILSA: Ah! For special friends of Rick's we have a special discount. (replaces the second sign with a third, reading 100 Francs. )

BEAT#3 (00:56:51)

RICK>ILSA: Your story left me a little confused. Or maybe it was the bourbon. VENDOR>ILSA: I have some tablecloths, some napkins . . . ILSA>VENDOR: Thank you, I'm really not interested.VENDOR>ILSA: (exiting hurriedly) Only one moment . . . please . . .

BEAT#4 (00:57:05)

ILSA: (A small silence as she pretends to examine the lace goods.)RICK>ILSA: Why'd you come back? To tell me why you ran out on me at the railway station?ILSA> RICK: (quietly) Yes.

BEAT#5 (00:57:13)

RICK>ILSA: Well, you can tell me now. I'm reasonably sober.ILSA>ILSA: I don't think I will, Rick.

BEAT#6 (00:57:19)

Beats

[McKee 1997]

BEAT#8 (00:57:39)

ILSA: (turning to look at Rick) I'll be leaving Casablanca soon. We'll never see each other again. We knew very little about each other when we were in love in Paris. If we leave it that way, maybe we'll remember those days—not Casablanca—not last night—Rick simply stares at her.

@ BAZAAR-LINEN STALL

BEAT#9 (00:57:53)

RICK>ILSA: (voice low and intense) Did you run out on me because you couldn't take it? Because you know what it would be like, hiding from the police, running away all the time? ILSA>RICK: You can believe that if you want to.

BEAT#10 (00:58:02)

RICK: Well, I'm not running away anymore. I'm settled now—above a saloon, it's true—but walk up a flight. I'll be expecting you.ILSA: (drops her eyes and turns away from Rick, her face shaded by the wide brim of her hat.)

BEAT#11 (00:58:12)

RICK>ILSA: All the same, some day you'll lie to Laszlo—you'll be there.ILSA>RICK: No, Rick. You see, Victor Laszlo is my husband. And was . . . (pause coolly) . . . even when I knew you in Paris. ILSA, RICK: (With dignity and poise, Ilsa walks away, leaving the stunned Rick to stare after her. )(00:58:32)

RICK>ILSA: Why not? After all, I was stuck with the railroad ticket. I think I'm entitled to know. ILSA: Last night I saw what has happened to you. The Rick I know in Paris, I could tell him. He'd understand—but the Rick who looked at me with such hatred.

BEAT#7 (00:57:23)

E-Drama

[Zhang 2009]

Improvisational interaction based on loose scenario

Protagonist

Antagonist

Director

{parent, friend, enemy, …}

• ‘Action’, ‘Cut’• Change background scenes, • talk to participants with

text chats

Text(+Affective Expr.)

Text(+Affective Expr.) Text(+Affective Expr.) Text(+Affective Expr.)

Text(+Affective Expr.)

Conflict

Landscape of Interactive Narrative

[Riedl+ 2013]

Frame Analysis

[Goffman 1974]

And of course much use will be made of Bateson's use of the term "frame." I assume that definition of a situation are built up in accordance with principles of organization which govern events—at least social ones—and our subjective involvement in them: frame is the word I use to refer to such of these basic elements as I am able to identify. This is my definition of frame. My phrase "frame analysis" is a slogan to refer to the examination in these terms of the organization of experience. (p. 11)

Keying: a process of transforming a given activity which is already meaningful in terms of some primary framework into something patterned on this activity but seen by the participants to be something quite else.

Frame Analysis

[Goffman 1974]

Since Bateson's discussions of animals at play, considerable work has been done on the subject, allowing one to attempt to state in some detail the rules to follow and the premises to sustain in order to transform serious, real action into something playful.a. The playful act is so performed that its ordinary function is not realized. The stronger and more

competent participant restrains himself sufficiently to be a match for the weaker and less competent.

b. There is an exaggeration of the expansiveness of some acts.c. The sequence of activity that serves as a pattern is neither followed faithfully nor completed

fully, but is subject to starting and stopping, to redoing, to discontinuation for a brief period of time, and to mixing with sequences from other routines.

d. A great deal of repetitiveness occurs.e. When more than one participant is to be involved, all must be freely willing to play, and anyone

has the power to refuse an invitation to play or (if he is a participant) to terminate the play once it has begun.

f. Frequent role switching occurs during play, resulting in a mixing up of the dominance order found among the players during occasions of literal activity.

g. The play seems to be independent of any external needs of the participants, often continuing longer than would the actual behavior it is patterned after.

h. Although playfulness can certainly be sustained by a solitary individual toward a surrogate of some kind, solitary playfulness will give way to sociable playfulness when a usable other appears, which, in many cases, can be a member of another species.

i. Signs presumably are available to mark the beginning and termination of playfulness.(p. 41-43)

Frame Analysis

[Goffman 1974]

A full definition of keying can now be suggested:a. A systematic transformation is involved across materials already meaningful in accordance

with a schema of interpretation, and without which the keying would be meaningless.b. Participants in the activity are meant to know and to openly acknowledge that a systematic

alteration is involved, one that will radically reconstitute what it is for them that is going on.c. Cues will be available for establishing when the transformation is to begin and when it is to

end, namely, brackets in time, within which and to which the transformation is to be restricted. Similarly, spatial brackets will commonly indicate everywhere within which and nowhere outside of which the keying applies on that occasion.

d. keying is not restricted to events perceived within any particular class of perspectives. Just as it is possible to play at quite instrumentally oriented activities, such as carpentry, so it is also possible to play at rituals such as marriage ceremonies, or even, in the snow, to play at being a natural schema seem less susceptible to keying than do those perceived within a social one.

e. [T]he systematic transformation that a particular keying introduces may alter only slightly the activity thus transformed, but it utterly changes what it is a particular would say was going on. In this case, fighting and checker playing would appear to be going on, but really, all along, the participants might say, the only thing really going on is play. A keying, then, when there is one, performs a crucial role in determining what it is we think is really going on.

(p. 45)

Frame Analysis

[Goffman 1974]

Keying provides one basic way in which a strip of activity can be transformed, that is, serve as an item-by-item model for something else. Differently put, keyings represent a basic way in which activity is vulnerable. A second transformational vulnerability is now considered: fabrication. I refer to the intentional effort of one or more individuals to manage activity so that a party of one or more others will be induced to have a false belief about what it is that is going on. A nefarious design is involved, a plot or treacherous plan leading—when realized—to a falsification of some part of the world. So it would appear that a strip of activity can litter the world in two ways, can serve as a model from whose design two types or reworking can be produced: a keying or a fabrication.

(p. 83)

Homo Ludens

Homo Sapiens: Man the Wise

Homo Faber: Man the Maker

Homo Ludens: Man the Player

The play element of Culture … [It was my object] to ascertain how far culture itself bears the character of play … [P]lay is to be understood here not as a biological phenomenon but as a cultural phenomenon. It is approached historically, not scientifically.

[Huizinga 1938, Foreword]

Free, Separate, Uncertain, Unproductive, Governed by rules, Make-belief [Caillois 1961; pp. 9-10]

Man, Play and Games

[Caillois 1958, p. 36]

Agon

(Competition)

Alea

(Chance)

Mimicry

(Simulation)

Ilinx

(Vertigo)

Paidia

TumultAgitationImmoderate laughter

Kite-flying

Solitaire

Patience

Crossword puzzles

Ludus

Racing, Wrestling (not regulated),

Athletics

Counting-outrhymes

Heads or tails

Children’s initiations

Games of illusion

Tag, Arms

Masks, Disguises

Children “whirling”

Horseback riding

Swinging

Waltzing

Boxing, Billiards

Fencing, Checkers

Football, Chess

Betting

Roulette

Volador

Traveling carnivals

Skiing

Mountain climbing

Tightrope walkingContests, Sports in general

Simple, complex, and continuing lotteries

Theater

Spectacles in general

Paidia, unstructured and spontaneous activities (playfulness)Ludus, structured activities with explicit rules (games)

Man, Play and Games

[Caillois 1958, p. 54]

Agon

(Competition)

Alea

(Chance)

Mimicry

(Simulation)

Ilinx

(Vertigo)

Cultural forms

found at the

margins of the

social order

Sports

Lotteries

Casinos

Hippodromes

Pari-mutuels

Carnival

Theater

Cinema

Hero-worship

Mountain climbing

Skiing

Tightrope walking

Speed

Institutional forms

integrated into

social life

Economic competition

Competitive examinations

Speculation on stock market

Uniforms

Ceremonial

etiquette

Professions requiring control of vertigo

Corruption

Violence

Will to power

Trickery

Superstition

Astrology, etc.Alienation

Split personality

Alcoholism and

drugs

Introduction < Second Person

[Harrigan 2010]

What is a game?

“a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome” [Salen and Zimmerman 2003, 80]

“A game is a rule-based formal system with a variable and quantifiable outcome, where different outcomes are assigned different values, the player exerts effort in order to influence the outcome, the player feels attached to the outcome, and the consequences of the activity are optional and negotiable.” (Juul 2003)

Second Person

[Harrigan 2010, p. xiv]

Tabletop systems

Fictions playable on a tabletop or in a easy chair, without aid of nonhuman calculation. Many of these, such as the tabletop role-playing games (RPGs) under discussion, have an explicit social component.

Computational fictions

Computer-based playable structure. Interactive fictions and interactive drama. Designed to be interacted with by one person: the singular, not plural, “you”.

Real worlds

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs, or MMOs). Digital media inform political discourse.

Tabletop Systems

[Harrigan 2010, p. 1-2]

Types of RPG publications

• Core rule books: books central to the understanding of the system, which contain specific rules and mechanics of the game, and which provide at least an overview of the game world.

• Sourcebooks: provide further elaboration of the game world. This elaboration can take virtually any form, from books discussing advanced rules to ones providing new areas of the game world for explanation and new characters for potential encounters, to books that provide new classes of characters that can be played.

• Scenario books: contain one or pre-designed adventures or storylines for a gamemaster to play with his or her players. It is not uncommon for sourcebooks to contain scenarios in addition to their other content.

Tabletop Systems

[Harrigan 2010, p. 2-3]

Terminology

• LARP (Live-Action Role Playing game) in which players physically, and socially, act out their characters’ roles (e.g., at a convention, or at a weekly gathering at a friend’s house).

• A PC (Player Character), an in-game character played by one of the players.

• An NPC (Non-Player Character). In tabletop RPGs, NPCs are played by the gamemaster. In video RPGs, NPCs are designed by the programmers and their actions executed by the game system.

• Gamemaster, a player designated to administrate the rules, and run the game world and NPCs.

• Tabletop dice come in more varieties than the usual six-sided.

Games, Storytelling, and Breaking the String

[Costikyan 2010, p. 6]

A story is linear. The events of a story occur in the same order, and in the same way, each time you read (or watch or listen to) it. A story is a controlled experience; the author consciously crafts it, choosing precisely these events, in this order, to create a story with the maximum impact. If the events occurred in some other fashion, the impact of the story would be diminished – or if that isn’t true, the author isn’t doing a good job.

A game is nonlinear. Games must provide at least the illusion of free will to the player; player must feel that they have freedom of action – not absolute freedom, but freedom within the structure of the system. The structure constrains what they can do, but they must feel they have options; if not, they are not actively engaged. Rather, they are merely passive recipients of the experience. If they are constrained to a linear path of events, unchangeable in order, they’ll feel they’re being railroaded through the game, that nothing they do has any impact, that they are not playing any meaningful sense.

It’s not merely that games aren’t stories, and vise versa; rather they are, in a sense, opposite.

Games, Storytelling, and Breaking the String

[Costikyan 2010, p. 6]

Stories to Games

Cortazar’s Hopscotch

Hypertext Fiction

Game Books

Paragraph-System Board Games and Solitaire RPG Adventures

Dragon’s Lair

Adventure Games

Computer and Console RPGs

MMOs

Tabletop RPGs

From Hopscotch to tabletop role-playing, we’ve moved along the spectrum I talked about: from a narrative with a single branch to the branching structure of hypertext, game books, solitaire role-playing adventures, and Dragon’s Lair; to the beads-on-a-string of adventure games; to the slightly open-ended structures of digital RPGs; to the more free-form nature of tabletop. And in the process we’ve moved from stories with minor game elements to games that still have an attachment to story.

Storytelling Games as a Creative Medium

[Hindmarch 2010, p. 47-55]

[S]torytelling games don't refine the core ideas of RPG gameplay—they expand on them. A storytelling game is a collaborative narrative game built around an RPG. (p. 48)

The goal of a storytelling game isn't to produce a good story; it's to participate in good storytelling. Storytelling games are about the challenge of conceiving and telling stories, not the enjoyment of having a story or reading one. The process is the point, not the output. (p. 52)

During play, the Storyteller simultaneously manages three interconnected tasks1. Contextualizing, adjudicating and narrating the circumstances and

outcomes of every die roll.2. Maintaining a constant (but not necessarily steady) increase in dynamic

tension as rising action climbs towards climax.3. Subtly but firmly guiding the course of the story from each decision point

toward a satisfying conclusion to the story.(p. 54)

Storytelling Games as a Creative Medium

[Hindmarch 2010, p. 47-55]

The trick lies, I think, in providing a simulation for whatever aspect of the world the player uses to express his choices. This is impossible, if the player is expressing choice via an option list. It is possible with a world model and [text] parser, though, to give the player several ways to achieve the same outcome, and even (with a sufficient simulation under the surface) for that list of ways to include some unexpected by the author. (p. 54)

A human Storyteller is still the machine best suited to the job of understanding, reacting to and influencing the dramatic choices of human players. The role-playing game is merely an interface, connecting players across psychic distances like Xbox Live connects us cross miles. (p. 55)

The number of Storytellers who can raise fear like fog with nothing but dialogue, blot out the sun with improvised narration, and hatch whole characters from dice is smaller still. (p. 55)

Summary

1. Plenty of AI challenges exist in storytelling.

2. Structured representation allows for story understanding and generation.

3. Story understanding requires knowledge.

4. Story generation by simulating a world is basic.

5. Procedural authorship enables interactive drama.

6. Theory of scenario writing underlies procedural authorship.

7. Autonomous agents are key elements of d-drama.

References

[Caillois 1958] Roger Caillois. Les jeux et les hommes: Le masque et le vertige. Gallimard, 1958. (translated by Meyer Barash and printed from The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc. in 1961).

[Costikyan 2010] Greg Costikyan. Games, Storytelling, and Breaking the String, in [Harrigan 2010], pp. 5-14.

[Goffman 1974] Erving Goffman. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. New York: Harper and Row, 1974.

[Harrigan 2010] Harrigan, P., Wardrip-Fruin, N.: Second Person: Role-Playing and Story in Games and Playable Media, MIT Press, 2010.

[Harrigan 2010] Will Hindmarch. Storytelling Games as a Creative Medium. in [Harrigan 2010], pp. 47-55.

[Huizinga 1938] Johan Huizinga. Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture. Beacon Press, New York, 1955. (Originally published in 1938).

[Kumar 2016] Ankit Kumar, Ozan Irsoy, Jonathan Su, James Bradbury, Robert English, Brian Pierce, Peter Ondruska, Ishaan Gulrajani, and Richard Socher. Ask me anything: dynamic memory networks for natural language processing. Proc. ICML'16, Pages 1378-1387, 2016.

[Lehnert+ 1983] Wendy G. Lehnert, Michael G. Dyer, Peter N. Johnson, C.J. Yang, Steve Harley. BORIS—An experiment in in-depth understanding of narratives, Artificial Intelligence, Volume 20, Issue 1, January 1983, Pages 15-62

[Mateas 2010] Michael Mateas and Andrew Stern. Writing Façade: A Case Study in Procedural Authorship. In [Harrigan 2010], pp. 183-207.

[McKee 1997] Robert McKee. Story: Substance, Structure, Style, and the Principles of Screenwriting. HarperCollins Publishers, 1997.

[Meehan 1981] Meehan, James: TALE-SPIN and Micro TALE-SPIN. In Roger C. Schank, & Christopher K. Riesbeck (Eds.), Inside computer understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981.

[Mikolov 2013] Tomas Mikolov, Ilya Sutskever, Kai Chen, Greg S Corrado, Jeff Dean. Distributed Representations of Words and Phrases and their Compositionality. NIPS 2013.

[Riedl+ 2013] Mark Riedl and Vadim Bulitko. Interactive Narrative: An Intelligent Systems Approach, AI Magazine, Spring 2013, 67-77.

[Salen and Zimmerman 2003] Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. MIT Press, 2003.

[Schank 1975] Schank, R.C. (1975). Conceptual Information Processing. New York: Elsevier.

[Schank 1977] Schank, R.C. & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding. Hillsdale , NJ: Earlbaum Assoc.

[Schank 1982] Schank, R. C. Dynamic Memory: A theory of reminding and learning in computers and people, Cambridge University Press, 1982.

[Schank 1990] Schank, R. C. Tell me a Story: Narrative and Intelligence, Northwestern University Press, 1990.

[Sukhbaatar 2015] Sainbayar Sukhbaatar, Arthur Szlam, Jason Weston, Rob Fergus. End-to-end memory networks. NIPS 2015, Pages 2440-2448, 2015.

[Sutskever 2014] Sutskever, Ilya, Vinyals, Oriol, and Le, Quoc V. Sequence to sequence learning with neural networks. In Proc. NIPS, 2014.

[Weston 2015] J. Weston, S. Chopra, A. Bordes. Memory Networks. ICLR 2015.

[Zhang 2009] Li Zhang, Marco Gillies, Kulwant Dhaliwal, Amanda Gower, Dale Robertson, Barry Crabtree. E-Drama: Facilitating Online Role-Play Using an AI Actor and Emotionally Expressive Characters, International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, v19 n1 p5-38 2009.

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