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5. StrategicResearchPortfolio:RainfedSystems

Ourvision:farmersandpastoraliststhriveinhighlyproductiverainfedareas,supportedbyvibrantecosystems

WeendeavortochangethefutureofcropandlivestockproductiononrainfedlandscapesacrossAfricaandAsia.Wewillconductresearchtosupportinterventionsthatwillincreaseproductivityofmenandwomenfarmers,whilereducingorreversingtheovergrazing,soilnutrientminingandlanddegradationthathavedeepenedthepovertyofmillionsofsmallholderhouseholds.Wewillenhanceunderstandingofsoil,water,nutrientandcarbonmanagementintherainfedandpastoralsettingsinwhichsomanyfarmersstruggletogrowcropsandraiselivestockwithminimalinputs,inadequatefinanceandtoolittlecertaintyofsuccesseachseason.Wewillreducetheriskoffailure,thusimprovinglivelihoodstatusandenhancingfoodsecurityforthemillionsofmen,womenandchildrenwhotilltheearthandraisetheiranimalsinprecariousrainfedareas.5.1. ThecompellingneedforthisresearchMostoftheworld’sapproximately1billionmillionpoor(basedonthe$1.25/daythreshold)liveinthedevelopingcountriesofAsiaandAfrica,andmanyearntheirlivinginrainfedagriculture.Uncertaintyregardingrainfall,persistentwaterscarcityandextensiveareasofdegradedlandscapescharacterizemanyoftherainfedsettingsinwhichfarmersandpastoralistsattempttosustaintheirlivelihoods.Itisdifficulttoimaginehowfamiliescangeneratesufficientincometoachieveandmaintainfoodsecurityinsuchconditions,yetmillionsofhouseholdsfacepreciselythattask.Andmillionsarenotsuccessful.Extensivepoverty,foodinsecurity,andmalnutritionarefoundthroughoutrainfedsettingsinwhichmanyhouseholdsareunabletoproducethefoodorgeneratetheincomethatwouldenablethemtocopesuccessfullywiththeuncertaintythatdefinestheirenvironment.Mosthouseholdshavenosavingsaccount,otherthanthemarketvalueoftheirlivestock.Lackingfinancialresilience,farmerscannottaketheriskofapplyingthefertilizerthatmightenablethemtoobtainhigheryields.Ifrainsdonotarriveontime,farmerswillloseallthemoneytheyhavespentonseeds,fertilizer,andotherinputs.Lackingsecurelandtenure,farmerswillnotinvestineffortstorestoresoilnutrientsandorganicmatter,ortoreducesoilerosion.Farmersandpastoralistsinrainfedsettingsfacechallengesandconstraintsthatwouldoverwhelmmostpeopleifplacedinsuchconditions.Yettheyworkasbesttheycantogeneratelivelihoodsandachievefoodandnutritionalsecurityfortheirhouseholds.Overtime,aspopulationhasincreasedinrainfedareas,thepressuresexertedonsupportingecosystemshavealsoincreased.Thusweseeextendedareasinwhichsoilnutrientsaredepleted,vegetationcoverandbiodiversityaredeclining,andlandisdegradedbysoilerosionandovergrazing.Weseeincreasingcompetitionforlimited

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landandwaterresources,andwenotetheconstantordecliningratesofgrowthincropandlivestockyields.Itistimetoreversethesetrends,beforethechallengesandconstraintsoverwhelmeventhemostresilientandsuccessfulhouseholds.ItistimefortheresearchweproposeinthisRainfedSystemsSRP.5.2. ThescopeanddepthoftheopportunityGlobally,thereare15millionkm2ofrainfedcroplandand33millionkm2ofgrazinglands(Table5.1).Rainfedareasaccountfor80%ofglobalagriculturalarea,whilegeneratinganestimated60%to70%ofworldfoodproduction(CA,2007).Millionsofsmallholderhouseholdscultivatecropsandraiselivestockinrainfedareas,whereincreasingwaterscarcityandimpendingclimatechangearebringingnewstressestoenvironmentsalreadychallengedbyovergrazingandtheminingofsoilnutrients(Wanietal.,2009;Rockströmetal.,2010).Depletedsoilsproducelowyields,thuscreatingaviciouscircleinwhichreductionsinfarmincomefurtherconstrainfarm‐levelabilitytoaffordcriticalinputs.Weendeavorinthisresearchtoreplacethisviciouscirclewithavirtuousoneinwhichproductivityisrestoredthroughgreateruseofplantnutrientsandimprovementsinsoilmanagementpractices,thusenablingfarmerstoaffordadditionalinvestmentsthatwillenhancecropyieldsandprotecttheenvironment.Table5.1. Rainfedandirrigatedagricultureonthreecontinentsandglobally(millionkm2)

Landuse Africa AsiaSouthAmerica

World

km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 %

Rainfedagriculture 11.5 39 14.1 46 5.7 32 45.8 35Arableandpermanentcrops 2.5 8 5.4 17 1.3 7 15.3 12Permanentgrazinglands 9.1 31 10.9 35 4.5 26 33.6 26Irrigatedagriculture 0.1 0 2.2 7 0.1 1 3.1 2

Total 29.6 30.9 17.6 130.0

DatafromtheFoodandAgricultureOrganization,FAOSTAT,2008.Poverty,foodsecurity,humanhealthandwaterstressarecorrelated(Falkenmark,1986;Goklany,2009;Oluoko‐Odingo,2011).Inastudyofhouseholddatafrom367sub‐nationalunitsinAfrica,deSherbinin(2011)findsthataftercontrollingforincome,threevariablesaresignificantlycorrelatedwithchildmalnutrition:droughtprevalence,theproportionofhouseholdswithoutpipedwater,andtheprevalenceofdiarrhealdisease.Theproportionofunderweightchildrenexceeds30%inmostsub‐nationalunitsacrosstheAfricanSahel.TheUNMillenniumDevelopmentProjecthasidentifiedseveral‘hotspot’countrieswheremalnourishmentisprevalent(Eriksenetal.,2011).Manyofthesecountriesarecharacterizedbysemi‐aridanddry,sub‐humidhydro‐climates.Theseincludethesavannahsandsteppeecosystems,wheremostfoodisproducedinrainfedsettingsandwherewaterscarcityconstrainscropproduction(Rockströmetal.,2005).Ifwewishtoimprovechildnutritionandenhancefoodsecuritymorebroadly,wemustmanagelandandwaterwiselyinrainfedareas,whileincreasingtheoutputoffarmersandpastoralists.Cropproductionandanimalhusbandryprovidelocalsourcesoffood

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and,moreimportantly,theygeneratetheincomeneededbysmallholderhouseholdstopurchasefoodinlocalmarkets.Thereisnobetterwaytoreducepovertyandenhancefoodsecurityintheworld’srainfedareasthantohelpsmallholderfamiliesincreasecropandlivestockproductivityinsustainablefashion.Thepotentialforimprovingproductivityseemsevident,givencurrentgapsbetweenactualandpotentialyields.Theaveragegrainyieldinsub‐SaharanAfricaisabout1tonperhectare,whileaverageyieldselsewhererangefrom2to10tonsperhectare(CA,2007).Thesegapsareduetoacombinationoffactorsinvolvingsoilandwatermanagement.IntheRainfedSystemsSRP,wewillexaminetheimpactsoflanddegradation,soilnutrientmining,waterscarcityandreducedbiodiversity.Wewillexaminealsotherolesofbiodiversityandecosystemservicesinsupportingcropandlivestockproduction.Andwewilldevelopinterventionsthatenablesmallholderhouseholdstoachievethegainsinproductivitytheyneed,whilealsobeginningtorebuildsoilnutrientandcarbonstocksandrestoringdegradedlands.Thereisscope,aswell,forincreasingtheextentofrainfedagricultureinsub‐SaharanAfrica,particularlyincountriessuchasAngola,theDemocraticRepublicofCongo,SudanandZambia(McKinsey,2009).However,historyhasshownthatland‐useconversioncanleadtosevereresourcedegradation.Wemuststudywaysofexpandingagricultureinrainfedareas,whilenotharmingthesupportingecosystems.Wemustalsolearnhowtoincreasecroppingintensityinrainfedareas,wherehouseholdaccesstofertilizerandotheressentialinputscurrentlyisinadequate.Wewillexamineboththebiophysicalaspectsofincreasingcropandlivestockproductivityinrainfedareas,andthepoliciesneededtoenhancefarm‐levelaccesstoinputs,financeandmarkets.

5.3. Research,investmentsandbettermanagementareneededSeveralauthorshavearguedthatinvestmentsinagriculturewillenhancefoodsecurityandliftfarmersandpastoralistsoutofpovertyonlyiftheprogramsfocusonincreasingsmallholderproductionofstaplecropsandlivestockproducts(Nin‐Prattetal.,2009).Sucheffortswillproducesustainableoutcomesonlyifothersecurityneedsandrisksareaddressedatthesametime.Intensificationofagriculture,withoutsufficientconcernforsupportingandregulatingecosystemservices,canresultinlanddegradation,windandwatererosion,andthelossofbiodiversity.Thelow,averagecerealyieldsobservedinsub‐SaharanAfricamaskconsiderablevariationacrossregionsandcountries.Maizeyieldsobtainedbythehighestquintileoffarmhouseholdscanbe20timesthoseofthelowestquintile,withinasingledistrictofKenya,MozambiqueorZambia(Jayneetal.,2010).Thevariationisduetodifferencesinculturalpractices,soilfertility,inputuse,watermanagementandothercharacteristicsofproductionthatdiffersubstantiallyamongsmallholderfarmers(Vanlauweetal.,2006;Tittonelletal.,2008;Okumuetal.,2011).Thevariationimpliesthatourscienceandoursolutionsmustaddressspatialdifferencesinbiophysicalparametersandadministrativedifferencesintheinstitutionsthat

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influencefarm‐levelandhouseholddecisions.Agenericapproachtostimulatingadoptionofalternativemanagementoptionswillnotbesufficient.Forfarmers,theopportunitytomoveoutofpovertyisnotassociatedwithasingleproductionfactor,butratherwithasystemthatinvolvescropchoices,landandwatermanagement,storageandtransport,andaccesstomarkets.Farmersalsoconsiderthepolicyenvironmentinwhichtheyoperate.Thus,toreducepoverty,wemust:1)providemenandwomenfarmerswithbetterknowledgeandtechnicalinformation;2)motivatethemtoadopttechnologiesthatincreaseproductivity;and3)implementthepoliciesandinstitutionsthatimprovetheirrepresentationandaccessandenablethemtosucceed.Whileembarkingonthisresearchprogram,wewillgivedueattentiontoemergingissuesandopportunitiespertainingtoagricultureandlivelihoodsinrainfedareas.Forexample,wewillstudytheinterfacebetweenintensificationandecosystemservices,andexplorethewaysinwhichbiodiversitycontributestosustainingrainfedproductionsystemsformenandwomenfarmers.Wewillexaminethedebateregardingwhetherornotselectedlandsshouldbesetasidefromagriculturetopreservebiodiversity,orwhethersomeformsoffarmingcanenhancebiodiversity(Ewers,etal.,2009;PerfectoandVandermeer,2010;Phalanetal.,2011).Wewillalsoexaminethepotentialimpactsofinternationalinvestmentsinfarmland,knownbysomeas‘landgrabbing,’onlandandwaterresourcesinrainfedareas(RobertsonandPinstrup‐Andersen,2010;Borrasetal.,2011).Moreimportantly,wewillalsoexaminethepotentialimpactsonthelivelihoodsofsmallholderhouseholds,suchastheimpactsonwomenandyouth,thataredisplacedfromtheirlandandloseaccesstowaterandotherresourceswheninternationalinvestorsdeveloplargeareasoflandindevelopingcountries(ChaudhuriandBanerjee,2010;Li,2011).5.4. AcompellingrolefortheCGIARAsweimplementthisSRP,wewillbuilduponpreviousworkoftheTropicalSoilsandBiologyandFertilityunitoftheInternationalCenterforTropicalAgriculture(CIAT),ICRISAT,andtherecommendationsoftheComprehensiveAssessmentofWaterManagementinAgriculture(CA,2007).The700researchersengagedintheAssessmentconcludedthatlargegainsinproductivityandnotableimprovementsinlivelihoodscouldbeachievedinrainfedareasifweengageincollaborative,interdisciplinaryresearchinvolvingsoils,nutrients,waterandtherolesofecosystemsinsupportingcropandlivestockagriculture.Thisispreciselytheprogramwepropose.ThenewCGIAR,withitswealthofexperienceinagricultureandNRM,isuniquelypreparedtoconductinterdisciplinaryresearchregardingthescienceandpolicydimensionsofeffortstoincreasecropandlivestockproductivityinrainfedareas,whileprotectingecosystems.ThenewcollaborationsweforminthisSRPwillstrengthenresearchlinkagesbetweenbiophysicalandsocialscientists,andspurinnovativethinkingaboutagricultureinrainfedsettings.Forexample,wewillenhanceourresearchoutputbyjoiningtogetherspecialistsonwaterharvestingandresearcherswhostudysupplementalirrigation.Suchpartnershipswillbeenhancedfurtherbyinvolving

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soilscientists,agronomists,agroforestryexperts,andlivestockspecialists.Withtheinclusionofscientistswhostudybiodiversityandecosystemresilience,wewillhaveassembledworld‐classteamsreadytoconducttheinterdisciplinaryanalysesthatareneededtorealizeourvisionofthrivingfarmersandpastoralists,supportedbyvibrantnaturalandagriculturalecosystems.5.5. BuildingonasolidresearchfoundationManyresearchersinCGIARcentersalreadyhavesubstantialknowledgeofandinsightintothechallengesfacingfarmersandpastoralistsinrainfedareas.ManyhavealsostudiedNRMandecosystemscienceinsuchsettings.Theexistingliteratureprovidesahelpfulunderstandingoffoursubjectareasthatwillbecentralinourresearcheffort:improvingsoilfertility,improvingwatermanagement,enhancingpastoralsystems,andvaluingecosystemservices.Wedescribeeachoftheseinturn.5.5.1. ImprovingsoilfertilityManyresearchershaveexaminedissuespertainingtosoilfertilityinrainfedareas,particularlyinsub‐SaharanAfrica,andalsoinSouthAsia(Sahrawatetal.,2009).Theirresultspointtostartingpointsforourresearch,andtherangeofissueswemustconsidertoensurethatourresearchquestionsandapproachesareappropriate.Amongthemanyissuesandinterventionsexaminedinpreviousstudies,wehighlightjustafewthatwefindparticularlyrelevant.Vanlauweetal.(2010)advocateintegratedsoilfertilitymanagement(ISFM)insmallholderAfricanfarmingconditions.ISFMisdefinedasasetofsoilfertilitymanagementpracticesthatnecessarilyincludetheuseoffertilizer,organicinputsandimprovedgermplasm(e.g.seeds),combinedwiththeknowledgeofhowtoadaptthesepracticestolocalconditions.ThegoalofISFMistoimproveproductivitybymaximizingtheagronomicuseefficiencyofappliednutrients.Kibblewhiteetal.(2008)describetheimportanceofsoilsintheprovisionofecosystemservicesinagriculturalandnon‐agriculturalsettings.Nutrients,water,organiccarbonandbiotaareimportantcomponentsofthoseservices,whichincludenutrientcycling,carbontransformation,soilstructuremaintenanceandregulationofbiologicalpopulations.ISFMinvolvesmanagingsoilsinamannerthatrecognizestheimportantrolesoftheseecosystemservices.Taboetal.(2006)andTwomlowetal.(2010)examinethepotentialproductivitygainsfrommicro‐dosingoffertilizer(anISFMtechnique),inconjunctionwithwaterharvesting,insub‐SaharanAfrica.Theauthorsrecommendwideradoptionofmicro‐dosinginotherchallengingenvironments.ReijandThiombiano(2003)alsoexaminethepotentialgainsofmanagingsoilfertilityandwaterwithinasingleperspective,ratherthanseparately.HaggbladeandTembo(2003)examineconservationagriculture,inwhichculturalpracticesmatchsmallholderneedsandcapacities.Adoptionofconservationagriculture

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hasbeenlimitedinsub‐SaharanAfrica,andnewresearchisneededtodeterminetheconditionsrequiredforsuccessfulimplementation.Sangingaetal.(1997)promotesoybean–maizecroppingsystemsthatprovidefarmerswithdualsetsofbenefitsinvolvingcroprotationandmarketentry.Severalauthorshaveexaminedmeasuresforimprovingsoilconditionsthroughmaize–legumeintercropping,andbyreplacingslash‐and‐burnagriculturewithslash‐and‐mulchsystemsonhillsidesinCentralAmerica(AyarzaandWélchez,2004;Castroetal.,2009;CIAT,2009).5.5.2. ImprovingwatermanagementOweisandHachum(2006)examinethecombinedmanagementofrainfallandirrigationwaterinsettingswheredeficitirrigationcanenhanceproductivity.Theauthorsnotetheimportanceofconsideringalsotherolesofplantnutrientsandcultivars.Theyshowthatcropyieldscanbeincreasedsubstantiallyinsomesettingswhenapplyingaslittleas100mmto300mmofwatertoalleviatestressduringdryspells.SupplementalirrigationhasenabledfarmersinMorocco,SyriaandTunisiatoplantresponsivewheatvarietiesandapplymoreinputs,thusenablingthemtoachieveyieldsof5–6tonsperhectareinrainfedsettings(BenMechliaandMasmoudi,2003).Bycombiningfarmwaterharvestingwithsupplementalirrigation,thefarmersalsoreducederosion.InInnerMongoliaandGansuProvince,China,farmersdoubledtheiryieldsofpotatoesbychangingfromconventional,supplementalirrigationtopartialroot‐zonedrying(Xieetal.,2011).Waterharvestingandwaterstorage(inthesoil,inpondsandreservoirs,orinaquifers,throughgroundwaterrecharge)canhelpfarmersadapttoclimatechange(OweisandHachum,2006).Severalauthorshaveengagedinresearchatthewatershedscale,oftenexaminingbothbiophysicalandeconomicdimensionsofagriculturalandnaturalresourceissues.Forexample,somehaveexaminedmeasurestoachievedesiredchangesinwatersheds,includingtraditionalpolicyandlandreforminstruments,market‐basedincentives,andbenefit‐sharingmechanisms(Wunder,2005,Wanietal.,2008).SeveralinterventionsinbenchmarkwatershedsinChina,India,Syria,ThailandandVietnamhavedemonstratedthepossibilityofprovidingtangibleeconomicbenefitstosmallandmarginalfarmers,whoaremostlywomen,throughenhancedrainwater‐useefficiencyandtargetedincome‐generatingactivities(Wanietal.,2008,).5.5.3. EnhancingpastoralsystemsExistingresearchishelpfulinunderstandingcriticalaspectsofrangelandproductivity,watermanagement,landdegradation,andtheroleofecosystemsinsupportingcropandlivestockproductioninrainfedareas.Yetknowledgegapsexist,aspastoralsystemshavelongoccupiedthemarginsofmainstreamagriculturalresearch.Pastoralsystemsarehighlydynamicandundergorapidchangeinresponsetomanyfactors,suchaslossofaccesstowaterandlandresources,inadditiontoclimatevariability(Campbelletal.,2006;Hobbsetal.,2008;WISP,2008).Pastoralistscopebydiversifyingintonon‐livestockrelatedactivitiestosecuretheirhouseholdincomes(Littleetal.,2008),astrategythatisdebatedinlightoffurtherlossoflandandwater

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resources,climatechange,andlowinvestmentinpastoralareas(Hobbsetal.,2008;DevereuxandScoones,2006;BirchandGrahn,2007).However,thereisnounderstandingoftheimplicationsofthesedriversofchangeontheabilityofrangelandstosupportpastoralandnewlivelihoodactivities(SanfordandScoones,2006).Accesstolandandwaterresourcesoverwidestretchesoflandiscriticaltothemaintenanceofpastorallivelihoodsandthesurvivaloftheircommunities(Niamir‐Fuller1998;Buttetal.,2009).Pastoralistaccesstocriticalzonesbetterendowedwithwaterresources,suchasrivervalleysandhighlands,isincreasinglythreatenedbyencroachmentofagriculture,includingirrigatedandrainfedfarming,andtheestablishmentofconservationareas(AngassaandOba,2008;LampreyandReid,2004).Resolutionofthesecompetingclaimsrequirescarefulplanningandpolicynegotiationatlocal,nationalandregionallevels.Yettechnicalandpolicyinterventionsatanylevelmeetconstraintsatupanddownexistingadministrativehierarchies(LampreyandReid,2004).Debateremainsovertheextenttowhichrangelandsaredegradedandwhatscopethereisforrestoration.Restorationofdegradedrangelandsandsustainableimprovementsintheirproductivitywillnotsucceedwithoutcommunityinvolvement(WISP,2008;Mortimore2009),aspastoralsystemsaredynamicandlocallyspecific.Localcommunitiesknowtheirneedsbest(DestaandCoppock,2004),asherdershaveadeepunderstandingoftherangelandsystemstheyhaveusedforgenerations(ObaandKaitira,2004).Participatoryland‐useplanningwithherdersisapotentiallyviable,yetlittleexplored,approachtosuccessfulrangelandrestorationandmanagement(Reidetal.,2000;Reidetal.,2009).Opportunitiesforgeneratinggreatersocialbenefitsarehighlycontext‐specificandareafunctionofvariabilityinherdsize,environment,marketaccess,rangecondition,attitudestowardsrisk,propertyrightsregimes,andtheabilitytomovetodifferentgrazingareas(BakerandHoffman,2006;Campbelletal.,2006;SanfordandScoones,2006;Buttetal.,2009).Pastoralismisacomplexsocioecologicalsystem(Cioffi‐Revilla,2010),andcomplexitymustbeconsideredwhenexploringlivelihood‐enhancingsolutions.5.5.4. ValuingecosystemservicesSeveralresearchersintheCGIARhaveadvancedunderstandingofthevalueofecosystemservicesinsupportingagriculturalproduction,improvingsmallholderlivelihoodsandachievingsustainability(Frisonetal.,2011).Researchershavealsoexaminedtheroleofbiodiversityinthecontrolofpestsanddiseases,andtheimportanceofwithin‐cropdiversitytosmallholderfarmers(Jarvisetal.,2007,2008).Smale(2008)andDrucker(2007,2010)haveinvestigatedtheeconomicsofbiodiversitymaintenanceincropandlivestockproduction.Othershaveexaminedtheroleofbiodiversityinimprovingsustainabilityandenhancingresilience,whilealsoconsideringthepoliciesthatmightbehelpfulinensuringthatbiodiversityismaintainedinagriculturalsettings(Jacksonetal.,2010;Halewood,2011).

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5.6. OurTheoryofChangeforrainfedsystemsMenandwomenfarmerswillnotinvestinmanagingnaturalresourcesorprotectingecosystemsunlesstheyseeaclearfinancialgainwithinareasonabletimeframe,andtheyareassuredthatthegainwillbetheirstoreceive.Thus,wemustdeterminetherightmixofpolicies,incentives,andtheassignmentsofpropertyrightstolandandwaterifwewishtomotivatefarm‐levelinvestmentsindesirableproductionpractices.Wemustalsoreducethefarm‐levelcostsandrisksassociatedwithtechnologyadoptionandtheuseoffertilizerandothercostlyinputsinrainfedsettings.Andwemustdevelopmechanismsthatenhanceinteractionsinvolvingdifferentgroupsoffarmers,governmentagenciesandresearchpartners.Landandwaterresourcesarebecomingscarcer,owingpartlytoincreasingdemandsforfood,feedandbiofuels.Newlegislationandenforcementwillbeneededinsomecountriestoensurethatsmallholderfarmersretainaccesstotheresourcestheyneedtosupporttheirlivelihoodactivities.Sucheffortsshouldincludeconsiderationofincentivestoencouragefarm‐levelandregionalinvestmentsthatwillenhancetheprotectionofsupportingecosystems.Substantialinvestmentsareneededtoreverselanddegradationandbeginrebuildingsoilnutrientandcarbonstocksinrainfedareas,particularlyinsub‐SaharanAfricaandSouthAsia.Atthesametime,thecostofinactionissubstantial.Theopportunitycostsoftheagriculturalandlivelihoodbenefitsforegone,aslanddegradationtakesitstolloncropandlivestockproductivity,likelyaremuchlargerthanthecostofrestoringdegradedlands.Andthatcostcanbesharedamongpartnersengagedintherestorationeffort,suchasgovernments,internationaldonors,andnonNGOsthatpromotesustainableimprovementsinlivelihoodsinchallengingenvironments.InpreparingthisTheoryofChange,wehaveidentifiedfourleverspertainingtothescientificandpolicyissueswewilladdressandthecountriesinwhichwewillwork:1. Recommendingpolicies

Basedontheresultsofourscientificstudies,wewilldeveloppolicyrecommendationstoenhancelivelihoodsofbothmenandwomenthroughwisermanagementoflandandwaterresourcesinrainfedareas.Wewillengageinformativediscussionswithcommunityrepresentatives,donorsandpublicofficialsacrosstheregionsinwhichwework.InAfrica,wewillbuildstronglinkswithintheCAADPprocessandotherregionalpolicyandinvestmentinitiatives.

2. Supportingdevelopment

Wewillworkwithdevelopmentpartnerstoidentifycontextualbarrierstochange,toenhancetheplanningandeffectivenessofprogramsandpromotetheadoptionofspecificinterventions.Wewillprovidedataandanalysisthatallowpredictionoftheon‐farmandoff‐siteimpactsoflarge‐scaletechnical,financialandpolicyinterventions.Wewilldevelopwatershedmodelsandmonitoringprogramstoenhanceunderstandingofsustainableresourcemanagement.

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3. Promotingparticipation

Wewillpromoteparticipatoryapproachestoplanning,monitoringandevaluation,inwhichmenandwomenfarmersengagewithlocaldevelopmentpartnersastheyimprovetheiragronomicpractices.Thiswillincreasetheattentiongiventoindividualandcommunityvalues,whilealsoempoweringhouseholdstonegotiateinstitutionalarrangementswithrelevantauthorities.

5.7. OurlinkswithotherSRPsandCRPsWithinCRP5,wewillinteractmostcloselywithresearchersintheBasinsandInformationSystemsSRPs.RegardingotherCRPs,wewillinteractmostcloselywithCRP1.1(Integratedagriculturalproductionsystemsfordryareas),CRP1.2(Integratedsystemsforthehumidtropics),CRP2(Policies,institutions,andmarketstostrengthenassetsandagriculturalincomesforthepoor),andCRP7(ClimateChange,AgricultureandFoodSecurity).WewilladdvaluetotheinformationdevelopedinCRP1.1andCRP1.2atthefarmandfieldlevels,byincorporatingthoseresultsinourresearchatwatershedandlandscapescales.Thefarmandfieldresultswillbehelpfulasweexamineopportunitiestoimprovelanduseplanningandwecraftpublicpoliciesthatprovideincentivesformanagingnaturalandagriculturalecosystemsinsustainableways.WewillalsoincorporatetheresultsofCRP2,regardinginstitutions,policy,andgender.Recommendationsregardingmarketincentivesandinstitutionalchangewillbeparticularlyrelevanttoourworkoneffortstointensifyagricultureinrainfedareas.Inreturn,theinformationwedeveloponlanddegradation,andtheconstraintsandopportunitiespertainingtoagriculturalintensification,willcontributetothepolicyanalysisconductedinCRP2.WewillintegratetheoutputsofCRP5withthoseofCRP3(onwheat;maize;rice;roots,tubersandbananas;grainlegumes;drylandcereals;andlivestockandfish),toenhanceadoptionofmanagementpracticesthatwillincreaseproductivity.TheresultsproducedinCRP7willalsobehelpfulasweconstructscenariosdepictingalternativelandandwatermanagementinterventionsinrainfedareasofAsiaandAfrica.Wemustconsiderthepotentialimpactsofimpendingclimatechangeonhydrologyandcropproductioninrainfedareas,asweconductourresearch.Theinsightwegainregardingrestorationofdegradedlandscapes,theimprovementofpastoralsystems,andtherebuildingofsoilcarbonstockswillserveasinputstoCRP7researchonmitigationandadaptationtoclimatechange.WewillalsointeractwiththeCRPresearcherswhoaredevelopingcropvarietiesthatarebetteradaptedtovariationsinnaturalresourceconditions.WeenvisionconstructingscenariosthatincludecombinationsofimprovementsinNRMandtheavailabilityofnewcropvarietiesbettersuitedforfutureconditions.

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5.8. ResearchpartnersPerhapsoneofthegreatestassetsoftheRainfedSystemsSRPwillbeourabilitytoworkoutsidethesilosthathavetraditionallylimitedtheaddedvalueofresearchonsoils,waterandnutrientmanagement.Indeed,wewillformtrulyinterdisciplinaryresearchteamsinvolvingtraditionalpartners(NARES,ARIsandCGIARcenters)andothersinvolvedinagricultureandNRMandwithcloselinkswithcommunities.WewillalsodevelopcloselinkswithpertinentUNagenciesinanongoingefforttogenerateandextendthediscussionofinternationalpublicgoods.Duringtheinceptionphasewewilldefinepreciserolesforexistingandnewpartnerswithrespecttoeachoftheproblemsets.Weenvisionfourtypesofpartnershipsasweengageinthisresearch:1)coreresearch;2)implementation;3)influenceandoutreachpartners;and4)internationalconventions.Table5.1providesexamplesoftheorganizationslikelytobeinvolved.InternationalconventionsInadditiontodevelopingresearchpartnerships,suchasthosedescribedabove,wewilldevelopstronglinkswithselectedinternationalconventions.Givenourfocusonlanddegradationandourinterestindeterminingoptionsforbalancingthedevelopmentofdiverseecosystems,includingwetlandsandthedrymarginsbetweenagriculturalandpastoralsystems,weenvisionhelpfulallianceswiththeUNconventionstocombatdesertification(UNConventiontoCombatDesertification;UNCCD),promotebiologicaldiversity(UNConventiononBiodiversity;UNCBD),andprotectwetlands(RamsarConventiononWetlands).IWMI’scurrentpartnershipwithRamsarwillserveasahelpfulguideinestablishingnewrelationships.AsanInternationalOrganizationPartner(IOP)ofRamsar,IWMIscientistsparticipateintheScienceandTechnicalReviewPanel,activelycontributingtoexpertworkinggroupsaddressingtheissuesof:1)wetlandsandpovertyalleviation;2)wetlandsandagriculture;3)wetlandsinventoryandassessment;and4)wetlandsandclimatechange.5.9. WherewewillworkWewillworkinselectedregionsofAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmerica,conductingresearchtogenerateinternationalpublicgoodsregardingpressingissuesinrainfedareas.Weprovideafewexamplesoftheissueswewilladdress,byregionandfarmingsystem.• Insub­SaharanAfricaandSouthAsiawewillexaminemeasurestorestore

degradedlandscapesandimprovesoilhealthbyrebuildingnutrientstocksandimprovingwatermanagement.

• InEastandWestAfricaandSouthAsiawewillexaminethebalancebetween

effortstoimprovelivelihoodsandeffortstoenhanceecosystemservices.• AlsoinEastandWestAfricawewilldeterminehowbetterland‐useplanningthat

supportsmobilityandprovidesaccesstodry‐seasongrazingareascanreduceconflictsovercompetinglanduses,whileimprovinglivelihoodsincropandpastoralsystems.

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• InLatinAmericaandSoutheastAsiawewillexaminewaystointensifyproduction

inrainfedricesystemsandmixeduplandcroppingsystems,whilemaintainingcriticalecosystemservicessuchasfloodregulation,soilretention,andpestanddiseasecontrol.Wewillalsoexaminewaysofintensifyingagriculturalproduction,whileretainingbiodiversityinthetransitionzonesbetweenforestsandintensivecroppingareas.

• InCentralandWestAsiaandNorthAfrica,wewillexaminethepotentialfor

intensifyingagricultureinfavorablerainfedsettingsandenhancingtheresilienceoffarmingcommunitiesinlessfavorablesettings,whileincreasingourunderstandingoftheconsequencesofintensificationonecosystems.

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Table5.1.CRP5’slikelypartnersontheRainfedSystemsSRPRegion/Basin CoreResearch Implementation OutreachSouthernAfrica(Limpopo–Zambezi)

AmericanUniversityofBeirut;Univ.ofNaturalResourcesandAppliedLifeSciences(BOKU);SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences(SLU);WageningenUniversityandResearchCentre(WUR);Univ.ofFreeState(UFS),RSA;Univ.ofZimbabwe(UZ);BundaCollegeofAgriculture–UniversityofMalawi;UniversityofBonn;

CatholicReliefServices(CRS);WorldVision;CooperativeforAssistanceandReliefEverywhere(CARE);InternationalFertilizerDevelopmentCentre(IFDC);InternationalPlantNutritionInstitute(IPNI)

IUCN;WorldResourceInstitute(WRI);ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD);UNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange;AfricanEcosystemResearchNetwork(CAS‐UNEP)

WesternAfrica(VoltaandNiger)

TheInternationalInstituteforGeo‐InformationScienceandEarthObservation(ITC);ColoradoStateUniversity(CSU);UniversityofColorado;WageningenUniversityandResearchCentre(WUR);InstituteforAgriculturalResearch(IAR),Nigeria;

Instituted’EconomieRuralIER);InstituteNationaldelaRechercheAgronomiquedeNiger(INRAN),Niger;Institutedel’EnvironnementetdeReschercheAgricoles(INERA),BurkinaFaso;VétérinairesSansFrontières(VSF);SOSSahel;

IUCN;WorldResourceInstitute(WRI);UNConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD),ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD);UNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange;AfricanEcosystemResearchNetwork(CAS‐UNEP);AnimalProductionResearchingDepartment(UNEP‐DIPA);FAOLivestockEmergencyUnitsWorldInitiativeforSustainablePastoralismunderIUCN(IUCN‐WISP);

EastAfrica(Nile) InternationalFertilizerDevelopmentCenter(IFDC);Univ.ofNaturalResourcesandAppliedLifeSciences(BOKU);CatholicUniversityofLeuven,Belgium;SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences(SLU);WageningenUniversityandResearchCentre;NationalResourceConservationService(NRCS);ColoradoStateUniversity(CSU);UniversityofColorado;UCDavis;MakerereUniversityKampala(MUK),Uganda;AddisAbabaUniversity(AAU);Univ.ofNairobi(UON);MoiUniversity,Kenya;KenyattaUniversity,Kenya;SokoineUniv.ofAgriculture(SUA),Tanzania;

CatholicReliefServices(CRS);SelianAgriculturalResearchInstitute(SARI),Tanzania;MlinganoAgriculturalResearchInstitute(MARI),Tanzania;AyoleAgricultrualResearchinstitute(AARI),Tanzania;EthiopiaInstituteofAgricultureResearch(EIAR);AmharaRegionalAgriculturalResearchInstitute(ARARI),Ethiopia;KenyaAgriculturalResearchInstitute;InstitutedesSciencesAgronomiqueduRwanda(Rwanda

IUCN;WorldResourceInstitute(WRI);ConservationInternational(CI);UNConventiontoCombatDesertificationUNCCD),ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD);UNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange;AfricanEcosystemResearchNetwork(CAS‐UNEP);AnimalProductionResearchingDepartment(UNEP‐DIPA);FAO

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AgriculturalResearchInstitute)(ISAR);UCB,DRCongo;CooperativeforAssistanceandReliefEverywhere(CARE);GrameenFoundation;InternationalPlantNutritionInstitute(IPNI)

LivestockEmergencyUnits;WorldInitiativeforSustainablePastoralismunderIUCN(IUCN‐WISP);

SouthAsia(IndusandGanges)

StateAgriculturalUniversities,India;JawaharlalNehruUniversity(JNU);Univ.ofAgriculturalSciencesBangalore(UAS)

IndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearch(ICAR);BharatiyaAgroIndustriesFoundation,India;WatershedOrganizationTrust,India;SevaMandir,India;SMSehgalFoundation,India;AgaKhanFoundation

MiddleEast(TigrisandEuphrates)

GeneralCommissionforScientificAgriculturalresearch(GCSAR),Syria;EducationandExtensionOrganization(AREEO),Iran;GeneralCommissionforScientificAgriculturalresearch(GCSAR),Syria;NationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchandExtension(NCARE),MinistryofAgriculture,Jordan;

SoutheastAsia(Mekong)(moreforCIPthanCIAT)

ChineseAcademyofAgriculturalSciences(CAAS);GuizhouAcademyofAgriculturalSciences(GAAS)

SoutheastAsia(Mekong)(ForCIAT)

ChineseAcademyofTropicalAgriculturalSciences(CATAS);ChineseAcademyofAgriculturalSciences(CAAS);ChineseAcademyofSciences(CAS);GuangxiSubtropicalCropsResearchInstitute(GSCRI);YunnanAcademyofAgriculturalSciences(YAAS)GuangxiAcademyofAgriculturalSciences(GAAS);VietnamAcademyofAgriculturalSciences(VAAS)andconstituentinstitutes;TayNguyenUniversity(TNU);ThaiNguyenUniversityofAgricultureandForestry(TNUAF);NongLamUniversity(NLU);HueUniversityofAgricultureandForestry(HUAF);RoyalUniversityofAgriculture(RUA)ofCambodia,CambodianAgriculturalResearchand

MinistryofAgricultureandRuralDevelopment(MARD)ofVietnamplusProvincialandDistrictauthorities;MinistryofAgricultureandForestry(MAF)andProvincialandDistrictAgricultureandForestryOffices(P/DAFO);NationalAgricultureandForestryExtensionService(NAFES);ThaiTapiocaDevelopmentInstitute(TTDI);ThaiDepartmentofAgriculturalExtension(DOAE);NorthernAgricultureandForestryCollege(NAFC)in

ADBandIFADLoan/Investmentprojects;CARE;CatholicReliefService(CRS);Oxfam;WorldVision(WV);ChristianReformedWorldReliefCommittee(CRWRC);AdventistDevelopmentandReliefAgency(ADRA);andotherNGOsandDevelopmentProjects

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DevelopmentInstitute(CARDI);KasetsartUniversityThailand(KU);KhonKaenUniversity(KKU);ChiangMaiUniversity(CMU);ThaiDepartmentofAgriculture(DOA);YezinAgricultureUniversity(YAU),Burma;DepartmentofAgriculturalResearch(DAR)Burma;NationalAgricultureandForestryResearchInstitute(NAFRI);NationalUniversityofLaos(NUOL);CommonwealthScientificandIndustrialResearchOrganisation‐AustralianAnimalHealthLaboratory(CSIRO‐AAHL);UniversityofQueensland(UQ);UniversityofNewEngland(UNE);CharlesSturtUniversity(CSU);JapanInternationalResearchCenterforAgriculturalScience(JIRCAS);InstitutdeRecherchepourleDéveloppement(IRD);CentredecoopérationInternationaleenRechercheAgronomiquepourleDéveloppement(CIRAD);

LuangPrabang;BattambangUniversity(BBU);GeneralDirectorateofAgriculture(GDA)Cambodia;ProvincialDepartmentsofAgricultureinCambodia;SNV;Helvetas;GesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)

CentralAsia(AmuDaryaandSyrDarya)

SENNIRI,Uzbekistan; IUCN

LatinAmericaandCaribbean(Andesbasin,SouthAmericasavannasandCentralAmericahillsides)

InstitutodeEcologia(IoE),Mexico;TropicalAgronomicCentreforResearchandHigherEducation(CATIE),CostaRica;MuseuParaenseEmilioGoeldi(MPEG);EMBRAPAAmazoniaOriental;UniversidadFederaldoPara(UFPA),UniversidaddelaAmazonia(Florencia),UniversidadTecnologicaPereira(UTC),UniversitéAntillesGuyane,INRAGuadeloupe,NationalUniversityofAgriculture(UNA),Nicaragua;NationalSchoolofForestSciences(ESNACIFOR),Honduras;NationalUniversityofColombia(UNAL),Colombia;UniversityofWesternAustralia(UWA),Australia;SwissFederalInstituteofTechnology–Zurich(ETHSwitzerland);UniversityofCalifornia,Davis;JapanInternationalResearchCenterforAgriculturalSciences(JIRCAS),Japan;InternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCenter(CIMMYT);CornellUniversity;IntegratedManagementofSoilConsortiuminCentralAmerica(MIS)

NicaraguanInstituteforAgriculturalTechnology(INTA/CENIA),Nicaragua;DirectionofScienceandFarmingTechnology(DICTA),Honduras;MinistryofAgricultureandRuralDevelopment(MADR)Colombia;ColombianCoorporationforAgriculturalResearch(CORPOICA);ConsortiumfortheSustainableDevelopmentoftheAndeanEco‐region(CONDESAN),Peru

IUCN;FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),CentralAmerica

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5.10. FiveyearsandfiveproblemsetsWehaveselectedfiveProblemSetsthatwilldetermineourresearchfociduringthenextfiveyears,asoutlinedinsections5.10.1–5.10.5.5.10.1. ProblemSet1:RecapitalizingAfricansoilsandreducingland

degradationThesoilsinrainfedagriculturalsystemsprovideimportantecosystemservicesthatunderpinagriculturalproduction.Theystoreandcyclewaterandnutrientsthatarecriticalintheproductionofcropsandforagesforlivestock.Soilsharbororganismsthatfixnitrogenandmakeothernutrientsavailableforcrops.Theyhavearolealsointhetransformationofcarbon,whichmaintainssoilstructureandfertility.Despitethecriticallyimportantroleofsoils,farmlandandgrazingareashavebeendegradedovertime,andnutrientshavebeenmined,ratherthanreplenishedeachseason.Landdegradationiscausedlargelybyunsustainablelandmanagementpracticesthatresultinthelossofnutrientsduetoerosionandsoilnutrientmining,lossofsoilcarbonandtheassociatedlossofsoilbiota.Onseverelydegradedlands,applicationsofnitrogen,phosphorusandpotassiumhavelimitedeffectsoncropyields.Thus,eveniffarmersonsuchlandscouldaffordsupplementalfertilizer,theadditionalnutrientswouldnotnecessarilyincreasetheirnetreturns.WewillexaminetechnicalinterventionsandpolicyoptionsforrestoringnutrientbalancesinAfricansoilsandreducinglanddegradation.Wewillconsidertheimplicationsofpopulationpressure,therolesofinputandoutputprices,andthelackofinformationavailabletomenandwomenfarmersandpastoralistsregardingsoilconstraints,nutrientbalancesandlanddegradation.Wewillconsideralsothepotentialroleofcarbonsequestrationprograms,whichmayenhancesoilfertilityandsoilmoisturestatus(WorldBank,2010).Wewilldetermineifcarboncreditsandotherpaymentforenvironmentalserviceprogramsmightbehelpfulinmotivatingfarmerstorestorethecarbon,nutrientandwatercyclesofdegradedsoils(Thomas,2008;Ferraro,2009;Jack,2009;Swallowetal.,2010).Wewilldevelopmethodsforidentifyingnutrientlimitationscheaplyandefficientlyatagivenlocation,toreducetheriskoflargefinanciallosseswhenapplyingfertilizer.Wewillalsoexamineopportunitiesforincreasingbiomassproductionatthefarmlevelandacrossagriculturalandpastorallandscapes,thusprovidinggreateropportunitiesforrestoringsoilorganicmatter.GuidinghypothesisWecanrestoreagriculturalproductivityondegradedlandswithin5to10yearsbyprovidingfarmerswithaffordableaccesstofertilizerandhelpingthemtoimplementpracticesthatrestoredesirablelevelsofcarbon,phosphorus,nitrogen,andlimitingmeso‐andmicro‐nutrientsinsoils,whileminimizingtheimpactonsupportingecosystems.

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Examplesofresearchquestions1. Whatarethebestwaystoreplenishcarbon,phosphorus,nitrogenandpotassiumin

depletedsoils?2. Whataretheimplicationsofmeso‐andmicro‐nutrientdeficiencies,andhowcan

thesebeidentifiedandameliorated?3. Howcanweidentifyandamelioratesoilsthatarenotresponsivetosimplefertilizer

packages?4. Whatopportunitiesexistfordevelopingorganicandbio‐fertilizers?5. Whatisthepotentialfordevelopingbiologicalformsofnitrogenfixation?6. Whatisthepotentialforbiocharproductioninrainfedareas?7. Whichrestorationtechniquesareavailable,andwhicharemostappropriate?8. Whatproductionmethodsaremostappropriateforuseonrestoredlands?9. Whatincentiveswouldincreasethelikelihoodofadoptionbypoormenandwomen

farmers?10.Whatpolicyconstraintsdiscourageadoption,andhowmightthoseberesolved?11.Whatisthecarbonsequesteringpotentialinrainfedareas,whatisthefeasibilityof

implementingcarboncreditprogramsacrossextensivelandscapes,andhowmightfarmhouseholdsbenefit?

TheimpactpathwayforthisProblemSetisfurtherdetailedinTable5.2.

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Table5.2.ImpactPathway:RecapitalizingAfricansoilsandreducinglanddegradation

Issues Leversofchange Researchoutputs Outcomes PotentialimpactContributiontoSRFoutcomes

Poorsoilsthatshownosignificantresponsetoapplicationofmacro‐nutrientsareapervasiveproblem,andrequireadedicatedefforttorestoresoilfertility.Degradationistheresultofunsustainablelandmanagementincombinationwithvulnerablesoilsorsoilsoflowinherentsoilfertility.Thisleadstolossofsoilcarbonanddegradationofsoilstructure,withconsequencesforavailablesoilwaterandthebiologicalactivitythatunderpinsagriculturalproduction.Solutionsmustcombineintegratedsoilfertilitymanagement(ISFM)withsoilconservationmeasures,land‐useoptionsandland‐useplanningoptionsforarea‐wideintervention.

• Informationonlanddegradationstatusandassociatedcostsraisesawarenessofassociatedproblemsandincreasespreparedness

• EffectivelinkageswithinternationalinitiativessuchasUNCCDandCAADP

• Informationonlocalvariationinlanddegradationandsoilproductivitytotargetinvestments

• Benefitsfromcarbonsequestrationinagriculturallandstobegeneratedthroughcarboncredits

• Documentationofsustainablelandmanagementpracticeswithassociatedcostsandpredictedbenefits.

• Assessmentoflanddegradationstatusandanalysesofsoilandlandhealthproblemsatvariousscales;identificationofareasavailableforexpansionofagriculturallandthroughrestorationofdegradedareasandthroughlandconversion.

• Reviewandevaluationofintegratedsolutionstorestoringdegradedsoils,includingsoilconservation,ISFMandwater‐conservationtechnologies

• Improvedpasturesandagroforestrysystems

• Toolsforland‐useplanningandarea‐wideapproachestorestoredegradedagriculturallandscapes

• Evaluationoflocalorganizationalstructuresforrehabilitationofdegradedlandscapes

• Evaluationofpoliciesandnationalactionplanstoaddressdesertification,landdegradationanddrought.

• Increasedawarenessofseverityandacutenessoflanddegradationwillgeneratepolicysupportandsecureinvestmentsincombatinglanddegradationandrestoringdegradedlands

• Detailedinformationonlanddegradationstatusandidentificationofeffectivemanagementpracticeswillresultinmoreeffectiveinterventions

• Properincentivestructuresandprovenmanagementpracticeswillenhanceadoptionbyfarmersofpracticesforrestoringsoilfertility

• Adoptionofeffectivemanagementwillrestoresoilfertilityovertimeandincreasetheareaofproductivesoils.

• Soilresourcebaseexpandedandimproved,improvingthelivelihoodsofupto5millionhouseholdsinruralareas

• Increasedproductionprovidingfoodsecurityandincomeopportunitiesforanestimated5millionhouseholds

• Reducedvulnerabilityandincreasedresilienceofanestimated1millionruralhouseholds.

Sustainablemanagementofnaturalresources;foodsecurity.

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5.10.2. ProblemSet2:RevitalizingproductivityonresponsivesoilsNotallsoilsinrainfedareasaredegraded.Manysoilshavethepotentialtosupportgoodyields,butfarmerslacktheinputsandinformationneededtorealizethatpotential.Weconsidersuchsoilstoberesponsive,astheywillproducegoodyieldsiffarmersapplytherightinputsandmanagetheirfieldsappropriately,andifadequaterainfallarriveswithgoodtiming.Tobesure,therearemanyuncertaintiesinrainfedareasthateventhebestsoilscannotovercome.YetinthisProblemSetweemphasizeanddevelopthepotentialofresponsivesoils,anddemonstratetheimprovementsincropandlivestockproductionmadepossiblebyprovidingmenandwomenfarmerswiththeinputsandinformationtheyneedtogeneratebetteryields.Ifsuccessful,thegainsinaggregateproductivityacrosslargeareasofAsiaandAfricawillbesubstantial.OurresearchinthisProblemSetwillinvolvecombinationsofagronomic,hydrologicandeconomicanalysis.Wewillbeginbylocatingresponsivesoils,usingtheAfricaSoilsInformationService.Wewillthenexaminemethodsofincreasingfertilizeruseonresponsivesoils,whileacknowledgingthecostsandinherentrisksinvolvedforfarmers,withaparticularfocusonunderstandinggender‐basedconstraints.Wewillalsostudypotentialchangesincropchoicesandwilldeveloprecommendationsregardingcroppingpatterns,plantnutrientsandwaterrequirementsforuseonresponsivesoils.,Tosupporthigherproductivity,wewillexaminethepotentialforimprovingwater‐harvestingactivitiesinrainfedareas.Wewillalsoproposeenhancementsinfarm‐levelaccesstoinputandoutputmarkets,andimprovementsinland‐tenureregimes,sothatbothmenandwomenfarmerswillhavethenecessaryincentivesandopportunitiestoinvestinrevitalizingtheproductivityofresponsivesoils.GuidinghypothesisSubstantialgainsinfarm‐levelproductivityandtheaggregateoutputofcropandlivestockproductscanbeachievedbyprovidingmenandwomenfarmersandpastoralistswiththeinformationandinputsneededtorevitalizetheproductivityofresponsivesoilsinrainfedareas.Examplesofresearchquestions1. WhatisthecurrentextentofresponsivesoilsinselectedrainfedareasofAsia,Africa

andLatinAmerica?2. Whatarethebindingconstraintsthatlimitcropandlivestockproductivity?3. Howcanthosebindingconstraintsberelaxed,whilealsoenhancingtheecosystem

servicesthatsupportagriculturalproduction?4. Whatinvestmentsandpolicyalternativeswouldbehelpfulinsupporting

widespreadimprovementsinaccessbymenandwomenfarmerstoinputandoutputmarkets,intheinterestofpromotinggreateruseoffertilizerandprovidingopportunitiestoreceivehigherpricesforcropandlivestockproducts?

TheimpactpathwayforthisProblemSetisfurtherdetailedinTable5.3.

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Table5.3.ImpactPathway:ImpactPathway:RevitalizingProductivityonResponsiveSoils

Issue Leversofchange Researchoutputs Outcomes PotentialimpactContributiontoSRFoutcomes

Manysoils,includingthosewithhighpotential,producesmallyieldsbecausefarmerslackinformation,knowledgeandskills,andtheyhavelimitedaccesstoinputandoutputmarkets.Manysoilsareconstrainedbynutrientlimitationsbutwouldrespondtonutrientapplication.Ifthesesoilscanbeidentifiedandmanagedappropriately,significantincreasesinyieldarepossiblewithoutenvironmentaldegradation.

• Providinginformationandknowledgeonintegratedsoilfertilitymanagement(ISFM)tohelpfarmersachieverealisticproductiontargets

• TrainingtoimprovefarmerskillstoimplementISFM

• Riskinsurancemechanismstoprovideincentivesforinvestmentinproduction‐enhancingtechnologies

• Establishingfarmerorganizationstoimproveaccesstomarkets,landandwaterresources,andbetterlinkingoflocalenterprises

• WorkingwithCAADPtoencouragepoliciestosupporttheseactions.

• Assessmentoflocalvariationinyields,yieldpotential,locallandandsoilhealthstatus,riskofdrought,erosionrisk,agronomicpractices,andsocioeconomiccharacteristics

• Analysesofyieldgapsanddiagnosesofproductionconstraints;responsestonutrientapplication,driversofchange;resource‐useefficiencyatdifferentscales;analysesoflocalpoliciesandincentives,institutionsandfarmerorganizations

• ReviewofISFMoptionsandtechnologiestoimprovenutrientavailabilityandplantuptake,andtoimprovesoilfertility;land‐useoptionsforcereal‐legumeintercroppingandrotations,crop‐livestocksystemsandarea‐wideintegrationofenterprises

• Decisionsupporttoolsfordevelopmentpractitionersandfarmers

• Monitoring‐and‐evaluationtoolsforfarmperformance,resource‐useefficiencyandeffectivenessoflocalorganizations.

• Developmentpractitionersandgovernmentagents,awareofproductionpotentialandmajorconstraints,targettheirinterventionsandinvestmentsforsite‐specificsolutions

• Suiteofmanagementoptionssustainablyincreaseproductivity

• Incentivesdevelopedtoenablefarmerstoadopttheseoptions;bettercropinsuranceproducts

• Farmersimprovetheirproductivitybyadoptingimprovedtechnologyandimprovingsoilfertilitymanagement.

• ProductionincreasebecauseofimprovedISFM,triplingyieldofmajorfoodcropsforpotentially15millionfarmersandhouseholdmembers

• Moresustainableproductionandimprovedresilience

• Significantincomeandfoodproductionbenefitsfor15millionfarmers.

Foodsecurity;sustainablemanagementofnaturalresources;povertyreduction

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5.10.3. ProblemSet3:Increasingagriculturalproductionwhileenhancingbiodiversity

Wewillexaminethebenefitstocropandlivestockproductionofdiversifyingagricultureinwaysthatreduceriskandenhanceresilience.Diversificationcanincludeexpandingthegeneticdiversitywithinagriculturebyincreasingthenumberofcropvarietiesandlivestockbreeds,andplantingtreesacrossagriculturallandscapes.Suchchangescanimproveproductivityandreducetheimpactsofuncertainrainfall,plantdiseaseandpestinfestations.Wewillexploreopportunitiesforachievingdesirablelevelsofagriculturalbiodiversity,inconjunctionwithimprovementsinsoilandwatermanagementpractices.Wewilldeterminehowtoachieveagriculturalintensification,whilepreservingorenhancingbiodiversity,withinwatershedsandacrosslandscapes.Inconductingthisresearch,wewillconsiderthepolicydimensionsandgenderaspectsofeffortstoenhancebiodiversityinproductionsystems,asweendeavortostrengthenthesocialinstitutionsthatsupportbiodiversityenhancement(Jarvisetal.,2011).GuidinghypothesisItispossibletoincreaseagriculturaloutputandenhancebiodiversityinrainfedareasthroughimprovementsinsoilandwatermanagementpractices.Examplesofresearchquestions1. Whatisthestateofecosystemservicesthatunderpinagriculturalproductionand

howdowemap,monitorandvaluethoseservices?2. Whatarethemostimportanttrade‐offsbetweenshort‐termandlong‐termgains

duringagriculturalintensification,includingthosepertainingtotheprovisionofecosystemservices?

3. Howcanmonitoringandevaluatingecosystemservicesimprovedecision‐making?4. Howcanbiodiversitybeenhancedandharnessedtoincreasetheprovisionof

ecosystemservicesincludingpollination,pestanddiseasecontrol,andmaintainingbiomasstoregulatewatercyclingandsoilretention?

TheimpactpathwayforthisProblemSetisfurtherdetailedinTable5.4.

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Table5.4.ImpactPathway:Increasingagriculturalproductionwhileenhancingbiodiversity

Issues Leversofchange Researchoutputs Outcomes PotentialimpactsContributiontoSRFoutcomes

Agriculturalintensificationmayresultindegradedlandscapesinwhichtheecosystemservicesthatareessentialforsustainingagriculturalproductionarecompromised.Thisisespeciallyrelevantforlow‐andmedium‐inputagriculture.Thelossofecosystemfunctionisassociatedwithlossofbiologicalandgeneticdiversityandbeneficialorganisms.Thismayrefertousefultreesinthelandscapethatprovidefuelwoodandfruits,ortothelossofmedicinalplants,thedisappearanceofpredatorsandpollinators,andthelossofbelow‐groundbiodiversity.

• Mechanismsforsharingbenefitsfromecosystemservicesandrewardmechanismsforecosystemserviceswillstimulateinvestmentinresourceconservationandreduceexternalinputs

• Raisingawarenessandincreasingknowledgeonbiodiversityisimportantforsustainableagriculturalproduction

• Regulatoryframeworksandestablishingprotectedandrestrictedareas;arrangementsforcompetingclaims.

• Integratedassessmentanddiagnosisoflandscapeintegrity:livelihoodsandwellbeingofpeople;foodsecurityandincomegenerated;compositionandstructureofthelandscape,biodiversityandecosystemservices(pollination,regulatingofplantanddiseases,soilerosioncontrol,regulationofgreenhousegasemissions,regulatingofwaterbalance)

• Analysesanddiagnosesoflandhealth:landscapecompositionandstructureasadeterminingfactorforecosystemfunctioningandhumanwellbeing;modelingthisrelationship;toolsforlandscapedesign

• Reviewandevaluationofoptionsforreconstructinglandscapes

• Participatorymethodsforlandscapeandenvironmentalplanning;evaluationofoptionsforPaymentforEnvironmentalServicesandsharingbenefitsfromnaturalresources.

• Managementofecosystemservicesandenvironmentalqualityismainstreamedindevelopmentprograms

• Healthyenvironmentthatprovidesfoodsecurity,shelterandsustainedecosystemservices

• Reducedvulnerabilityandincreasedresilience

• Improvedsustainabilityoffoodproduction,reducedlanddegradationandhalteddesertification,andmulti‐functionallandscapes.

• Significantcontributiontosustainablemanagementofnaturalresources

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5.10.4. ProblemSet4:Enhancingavailabilityandaccesstowaterandlandforpastoralists

Increasinglypastoralistsareconfrontedwithreducedavailabilityofandaccesstowaterresources.Asthedemandsforfoodandbiofuelsincrease,pastoralistsareatriskofbeingdeprivedofaccesstotheirtraditionalresources,withlimitedpossibilitiestoseekreplacementsourcesofforageandwaterfortheirlivestock.Theseland‐usechangesareoftenmotivated–whilebypassingtheissueofwhohastherightstotheseresources–bytheargumentthatcrop‐basedsystemsaremoreproductive.Thismightbetrueinyearsofgoodrainfallforthemorewater‐endowedpartsofthelandsusedbypastoralists,butpastoralismoffersmoreprofitableuseofthelandscapeatlarge.Deprivationofmenandwomenpastoralistsfromtheirlandsandresourcesleadstoundesirableoveruse,landdegradationanddiminishedproductivity.Clearlythereisaneedtostoptheinfringementonthelandandwaterresourcesusedbyandbelongingtopastorallandusers.Wewillhelppastoralistssecurerightsandaccesstotheseresourcesandgenerateevidenceontheresource‐useeconomicsofpastoralproduction.WewillbeginbyconveningstakeholdersinselectedregionsofEastandWestAfrica,tolearnoftheseeminglyintractableconstraintsfacingfarmersandpastoralistsinrainfedareasinlightofincreasingpopulationdensity,risingfoodprices,andincreasingcompetitionforlimitedlandandwaterresources.GuidinghypothesisSecuringaccesstoandimprovedwatermanagementwillenablepastoraliststosustainandimprovelivestockproductivityandenjoybetterlivelihoods.Examplesofresearchquestions1. Howdocompetingclaimsforlandandwateraffectpastoralandagro‐pastoral

livestockproductionsystemsandassociatedlivelihoods?2. Howdothebenefitsofthesecompetinglanduses,includingthevarioustradeoffs,

comparewithlandskeptunderpastoralandagro‐pastoralmanagement?3. Whataretheopportunitycostsofpastoralistsandagro‐pastoralistsnolongerbeing

abletouselandandwaterresourcesbecauseofinfringementsupontheirrightsbyoutsiders?

4. Whatcompensationwouldbereasonableandwhatarethesenewresourceuserswillingtopayforthelostopportunity?

5. Towhatextentarelivestockproductionandlivelihoodbenefitslostasaresultoflivestockdamagingsoilstructureandreducingtheirwater‐storingcapacity?

6. Whatrainwatermanagementoptionsandpracticesexistthatwillimproveforageproductionandwateruse?

7. Howwilltheproposedagendatosecurerightsofpastoralistsimpacteancillaryecosystemservicesandinternationalpublicgoodssuchasclimateregulationandbiodiversityconservationandwhatopportunitiesexistforpastoraliststobenefitfromtheserights?

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8. Aredifferentgenderandgenerationsaffecteddifferently,andhowdoweensuretheequitableaccesstoandbenefitfromexistingpastoralmanagementpracticesandopportunitiestochangethese.?

9. Whatarecurrentpoliciesandinstitutionalarrangementsunderwhichlossofaccesstopasturesoccursandwhatlimitspastoralistseffectivenesstosecureaccessrights?

10.Whatopportunitiesexistforimprovingpoliciesandinstitutionalarrangementstosecureaccessrightstolands,waterandforage?

11.Whatwillbethelikelyimpactsofclimatechangeonwateravailabilityandaccess,andwhatstrategiesmightmitigatethoseimpacts?

TheimpactpathwayforthisProblemSetisfurtherdetailedinTable5.5.

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Table5.5.ImpactPathway:Enhancingavailabilityandaccesstowaterandlandforpastoralists

Issues Leversofchange Researchoutputs Outcomes PotentialimpactsContributiontoSRFoutcomes

• Raisinglivestockisaneffectiveformoffoodproductionandlivelihoodgenerationinareaswheresoilandwaterresourcesarenotsufficienttosupportcropproduction.Yetsuchareasareincreasinglyconvertedforcropandbiofuelproduction,thusincreasingriskandimpairingpastoralistlivelihoods.Availablelandsarethenovergrazedanddegraded.

• Providingevidencethatraisinglivestockismoreproductivethanotherlandusesinmanyareas

• Supportingpastoralcommunitieswithscience‐basedargumentsandadvocacytosecurelandtenureandwateraccessrights

• Providingrecommendationstorestorethewaterbalanceofdegradedlandstoincreasevegetationbiomassproduction

• Demonstratingthevalueofrestoringecosystemservicesthatsupportlivestockproduction.

• Assessmentofdriversofchangeandimpactsofland‐,water‐andvegetation‐relatedconstraintsleadingtoriskinpastoralsystems

• Reviewofoptionstoreduceriskthroughsecuringrightstolandandaccesstowater,andimprovingmanagementofland,waterandvegetation,includingtheenablingpoliciesandincentivesrequiredtoadopttheseoptions

• Action‐basedresearchtosupportinitiativesthatsecurerightsandimprovetheuseofnaturalresourcesandsustainthebenefitsfromecosystemservices

• Monitorandevaluate,withcommunitiesanddevelopmentpractitioners,theeffectivenessofongoinginterventionsaimedattheabove,andenhancetheresearch‐for‐developmentcycle.

• Governmentpoliciessupportrightstoland,waterandvegetation,andenhanceincentivestoreduceriskandincreasebenefitsfromecosystemservicesinaridlands

• Developmentpractitionersinformedaboutopportunitiestoreduceriskrelatedtolossofaccesstonaturalresourcesandthepotentialtoacquirebenefitsfromecosystemservices

• Livestockkeeperssecuretheirrightstoland,waterandvegetation,andadoptimprovedlandandecosystemmanagementtoreduceriskandincreaseincome.

• Livestockkeepersbenefitfromsecuredrightstoland,waterandvegetationresources,andenhancedecosystemservices

• Greaternationalfoodandlivelihoodsecurity–includingforpastoralcommunities–andlessrelianceonfoodimports

• Globalcommunitybenefitsfrompastoralcommunitiesmanagingdrylandsinsuchawayastoprovideglobalpublicgoods,includingenhancedbiodiversityandclimateregulation.

• Foodsecurity;sustainablemanagementofnaturalresources;povertyalleviation;riskreduction

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5.10.5. ProblemSet5:Reducingriskbyprovidingfarmerswithsupplementalirrigation

Wewillexaminethepotentialforsubstantiallyincreasingcropyieldsthroughthepracticeofsupplementalirrigation.Ourworkwillbuildoncurrentknowledgeregardingthepotentialyield‐increasingbenefitsofsupplementalirrigationandrainwaterharvesting(Rockströmetal.,2010,Wanietal.,2008).Wewillextendthatworktoconsideralsothepotentialgainsinincome,andimprovementsinlivelihoods,formenandwomenmadepossiblebyirrigatinghigher‐valuecrops.Wewillalsoexamineimplicationsforsustainability,equity,andtheprotectionandenhancementofecosystemservices.GuidinghypothesisProvidingsufficientwatertoenablesupplementalirrigationwillreducetheinherentrisksoffarminginrainfedareas,thusmotivatingmenandwomenfarmerstoincreasecropyieldsbyapplyingeffectiveamountsoffertilizerandothervariableinputs.Examplesofresearchquestions1. Whatarethepotentialincreasesincropyieldsmadepossiblebyproviding

supplementalirrigation?2. Whatwillbethechangesinyieldvariabilitywithsupplementalirrigation?3. Whatnon‐waterconstraintsmightbecomebindingwhenfarmerspractice

supplementalirrigation?4. Willsupplementalirrigationbesufficienttoencouragemenandwomenfarmersto

changecroppingpatterns,orwillcurrentcropchoicesprevail?5. Whatwillbethelikelyimpactsonindividualandhouseholdincomesandfood

securitywithsupplementalirrigation?6. Whatisthelikelihoodthatsupplementalirrigationcanbesustainedinselected

areas,giventhatthedemandforwaterisincreasinginmanyregions?7. Howcanwaterharvestingenhancesoilwaterandprovidewaterstoragetosupport

supplementalirrigation.8. Whatarethelikelyconsequencesofupstreamdevelopmentsinsupplemental

irrigationandwaterharvestingondownstreamwaterusers?TheimpactpathwayforthisProblemSetisfurtherdetailedinTable5.6.

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Table5.6.ImpactPathway:Reducingriskbyprovidingfarmerswithsupplementalirrigation

Issues Leversofchange Researchoutputs Outcomes PotentialimpactsContributiontoSRFoutcomes

• Waterscarcityconstrainsagriculturalproductioninaridandsemi‐aridlands.Thiswaterscarcityiscausedbylimitedrainfallandcompetingclaimsforwaterresources.Climatevariabilityandlowhouseholdincomesareputtingincreasingnumbersofrainfedfarmersandpastoralistsatriskofhungerandpoverty.

• Persuadinggovernmentsandfarmersofthefoodsecurity,nutritionandlivelihoodbenefitsofsupplementalirrigation

• Persuadinggovernments,NGOsandtheprivatesectorofthebusinessandpoverty‐reducingbenefitsfromthisstrategy;buildonAsianexperienceofwaterharvestingtodeliversimilarsystemstoAfrica

• Securingrightstowaterandimprovedwaterusetoincreaselivestockproductioninaridlands.

• Assessmentofimpactoflossofaccesstolandandwaterandcurrentrainwater‐useefficiency(RWUE)onlivestockproduction

• Analysesof(i)driversofchangereducingaccesstowater,and(ii)livestockproductionachievableunderoptimalaccesstowaterandoptimalRWUE

• ReviewofoptionstosecurewateraccessandenhanceRWUE,includinganalysesofincentivestolandownerstoadopttheseoptions

• ProvideadviceonpoliciestosecurerightstowaterandcreateincentivestooptimizeRWUEinpastorallands

• DeliverinformationtosupportdevelopmentpractitionersandpastoraliststosecurerightstowaterandenhanceRWUE.

• Governmentpoliciessupportrightstowaterandcreateincentivestoincreaseagriculturalproductivityinaridlands

• Farmersandpastoralistsinvestingreateragriculturalproductivity,forexamplebyusingwater‐harvestingtechniques.

• Securedwaterrightsandimprovedagriculturalproductivityfor15millionmenandwomenpastoralists

• Lessrelianceonfoodimports

• Pastoralistslesspronetolossoflandandwaterresources.

• Livelihoods;nutrition;foodsecurity

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5.11. WhatwewillachieveinthesecondfiveyearsInyears6through10,wewillconsolidateandextendourresultspertainingtotheinitialfiveProblemSets.WewillbuildlinkageswiththeBasinandInformationSystemsSRPstoincorporateourfindingsintointegratedlandandwaterinformationproductsthatwillbemadeavailabletofarmersviamobilephonetechnology.Wewillalsosynthesizenewlessonslearnedabouttherelationshipsbetweenecosystemservicesandagriculturalintensificationintosetsofregionallyfocusedpolicyandmanagementguidelines.5.12. ImplementationplanThefirststepinimplementingthisRainfedSRPistoconvenetheCGIARpartnerstointegratetheirongoingactivities.Thisentailsplanningworkatthesamesites,establishingsynergiesbetweenprojects,andplanningnewprojectsthatfullyintegratesoil,waterandecosystemservices.WewillalsoexamineopportunitiesforfurthercollaborationamongCRPsatcommonresearchsitesandwewillestablishstrategicpartnershipswiththirdparties.WhilefocusingonourfiveinitialProblemSets,wewillalsoconductthreeoverarchingactivities:1)monitoringandassessment;2)technologydevelopmentandpractice;and3)decisionsupportanddissemination.Themonitoringandassessmentactivitiesarecurrentlycenteredonbuildingasoilinformationserviceforsub‐SaharanAfrica.However,weplantofurtherexpandtheseactivities,increasingthedensityofobservationonthegroundandmoreaccuratelypredictinglandandsoilproperties.Wealsoplantoincludeobservationsonwaterresourcesandabove‐andbelow‐groundbiodiversity,suchthatinformationservicescanbeextendedbeyondsoilproperties.Wehopealsotoexpandtheseactivitiestootherregions,suchasCentralandWestAsia,NorthAfrica,CentralandSouthAmerica,andSouthandSoutheastAsia,partlybuildingonexistinginitiatives.Wewillalsodevelopwatershedmodelsandmonitoringprotocolsthatwillenhanceunderstandingofland‐useimpactsinareasofdegradedlandsandstressedecosystems.TheRainfedSRPlinkswiththeSRPonInformationSystemsforsitecharacterization,spatialtargetingofinterventions,modelling,andmonitoringframeworksforassessinginterventionimpacts.Wewillestablishandfurtherdeveloppartnershipswithinternationalorganizationsthathaveaninterestinresourceassessment,suchastheWorldResourcesInstitute(WRI),ConservationInternational(CI),IUCNandothers.Developmentandevaluationofagriculturaltechnologieswillrequirefieldtestingonexperimentstationsandincreasinglyonfarmers’fields.TheseactivitieswillbeconductedincollaborationwithCRPs1.1,1.2and1.3,andtheNARES.Wewillfocusprimarilyontechnologiesandpracticesthatmaintainandrestoresoilfertility,improvewater‐useefficiency,reducesoilerosion,andrestoresoilcarbon.Wewillpromoteinvestmentintechnologiesthatwethinkareimportant,suchasintegratedsoilfertilitymanagementformajorcropsinthedifferentagro‐ecologicalzonesofsub‐SaharanAfrica,andasupplementalirrigationpackageforwheatinrainfedagro‐ecosystemsofCentralandWestAsiaandNorthAfrica.

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Decisionsupportanddisseminationactivitiesareundertakenverymuchinsupportofandtoimprovetheadoptionoftechnologiesandimprovedpractices.Becauseagriculturalinterventionsneedtocustomizedtolocalconditionsthereareahostoffactorsthatmustbeaddressedandunderstood:• Resourceandlivelihoodsituations(externalandinternal)

Theserefertothestateoftheresources(land,vegetation,soilandwater)andsocialandeconomicsettings(e.g.povertyincidence,on‐andoff‐farmincomesources,nutritionalindicators,genderedorganizationoffarmingandlandtenuresystems).

• BackwardlinkagesofthefullrangeoftechnologyoptionsThesearefactorsandconditionsthatdetermineadoption:whohasaccesstotechnologies(e.g.bygender,farmingsystemorincomelevel);theircost;institutionalconstraintsandopportunities(e.g.credit,extension,inputmarkets,infrastructureplanningprocessesandmanagementinstitutions,maintenanceandoperation,andthebroaderpolicyenvironment);therisksinvolved;andtherisk‐mitigationstrategiesadopted.

• ForwardlinkagesTheseincludelocalandregionalagriculturalmarketingsystemsandpricestructures,accesstothesesystems,theroleofgenderinagriculturalmarketing,communication,cold‐chains,andthebroaderpolicyenvironmentinwhichthemarketsoperate

• ExternalitiesThepositiveandnegativeimpactsoftechnologiesatthewatershedandlandscapelevelsandtheenvironmental,socialandinstitutionalsustainabilityissuesinthecontextofclimatechangeandtheadaptivemanagementcapabilitiesofsupportinginstitutions.

5.13. Researchoutputsandoutcomes5.13.1. IncreasingawarenessOutputs:Casestudiesandsynthesisofecosystemservicesmeasurement,valuationandtradeoffanalysisforvariousscenariosofdevelopmentinrepresentativemixedrainfedlandscapes.Outcomes:Publicsocietyindevelopingcountries,awareoftheimportanceandstateofagriculturalproductiontheunderpinningecosystemservices,requestsbettergovernanceofthisnaturalcapital.5.13.2. RecommendingpoliciesOutputs:Assessmentofthestateofthesoilresourcebaseandscenarios:biophysicalassessmentofsoilfertility,water‐useefficiencyonrainfedlands,andland‐useoptionstoenhancethestateofthesoilandwaterresourcebase,includingeconomics.Analysisofeffectsofpolicyonlandandwaterallocationandfarm‐levelincentivesanddisincentivesforecosystem‐sustainingpractices.Ecosystemservicesmeasurementandvaluationtosupportpolicy‐relevantinsightsintothefeasibilityofusingpaymentsforecosystemservicesforselectedpurposes.

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Outcomes:Governments,awareofthestateoftheiragriculturalproductiontheunderpinningecosystemservices,reconsidertheirpoliciesanddevelopstrategiesthatimproveequityandallowtheruralpoortosustainablymanagenaturalresourcesand,whererequired,restorethesoilsandecosystemservicesthatsupportagriculturalproduction.5.13.3. SupportingdevelopmentOutputs:Assessmentofcosts,benefitsandinstitutionalandpolicychallengesoflivelihood‐enhancinginterventionsabletorestoredegradedlandscapesanddiversifyprovisionofecosystemservices.Predict,usingavarietyofquantitativeandqualitativemodeling(SWAT,InVest),thedirectandoff‐siteimpactofdevelopmentplans.Outcomes:Developmentpractitionersdisseminateeffectiveinterventionsthataresupportedbyincentivessufficientlylargetoallowtheiradoptionbytheruralpoor.5.13.4. PromotingparticipationOutputs:Participatorylanduseplanningandecosystemservicesassessmenttechniquesaredeveloped,appliedtocasestudiesandsynthesized.Outcomes:Ruralpoorrespondtoincentivesandinformation,promotingbettermanagementoftheecosystemservicesthatsupportagriculture.

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6. StrategicResearchPortfolio:ResourceRecoveryandReuse

Ourvision:wasteisaresource,andabusinessopportunityWeenvisionaworldinwhichsmallerandlargerenterprisesrecoverandrecyclewater,nutrientsandorganicmatterfromdomesticandagriculturalwastestreams.Thesebusinessesproducesafewater,fertilizerandenergyforinthebenefitoflocalmarkets,servingresource‐poorfarmers,householdsandindustries.Suchrecoveryandreuseactivitieshelpsustainurbanfoodsupply,generatejobsandenhancelivelihoodsformillionsofpoorhouseholdsinperi‐urbanareasofdevelopingcountries.Thewater,nutrientsandenergyrecoveredfromwastematerialsenablecostreductionorrecoveryinthesanitationservicechain,benefitingmillionsofpoorurbandwellers.Insum,weenvisionaworldinwhichwasteisaresource,anditsrecoveryandreuseareundertakenbycompaniesorpublic–privateentitiescreatinglivelihoodopportunities,improvingwastemanagementandenhancingfoodsecurityinasustainableandexcitingfashion.6.1. ThecompellingneedforthisresearchIncreasingurbanization,amidpersistentpovertyandfoodinsecurity,isplacingnewpressuresontheallocationanduseofland,waterandnutrientsinmanydevelopingcountries.Whilestrivingtoincreasefoodproductiontosupportlargerlocalandglobalpopulations,manyfarmersarefacinghigherpricesofplantnutrients,duepartlytoincreasingdemandsandhigherenergycosts.Atthesametime,theamountofnutrientsindomesticandagro‐industrialwastestreamsislargeandalsoincreasing.However,thosenutrientsaredumpedonlandfillsandlargelyunrecovered.Inmanyareas,untreatedwastewaterpollutesstreamsandlakes,whilefarmersnearbycultivatesoilssodepletedofnutrientsandorganicmatterthatcropyieldsareafractionoftheiragronomicpotential.Somethingisamiss.Whydowenotseeanycompostprojectinsub‐SaharanAfricaoperatingatmunicipalscaleorbeyonditssubsidizedpilotphase?WhatisneededtotransferthebusinessmodelsforexcretareusefoundatscaleinVietnamtoneighboringcountriesortoAfrica?Howcanwemakenearly20millionhectaresofwastewaterirrigationsafer,evenwheretreatmentisnotyetanoption?Howdoesthelarge‐scalefecalsludgereusebusinessobservedinIndiawork,andcoulditbeimprovedbymovingitfromtheinformalintotheformalsector?Answerstothesequestionsinvolvecomplextechnical,economic,ecologicalandsocialissues.Yetthepotentialgainstobemadeinaddressingtheseissuesareenormous.Ononeside,millionsofresidentsofpoorcountries–especiallywomenandchildren–areaffectedbyinadequatesanitationandunsafewaterquality.Ontheotherside,millionsoffarmersstrugglewithdepletedsoilsandwaterscarcity.Wehavethetechnicalknowledgetools,andfinancialmeanstoaddressthesecriticalissuesinthecoming10years,providedweconducttheresearchneededtoansweressentialquestions.Weneedtolearnmuchmoreaboutthepotentialfordevelopingviablewasterecoverybusiness