49081295 daniela sorea pragmatics rev oct2007

8/13/2019 49081295 Daniela Sorea Pragmatics Rev Oct2007

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In memory of my mother

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FOREWORDCONTENTS

1. THE SCOPE OF PRAGMATICS1.1. Defining prgmti!"

1.#. Theorie" of mening1. #.1. $Thing% Theorie" of Mening1.#.1.1. Dire!t Referen!e Theorie"1.#.1.#. $Me&ite& referen!e% theorie"1.#.'. $I&e% theorie" of mening1.#.'.1. The ment( imge )er"ion1.#.'. #. $*OT% theorie" of mening1.#.'.'. The intention+,"e& theory of mening1.#.-. The $"e% theory of mening1.'. /erifi!tioni"m )er"" !onte0t(i"m1.-. The "emnti!"prgmti!" interf!e

1.2. Conte0t1.2.1. M(ino3"4i%" $!onte0t of "ittion%1.2.#. Geert5%" $interpreti)e% interte0t( )ie3 on !onte0t1.2.'. For prmeter" fetring the "o!i( &imen"ion" of !onte0t1.2.-. Defining !onte0t o,6e!ti)e(y",6e!ti)e(y1.2.2. Defining $Commnitie" of Pr!ti!e%

1.2.7. Some e0emp(ifi!tion" of !onte0t((y+"hifting mening"

#. SPEECH ACT THEORIES#.1. A"tin%" )ie3 on the performti)e ntre of (ngge#.1.1. Spe4er8 Herer n& ref(e0i)e intention

#.1.#. *o!tionry8 i((o!tionry n& per(o!tionry !t"#.1.'. A"tin%" &i"tin!tion ,et3een performti)e n& !on"tti)e "pee!h !t"#.1.-. Fe(i!ity !on&ition"#.#. Spee!h !t typo(ogy#.#.1. Ser(e%" "pee!h !t !(""ifi!tion n& fe(i!ity !on&ition"#.#.#. A""erti)e"8 &ire!ti)e"8 !ommi""i)e"8 e0pre""i)e" n& &e!(rtion" 3ithin theSer(en frme3or4#.#.'. I(("trtion" of the Ser(en frme3or4#.#.'.1. Promi"e"#.#.'.#. 9e"tion"

#.#.'.'. Re:e"t"

#.'. Criti!i"m ,roght to the Ser(en frme3or4#.'.1. Ser(e%" !on&ition" &o not !o)er o)er(pping Spee!h A!t"#.'.#. Not (( Spee!h A!t" h)e propo"ition( !ontent#.'. '. $M(ti+t"4% Spee!h A!t"

'. INDIRECTNESS

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'.1. Senten!e mening )er"" Spe4er%" mening'.#. Gr"ping in&ire!tne""; (ong 3in&ing ro& or "hort!t.-. An(y"ing "it!om 6o4e" in term" of !onf(i!ting "!hemt

2. PO*ITENESS THEORIES2.1. Po(itene"" " "o!i( norm2.#. *ingi"ti! po(itene"" n& !ommni!ti)e "trtegie"2.'. =ro3n n& *e)in"on%" f!e+")ing )ie32.'.1. F!e+Thretening A!t"

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2.'.#. Po"iti)e n& negti)e f!e 3nt"2.'.'. Three )ri,(e" "e& to ""e"" FTA"2.-. Po(itene"" "trtegie" in =ro3n n& *e)in"on%" frme3or42.2. C(peper%" Impo(itene"" Strtegie"2.7. *imittion" of =ro3n n& *e)in"on%" Po(itene"" Theory

2.>. Impo(itene"" n& mother(y (o)e; the !"e of =ri&get Bone"2.@. $The ,(& n& the ,etif(%; F!e thret" in $Married... with Children%2.. F!e &mge n& the Pr&+!(& &e)i(2.1. Not $ !hip off the o(& ,(o!4% *ore(i )er"" Emi(y in $The Gilmore Girls2.11. Hoo4ing p n& ,re4ing+p; m0im non+o,"er)n!e8 FTA" n& impo(itene"""trtegie" mong the protgoni"t" in $Seinfeld%

7. IRON RE/ISITED7.1. C(""i!( ppro!he" to irony7.#. Contemporry ppro!he" to irony; /er,( )". "ittion( irony

7.'. One "tge )". t3o "tge theorie"7.'.1. The Gri!en !!ont.7.'.#. Ser(e%" !!ont; the three+"tge mo&e(7.'.-. Sper,er n& Wi("on%" )ie3 on irony.7.'.-.1. Irony " e!hoi! mention.7.'.-.#. Irony " e!hoi! interprettion.6.3.5. Berntsen and Kennedys theory

7.'.7. C(r4 n& Gerrig%" Preten"e TheoryJ.7.'.>. De3" n& Winner%" !!ont of irony. The Tinge Hypothe"i".7.'.@. Gior%" Gr&e& S(ien!e Hypothe"i".7.'.. Attr&o on the re(e)nt inppropritene"" of irony

7.-. The nee& for irony in "o!i( inter!tion7.2. Hyper,o(e7.7. Irony n& preten"e in $ Street!ar "amed #esire7.7.1. $I rre(y to!h it?%7.7.#. $He m"t h)e h& (ot of &mirtion?%7.7.'. $I !nnot imgine ny 3it!h of 3omn !"ting "pe(( on yo%7.7.-. Irony n& FTA"7.>. Irony n& hyper,o(e in $$arried ...with Children7.@. Note" on "r!"m

[email protected]. M"tering "r!"ti! irony n& "e(f+irony in $The #e%il &ears 'rada

7.@.#. Sr!"ti! irony " men" of $,on&ing% n& $,iting% in $Greys natomy

>. FIGKRATI/E* SPEALING; METAPHORICA* THOKGHT AND EPRESSION

>.1. The ,i:ity of metphor

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>.#. Sor!e &omin" n& trget &omin">.'. High(ighting n& hi&ing>.-.The e0perienti( gron&ing of or !on!ept( "y"tem

>.2. C(""ifi!tion of metphor" from !ogniti)e per"pe!ti)e

>.7. The !ogniti)e pr&igm of (o)e>.7.1. *o)e " 6orney

>.7.#. The n"e)er,(e ,on&; (o)e " nity

>.7.'. Foo&8 3rmth n& (o)e

>.7.-. *o)e " enemy

>.7.2. $It%" 4in& of mgi!...%

>.>. The !on!ept(i5tion of nger>.>.1. A !(tr( mo&e( of the phy"io(ogi!( re!tion" of nger

7.7.2. The ANGER IS HEAT metphor7.7.3. S(o3(y ,rning or fnning the f(me" of nger.@. Mtter" of (ife n& &eth>[email protected]. Etern( "(eep>.@.#. Deth8 "p!e n& time>.@.'. Per"onifi!tion" of &eth>[email protected]. Deth &e"!ri,e& " "o!io+!(tr( pr!ti!e>.. Con!(&ing remr4" on metphori!( mpping"

@. PAROD =ETWEEN ECHO AND [email protected]. The !ontri,tion of Sper,er n& Wi("on%" theory to the n(y"i" of pro&y@.#. Approprition n& ",)er"ion of p,(i! "pee!h n& 3riting !on)ention"@.'. The reminder theory Lre5 n& G(!4",[email protected]. Ro""en+Lni(( n& Henry%" mo&e( of pro&[email protected]. Re&ing the pro&i! )ein in T/ pro&!tion"@.7. =(tnt in"tn!e" of f(nting; &emo(i"hing the $hppy fmi(y% myth@.>. B0tpo"ition n& f(nting in "poof"@.@. Pro&i! pproprition of pop "ong (yri!"@.. The $f(nting% &nger

CONC*KDING REMARLS

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FOREWORD

Writing thi" ,oo4 h" t3ofo(& prpo"e. The fir"t i" to ro"e the intere"t ofneophyte" in the !omp(e0 inter!onne!tion" ,et3een (ngge "tr!tre8 (ngge "e8

!(tr( inpt n& !on!ept( "y"temti"tion. The "e!on& en)i"ge" inter&i"!ip(inryin"ight" ment to n)ei( the 3y (ngge fn!tion" re "hpe& ,y !ogniti)erepre"enttion" n& !(tr( pr!ti!e".

Hopef((y8 the pre"ent ,oo4 3i(( en!orge nthropo(ogi"t"8 "o!io(ogi"t"8p"y!ho(ogi"t" n& ethnogrpher" to 6oin (ingi"t" in !ommon en&e)or to &i"!(o"e the!omp(e0 3or4ing" of (ngge 3ithin "pe!ifi! !onte0t"8 in)o()ing "pe!ifi! prti!ipnt"3ho"e !ogniti)e en)ironment" !e"e(e""(y remo(& the &ynmi!" of !ommni!tion. I3o(& fin& it e:((y re3r&ing if "!ho(r" in !(tr( "t&ie" might pro)i&e ne3 ng(e"on n& frther refinement of the inter&i"!ip(inry ntre of )er,( e0!hnge"8 prti((yre)e(e& ,y the n(y"e" of )rio" !ontemporry te0t" !ontine& in thi" ,oo4.

The ,oo4 i" "tr!tre& into eight !hpter". Chpter 1 &i"!""e" )rio" &efinition" of

prgmti!" 3hi(e "tre""ing the 4ey !on!ept" prioriti"e& ,y e!h "!h &efinition 1.1..*o!ting prgmti!" 3ithin $"e% theorie" of mening 1.#.-. re:ire" !ompring "e+!entre& ppro!he" to (ngge to t3o min other fmi(ie" of mening theorie"8 nme(y $thing% theorie" of mening 1.#.1. n& $i&e% theorie" of mening 1.#.'.. A" !r!i(notion for tr!ing the interf!e ,et3een "emnti!" n& prgmti!"8 !onte0t(i"tion i"&e(t 3ith in the "e!on& prt of Chpter 1 1.2.. Fin((y8 in the ne3(y+&&e& "e!tion1.2.2.8 !ommni!ti)e phenomen re e:((y 3eighe& in the (ight of re!ent theorie"&e(ing 3ithin $!ommnitie" of pr!ti!e%.

Chpter # pre"ent" A"tin%" Spee!h A!t Theory #.1.8 in"i"ting on the performti)e)". !on"tti)e &i"tin!tion " 3e(( " on the tri& (o!tionry+i((o!tionry+per(o!tionry!t. Ser(e%" typo(ogy i" &i"!""e& #.#.1. n& "e)er( "pee!h !t" promi"e"8 :e"tion"

n& re:e"t" re i(("trte& 3ithin the Ser(en frme3or4. The ("t "e!tion in thi"!hpter #.'. &e(" 3ith !riti!( "tn!e" regr&ing the Ser(en )ie3.Chpter ' i" &e&i!te& to in&ire!tne"" n& the prmeter" 3hi!h go)ern it;

intention(ity8 po3er8 "o!i( &i"tn!e n& &egree of impo"ition. After &i"!""ion of there(tion ,et3een in&ire!tne"" n& po(itene"" '.7.8 t3o "mp(e" of te0t( n(y"i" repro)i&e&; n e0!erpt from the "erie" $Friendsn& the opening frgment from BonthnCoe%" no)e( $The House of Sleep.

Chpter - fo!"e" on the Gri!en &i"tin!tion ,et3een "ying n& imp(ying8 fo((o3e&,y thorogh pre"enttion n& i(("trtion of Gri!e%" m0im". Type" of non+o,"er)n!eof the m0im"8 nme(y; f(ot"8 )io(tion"8 infringement"8 ""pen"ion" n& !"e" of optingot8 re frther &e(t 3ith. Sgge"te& re&6"tment" of the Gri!en ppro!h re notneg(e!te& 3hen ,ringing into &i"!""ion Attr&o%" Per(o!tionry Cooperti)e Prin!ip(e-.-. n& Sper,er n& Wi("on%" $prin!ip(e of re(e)n!e% -.2.. T3o n(y"e" in term" of!on)er"tion( imp(i!tre" n& non+o,"er)n!e of Gri!en m0im" re "pp(ie&; one ofn e0!erpt from the "erie" $Seinfeld%8 the other from O%Henry%" "hort "tory $The(i!)penny (o%er. O)er(pping" ,et3een inferen!ing n& !ti)tion of !ogniti)e"!hemt i" frther &i"!""e& -.>.8 fo((o3e& ,y n i(("trtion of "!hem in"tntition inthe !"e of "it!om 6o4e".

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Chpter 2 &i"!""e" po(itene"" phenomen n& !ommni!ti)e "trtegie" in the (ightof =ro3n n& *e)in"on%" notion of $f!e%8 in n ttempt to !(""ify po(ite n& impo(ite"trtegie" !!or&ing to the &egree of f!e thret 2.-. n& 2.2.. An(y"e" of )rio" te0t"in term" of =ro3n n& *e)in"on%" n& C(peper%" "trtegie" re "pp(ie&. S!h te0t" )ryfrom e0!erpt" from 3i&e(y re& !ontemporry $!hi!4 (it% $The #e%il &ears 'rada8

*Brid+et ,oness #iary to 3i&e(y 3t!he& "it!om" $$arried ... with Children n&$Seinfeld% or &rme&ie" $The Gilmore Girls.Chpter 7 ""e""e" )rio" )ie3" on irony8 "trting 3ith Gri!e%"8 Ser(e%"8 Sper,er

n& Wi("on%"8 n& !ontining 3ith the $Preten"e Theory% "et forth ,y C(r4 n& Gerrign& the $Tinge hypothe"i"% e(,orte& ,y De3" n& Winner. Spe!i( emph"i" i" (i& on$in!ongrity% n& $ttit&e% " 4ey !on!ept" n&er(ying the n&er"tn&ing of irony ,oth " mnner of "pee!h n& mnner of thoght8 hen!e the "tre"" (i& on Attr&o%" )ie3ingirony " $re(e)nt inppropritene""% 7.'... A(ong the "me (ine of rgmenttion8 i.e.in!ompti,i(ity ,et3een 3ht i" (iter((y "i& n& 3ht pper" " ,(tnt(y ntre8hyper,o(e i" e:((y &i"!""e& 7.2.. The !on!ept" &i"!""e& re pp(ie& to n n(y"i" of"e)er( frgment" from $ Street!ar "amed #esiren& from $$arried with Children.

The ne3(y+in"erte& "e!tion" [email protected]. n& 7.@.#. &i"!"" n& i(("trte the ro(e n& imp!t of"r!"ti! irony in !ertin !on)er"tion" from*The #e%il &ears 'rada n& from the T/"erie"$Grey%"natomy.

Chpter > &i"!""e" the ((+per)"i)ene"" of metphor in e)ery&y (ngge " 3e((" it" e0perienti( gron&ing. The "y"temti! !orre"pon&en!e" ,et3een "or!e &ominn& trget &omin re ri!h(y i(("trte& 3ith !orp" of metphor" !on!ept(i"ing (o)e>.7.8 nger >.>. n& &eth >.@.. The !orp" i" ment to "trengthen the !ogniti)i"t!(im tht (ngge i" not in&epen&ent of thoght n& p(y" fn&ment( prt in or!on!ept(i"tion of e0perien!e8 "in!e it pro)i&e" m!h of the fon&tion for thoght8re"on8 n& imgintion.

Chpter @ pre"ent" n& i(("trte" "e)er( !ontemporry )ie3" on pro&y8 in"i"ting onit" ,eing pr&o0i!( !om,intion of e!hoi! repetition n& )o3e& &i""o!ition. *i4eirony8 pro&y !om,ine" pproprition n& &i"tn!ition8 th" &i"p(ying ,oth interte0t((("ion" n& &i""o!iti)e "tn!e".Se)er( i(("trtion" from me&i te0t" re pro)i&e& inor&er to high(ight ho3 pro&i! re3or4ing" e0p(oit hypote0t( re"or!e"8 3ho"e ((ege&(yfmi(ir fetre" they ",)ert8 e0ggerte or imitte.

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1. THE SCOPE OF PRAGMATICS

Strting 3ith )rio" &efinition" ""igne& to prgmti!" " &i"!ip(ine n& re(ying on

"e)er( "et" of theorie" of mening8 the pre"ent !hpter inten&" to &efine !onte0t " the4ey e(ement ment to "he& (ight on the inter3e)ing of (ngge "e n& "o!i( pr!ti!e.Con!omitnt(y8 "tre"" i" (i& on )ie3" tht &efine (ngge " "o!i( !tion in the 3i&ere)er+f(!tting net3or4 of !ommni!ti)e inter!tion"8 prpo"e" n& intention".

1.1. Defining prg!"i#$

A" &e"!ripti)e of (ingi"ti! &i"!ip(ine8 the term $prgmti!"% 3" !oine& ,y Chr(e"Morri" 1'@8 in hi" trn in"pire& ,y the "emioti!in Chr(e" Sn&er" Pier!e. Morri"&i)i&e" (ingi"ti!" into three pro)in!e"; "ynt0 or the "t&y of the re(tion ,et3een "ign"n& other "ign"8 "emnti!" or the "t&y of "ign" to their referent" n& prgmti!" or the

"t&y of the re(tion" of "ign" to interpreter"J Morri" 1'@; @-. Sin!e then p(ethor of&efinition" of prgmti!" h)e m"hroome&8 "ome !onfine& to it" &efinition " thein)e"tigtion of "pee!h !t"8 other" e0pn&ing it "o to !o)er the m(tifrio"(y )"t&omin of the "!ien!e of (ngge in "eJ H,er(n& n& Mey 1>>; 18 &e(ing 3ith"!h "pe!t" " the "tt" of (ngge "er"8 the !onte0t of inter!tion" n& theppropritene"" of ttern!e" 3ithin "pe!ifi! "o!i( "ittion"8 " 3e(( " the!ommni!ti)e go(" pr"e& ,y !ommni!tor".

Certin &efinition" re more !omprehen"i)e in tht they ,ring into the pi!tre!on!ept" (mo"t e0!("i)e(y pertining to the &omin of prgmti!". Th"8 *e)in"on%"&efinition re&" " fo((o3"; Prgmti!" i" the "t&y of &ei0i"8 imp(i!tre8pre"ppo"ition8 "pee!h !t"8 n& "pe!t" of &i"!or"e "tr!treJ *e)in"on 1@'; #>. It

th" &r3" ttention to the interf!e ,et3een "emnti!" n& prgmti!"8 "in!e phenomen"!h " &ei!ti! item" or pre"ppo"ition" initi((y pertine& to the fie(& of (ogi!("emnti!". G5&r%" &efinition i" e)en more e(,orte Prgmti!"8 for ntr((ngge8 !on!ern" $i((o!tionry for!e%8 $imp(i!tre%8 $pre"ppo"ition% n& $!onte0t+&epen&ent !!ept,i(ity%J G5&r 1>; #. Ne)erthe(e""8 thi" &efinition "ti(( ,or&er" onthe in+,et3een re 3here "emnti!" n& prgmti!" o)er(p8 "in!e ,ringing into&i"!""ion the oppo"ition ,et3een !ompeten!e " i&e( (ingi"ti! !hie)ement n&performn!e " "ittion((y (o!te& (ingi"ti! !tion i" n)oi&,(e. Whi(e 3on&ering3hether prgmti!" h" it" o3n hi"tory or h" ,een ","me& n&er )rio"&enomintion" 3ithin fie(& n& (ine" of in:iry8 pre&ominnt(y phi(o"ophy+re(te&8=i(et5i 17 :e"tion" the !(er+!t "tt" of prgmti!" " n in&epen&ent &i"!ip(ine3hi(e emph"i"ing it" ,i:ito" inter&i"!ip(inrity;

The re(ti)e(y yong ge of prgmti!" h" h& the frther effe!t of prepon&ern!e of ttempt" t net(y &emr!ting prgmti!" " phi(o"ophi!o+(ogi!o+(ingi"ti! )". p"y!ho(ogi!( "t&y or " &ifferentite& from "emnti!" or "!ompeten!e )". performn!e et!. Whether one 3nt" to )ie3 prgmti!" " the"t&y of the grmmti!((y en!o&e& "pe!t" of !onte0t8 or " the "t&y of!on"trint" on the ppropritene"" of ttern!e"8 or " &efine& o"ten"i)e(y " (i"t

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of topi!" to nme 6"t fe3 (ternti)e" 3i(( m4e gret &ifferen!e8 in the fin(n(y"i"8 to 3ht one i" (oo4ing for in hi"tory of prgmti!" =i(et5i 17; -2>+-2@

Any ttempt to "pp(y fine+grine& &efinition of prgmti!" in)ite" in)e"tigtion (ong

t3o min &ire!tion";1 ppro!he" to (ngge mening n& referen!e n& their !(""ifi!tion into fmi(ie" oftheorie" of mening

# the interf!e ,et3een "emnti!" n& prgmti!"

1.2. T%e&rie$ &f !ening

Ro,ert Stinton &efine" (ngge " fo((o3"; *ngge i" "y"tem of "ym,o("3hi!h 3e 4no3 n& "eJ Stinton 17; -. In)e"tigting mening enti(" threefn&ment( 3y" of )ie3ing the re(tion"hip ,et3een (ngge n& re(ity8 (rge(y""imi(te& 3ithin three min fmi(ie" of theorie" of mening;

1 THING theorie" of mening8 3hi!h )ie3 (ngge e0!("i)e(y " "y"tem of"ym,o(" &e"ignting "pe!ifi! $thing"% or o,6e!t" or referent"# IDEA theorie" of mening8 3hi!h (y emph"i" on 4no3(e&ge8 on (ngge ,eing

4no3n )i the !omprehen&er"% ment( repre"enttion"' KSE theorie" of mening8 3hi!h n(y"e (ngge " "o!i( !tion8 "e& for

!ommni!ti)e prpo"e" pr"e& ,y hi"tori!((y "itte& prti!ipnt"8 3ho"e "e of(ngge "tr!tre" i" !(o"e(y tie& to their hr,oring "pe!ifi! intention" Stinton17

The min tenet" of the three fmi(ie" of theorie" of mening 3i(( ,e en(rge& pon in thepge" to !ome.

1. 2.1. 'T%ing( T%e&rie$ &f Mening

The ,"i! !(im of $thing% theorie" of mening i" tht meningf(ne"" (ie" in there(tion" ,et3een 3or&" or "ym,o(" n& referent" or e0tr+(ingi"ti! o,6e!t". S!htheorie" rogh(y f(( into t3o !tegorie"; $&ire!t% n& $me&ite&% theorie" of mening.

1.2.1.1. Dire#" Referen#e T%e&rie$

Dire!t referen!e theorie" rge tht ny 3or& !orre"pon&" to n e0tern( o,6e!t n&there i" nothing me&iting ,et3een the 3or& n& the thing referre& to. E!h meningf(e0pre""ion i" ""igne& "pe!ifi! referentor e-tralin+uisti! o/0e!tn& the denotationofny e0pre""ion ,e!ome" the thin+ named8 or desi+nated ,y tht e0pre""ion. $Thing%theorie" ""e"" "enten!e" in term" of their truth %alues8 in&i!te& ,y it" !orre"pon&en!e,et3een the re"pe!ti)e "enten!e n& !ertin e0tr+(ingi"ti! f!t" or "tte" of ffir". To)erify 3hether "ttement i" tre or not8 re"er!her" nee& to h)e !!e"" to the e0tr+(ingi"ti! 3or(&. The "o+!((e& truth !onditionsnee& to ,e !he!4e& gin"t f!t" ment toempo3er re"er!her" to e"t,(i"h the trth or f("ehoo& of "pe!ifi! "enten!e.

Roote& in (ogi!( po"iti)i"m8 "!h*%erifi!ationist theoriesprofe""e& ,y the /iennCir!(e phi(o"opher" "!h " Crnp8 S!h(i!48 R""e(( re)o()e ron& the !(im tht A


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"ignifi!nt ""ertion i" one 3hi!h my ,e te"te& for trth or f("ity ,y men" ofe0perien!eJ. Sin!e e0perien!e i" the "or!e of mening8 "enten!e" 3ho"e mening !nnot,e &ire!t(y )erifie& ,y re"orting to e0tr+(ingi"ti! e0perien!e re (i4e(y to ,e !on"i&ere&mening(e"".

Opponent" of )erifi!tioni"t theorie" ttempt to &i"mnt(e the &e"!ription of

"enten!e" in term" of the tref("e &i!hotomy. An e0mp(e tht i" ment to :e"tion "!h &i!hotomy 3o(& ,e "enten!e (i4e

)1* $The 4ing of Frn!e i" ,(&%8

3hi!h !nnot ,e !(""ifie& " either tre or f("e8 gi)en the re"er!her%" fi(re to i&entify referent !orre"pon&ing to the e0pre""ion $the Ling of Frn!e% there i" no "!h entity inthe !ontemporry e0tr+(ingi"ti! re(ity.

1.2.1.2. 'Me+i"e+ referen#e( "%e&rie$

In"te& of fo!"ing pon the one+to+one !orre"pon&en!e ,et3een "ign n& thereferent8 $me&ite& referen!e% theorie" pro,e into the re(tion"hip ,et3een "ign"8 o,6e!t"n& ment( repre"enttion". Frege%" &i"tin!tion ,et3een "ensen& referen!e i" !r!i( for"!h ppro!he" to n&er"tn&ing mening. Sen"e" re regr&e& " the m(tifrio" 3y"in 3hi!h peop(e en)i"ge o,6e!t"8 the mnner" in 3hi!h o,6e!t" re pre"ente&. In Frege%"3or&"8 "en"e" pro)i&e $the mnner n& !onte0t of pre"enttion% of the o,6e!t. The "en"eof term i" the !on!ept or &efinition "pe4er gr"p" 3hen n&er"tn&ing 3ht the termmen"8 3hi(e the referen!e of term i" the o,6e!t or the "et of o,6e!t" 3hi!h the termnme"J Sn4ey #; 1#@. Th"8 the "en"e of the term $re&% i" the i&e of $re&ne""% "

ment((y repre"ente& ,y (ngge "er. The $referen!e% of $re&% in!(&e" the "et of re&entitie" !on!ept(i"e& ,y men" of the term $re&%.T3o ,"i! !(im" re of prti!(r "ignifi!n!e;

1 Term" my &iffer in "en"e (thogh they my refer to the "me entity. Frege%" !(""i!e0mp(e i" tht of the e0pre""ion" $E)ening Str% n& $Morning Str% 3hi!h h)e&ifferent "en"e" &e"pite their &e"ignting the "me entity8 nme(y the P(net /en"

# The "en"e of term &etermine" the referen!e of tht term; if 3e ""me tht the "en"eof term i" "pe!ifie& )i &e"!ription8 then the referen!e of tht term i" the&e"igntm tht "ti"fie" the &e"!ription 3hi!h pro)i&e" "en"e to the term.=oth the "en"e n& the referent re ",6e!t to !hnge. $Atom% or $3h(e% &o not refer

to the "me entity they "e& to &e"ignte initi((y. Th"8 tom% 3" initi((y &efine& " n

in&i)i"i,(e nit8 on(y to ,e (ter fon& ot to "p(it into n!(e" n& e(e!tron"%. $Wh(e3" thoght to ,e fi"h "pe!ie" nti( e"t,(i"he& to ,e(ong to the !tegory $mmm("%.Ne)erthe(e""8 !hnge of "en"e h" not (e& to "!h e0pre""ion" ,eing &e)oi& of mening.

Term" my &iffer in "en"e (thogh they my &e"ignte the "me o,6e!t. Forin"tn!e8 $D)i& =o3ie% n& $D)i& Ro,ert Bone"% DO NOT h)e the "me "en"e(thogh they refer to the "me per"on8 the fmo" =riti"h ro!4 "tr. A "enten!e (i4e

2 $It i" !ommon 4no3(e&ge tht D)i& =o3ie !rete& iggy Str&"t in the >"%

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i" perfe!t(y inte((igi,(e "enten!e8 3hi(e

3 $It i" !ommon 4no3(e&ge tht D)i& Ro,ert Bone" !rete& iggy Str&"t in the>"%

i" on(y n&er"tn&,(e for !onnoi""er". The "me pp(ie" to e0pre""ion" "!h "

Sha)espeare1or The Swan of %on or2l%is 'resley1The Kin+ of o!). S!h e0pre""ion"my &e"ignte the "me referent yet e0pre"" &ifferent "en"e. A" (re&y "tte&8 if thesense of a term is spe!ified /y means of a des!ription8 3hi(e the referen!e of a term iswhate%er satisfies the des!ription grnting "en"e to the term. Sen"e8 then8 mediates,et3een "ign n& 3ht the "ign refer" to. There re ("o term" or e0pre""ion" 3ith""o!ite& "en"e" 3hi!h (!4 re( 3or(& referent or &o not &enote "pe!ifi! e0i"tingentity "!h "; uni!orn4 lepre!haun4 ho//it4 the4 /ut4 the lar+est num/er in the world4 theperson who will in%ent the !ure a+ainst lheimers4 the li)ely winner of the ne-t "o/el'rie.

Ptnm 1>2; ##'+##> m4e" n e)en "tronger !(im in re(tion to !"(ity

,et3een 3or&" n& referent"; referen!e nee& not ,e &etermine& ,y "en"e ,t rther ,y!"( re(tion" "pe4er" ,e!ome 3re of &ring their inter!tion 3ith the 3or(&.Ptnm%" !(im i" i(("trte& 3ith the fmo" "tory of the T3in Erth8 3here e)erythingi" i&enti!( to or p(net ,t for 3ter 3ho"e !hemi!( form( i" &ifferent. On erth3ter i" !((e& H# 3hi(e T3in+Erther" !(( it . Neither re 3re of the &i"tin!ti)e!hemi!( form( of H# n& re"pe!ti)e(y .Then8 3hen referring to the (i:i& tht:en!he" thir"t n& pt" ot fire"8 Erther" n& T3in+Erther" &e"ignte &ifferent entity.Con"e:ent(y8 term" 3ith the "me "en"e my refer to &ifferent thing"8 n& "o the "en"eof term &oe" not &etermine it" referen!eJ Sn4ey #; 1'1. Ptnm rge" tht the&etermintion of referen!e re:ire" ,ro&(y !onte0t( frme3or4 n& tht (ngge"er" nee& to ,er "ome !"( re(tion to n entity in or&er to refer to it. Tht referen!e i"

&etermine& ,y !"( re(tion" i" !(im reinfor!e& ,y Lrip4e in hi" notion of $initi(,pti"mJ Lrip4e 1@; 7+>. He mintin" tht !"( !hin emerge" ,et3een nme n& it" "er" " re"(t of initi((y ,pti"ing n entity 3ith !ho"en nme.Referen!e i" &etermine& ,y !"( !onne!tion" rther thn ,y "ome &e"!ripti)e "en"e.

1.2.3. 'I+e( "%e&rie$ &f !ening

I&e theorie" of mening !(im tht (ingi"ti! mening emerging from the piringof e0pre""ion" 3ith $"omething in the min&% rther thn from entitie" e0i"ting $in the3or(&%.

There re three min )er"ion" of $IDEA% theorie" of mening; the ment( imge )er"ion8 3hi!h mintin" tht mening" &eri)e from $pi!tre" in the

he&%! the *OT )er"ion8 3hi!h &efine" mening " e0pre""i,(e in term" of (ngge of

thoghtJ, the intention+,"e& theory8 !!or&ing to 3hi!h mening" &eri)e from "pe4er"%

intention".

1.2.3.1. T%e !en", i!ge -er$i&n

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In hi" 2nuiry !on!ernin+ Human 7nderstandin+8 Hme &efine" 3or&" "$e0pre""i)e i&e"%8 (i4ening them to !omple-es of remem/ered sensations or per!eptions43hi!h generte ment( imge". If Hme%" )ie3ing 3or&" " !("ter" of per!eption" 3erepp(ie& to pre"ent+&y re(ity8 3e might ""ert tht8 for in"tn!e8 ment( imge"

""o!ite& 3ith $pi55% or ro!4 !on!ert% !o((e!ti)e(y generte the mening" of the3or&"phr"e" $pi55% n& re"pe!ti)e(y $ro!4 !on!ert%.A r&i!( ment(i"ti! )ie3 on (ngge i" E&3r& =r&for& Tit!hener%"8

!!or&ing to 3hi!h there i" fi0e& imge !orre"pon&ing to e!h n& e)ery 3or&.Tit!hener e0emp(ifie" 3ith the 3or& $!o3%8 ment((y repre"ente& " $ (ongi"h re!tng(e3ith !ertin f!i( e0pre""ion8 "ort of e0ggerte& potJ. He pi!tre" the 3or&$mening% " the ,(e+grey tip of 4in& of "!oop 3hi!h h" ,it of ye((o3 ,ot itJ.A!!or&ing to "!h r&i!( imgi"ti! theory8 the :e"tion ine)it,(y ri"e" 3hether3or&" (i4e $three%8 $,t% n& $on% re &e)oi& of mening (together. The :e"tion n)ei(""ome f(3" of i&e+,"e& theorie". In the fir"t p(!e8 not (( mening" !n ,e !ptre& ,yment( imge". Often8 !ertin ""o!ition" ,et3een 3or&" n& ment( mening" re not

on(y i&io"yn!rti! ,t ("o !(tre+"pe!ifi!; n E"4imo my entertin &ifferent ment(repre"enttion of $pi55% thn reg(r Ameri!n or Eropen. An Ami"h per"on my not!ti)te ny ment( repre"enttion of $ro!4 !on!ert% "in!e mem,er" of Ami"h!ommnitie" (i)e in "e!("ion n& re not ((o3e& to (i"ten to the r&io or 3t!h T/.When hering or re&ing the phr"e $tire& !hi(&%8 one my h)e in min& !hi(& tht i",ot to f(( "(eep8 other" my ,e more (i4e(y to repre"ent himher " f""y n& 6mpy8"ome my )i"(i"e !hi(& "hff(ing their feet t the en& of tire"ome 3(48 other" my"ee !hi(& g"ping 3ith effort 3hi(e p(ying foot,((. Some ment( imge" might not ,ethe re"(t of h,it( inter!tion 3ith the referent in :e"tion8 ,t the !on"e:en!e of"ome !!i&ent( ""o!ition Stinton 178 Se& 17.

For in"tn!e8 !hi(&%" per!eption of ,r4ing &og my ,e &re&+in&!ing if their

fir"t en!onter 3" 3ith hngry8 ggre""i)e "try &og. A !hi(& 3ho i" pet o3nerment((y repre"ent" ,r4ing &og " &og 3e(!oming himher home or !4no3(e&gingtheir 6oy in re(tion to their en!onter". Frthermore8 imge" my not (3y" !orre"pon&to !(""e" of thing"; it i" hr& to !ome p 3ith "ppo"e&(y "hre& ment( repre"enttion"of 3or&" &e"ignting !(""e" "!h " $)eget,(e"%8 or $"ttionery% or e)en $"e"on"%8,e!"e "!h repre"enttion" re (3y" !(tre+"pe!ifi!; tmn my not ,e )i"(i",(e,y inh,itnt" of region" "!h " the Ar!ti! one or the tropi!( one8 3here there i" on(yone (ong 3inter or re"pe!ti)e(y "mmer. The "tronge"t rgment gin"t ment(i"ti!theorie" i"8 ho3e)er8 tht i&e" !nnot re"em,(e re( (ife entitie"; n i&e !o(& in no 3y,e "imi(r to &og or pi55 or tmn.

1.2.3. 2. 'OT( "%e&rie$ &f !ening

$*OT% !ronym for $(ngge of thoght% theorie" of mening mintin thtp,(i! 3or&" n& "enten!e" " meningf( ,e!"e they re pire& 3ith intern( 3or&"n& "enten!e"8 nme(y 3ith !ertin e0pre""ion" of the (ngge of thoght8 ("o 4no3n "ment(e"e or *OT. In Fo&or%" )ie38 ment( repre"enttion" re "enten!e+(i4e thnpi!tre+(i4e n& the mening of n e0pre""ion in p,(i! (ngge i" (erne& pro)i&e& it

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i" trn"(te& into *OT. If n e0pre""ion or p,(i! "ym,o( fi(" to !ti)te ment(8"enten!e+(i4e e0pre""ion8 it i" to ,e (,e((e& " mening(e"".

1.2.3.3. T%e in"en"i&n/0$e+ "%e&r &f !ening

Kn&er"tn&ing mening in term" of "pe4er"% intention" i" theory e(,orte& ,ythe phi(o"opher P( Gri!e. A m6or &i"tin!tion i" operte& ,et3een $ntr(% mening8ri"ing from !"( or (ogi!( re(tion ,et3een t3o "ign" n& $non+ntr(% mening8 mtter of "o!i( !on)ention8 ,ering no !"e+effe!t re(tion ,et3een "ign". The t3o"enten!e" ,e(o3 i(("trte the notion of ntr( mening

3 Tho"e "pot" men me"(e"4 H)ing f(t tyre men" tht 3e re going to rri)e (te.

In e0mp(e 3 !ertin "pot" on per"on%" "4in en,(e the phy"i!in &igno"e !ertin

&i"e"e. In e0mp(e 4 f(t tyre (ogi!((y enti(" !hnging the tyre8 time+!on"ming t"4 3hi!h 3i(( (e& to &e(y in rri)ing t the &e"tintion.

The e0mp(e" ,e(o3 e)in!e tht no !"e+effe!t re(tion"hip i" (i4e(y to ,e e"t,(i"he&!on!erning "enten!e" 5 n& 6;

5 Tho"e three ring" on the ,e(( men tht the ," i" f((6 Tht remr48 $Smith !o(&n%t get on 3ithot hi" tro,(e n& "trife% ment tht Smith

fon& hi" 3ife in&i"pen",(e.

In e0mp(e 58 the ring of the ,e(( i" !on)ention( 3y of "ign((ing to p""enger"

tht the ," i" f(( n& no frther p""enger" re ((o3e& to ,or& it. E0mp(e 6 "e" !on)ention( (ingi"ti! &e)i!e8 nme(y rhyming "(ng8 in or&er to &e"ignte the referent $Smith%" 3ife%.

In the Gri!en )ie38 Spea)ers meanin+i" to ,e &e!iphere& or $!"he& ot% in term"of Spea)ers intentions. Mening" ri"e from piring ttern!e" 3ith intention". Forin"tn!e8 it h" (ong ,e!ome mtter of "o!i( n& (ingi"ti! !on)ention tht n ttern!eof the 4in& $Congrt(tion" for getting tht "!ho(r"hip% i" inten&e& " !ongrt(ting there!ei)er of the "!ho(r"hip. An ttern!e "!h " $Thn4 yo for yor "pport% i" inten&e&" n e0pre""ion of grtit&e on the prt of the "pe4er for "ome !t the herer &i& forhi"her "4e. The !onte0t in 3hi!h one proffer" their thn4" my ("o in&i!te n ironi!("e of grtit&e form(; the "pe4er my tter !ongrt(tory 3or&" in"in!ere(y n&

3ith the o)ert intention of "on&ing in"in!ere8 in or&er to point ot tht the herer &oe"not &e"er)e n on!e of grtit&e8 pre"m,(y ,e!"e they h)e "ho3n no "pportChpmn #8 Se& 17

Gri!e%" intention+,"e& theory h" ","tnti((y !ontri,te& to the emergen!e n&&i""emintion of the thir& grop of theorie" of mening8 nme(y $"e% theorie"8 3hi!hm4e the o,6e!t of in)e"tigtion in the fie(& of prgmti!".

1.2.4. T%e '$e( "%e&r &f !ening

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Prgmti!" i" n inter&i"!ip(inry "!ien!e8 3here phi(o"ophy n& (ingi"ti!"!on)erge in n en&e)or to n(y"e" mening in "e. The )ery etymo(ogy of$prgmti!"% in&i!te" it" fo!" on (ngge " "o!i( !tion8 "in!e in Gree4 $pra+ma% i"the e:i)(ent of pr!ti!e or !tion. Prgmti!" (o!te" (ngge 3ithin 3i&er "o!i( n&

!(tr( "etting" 3hi(e ("o thorogh(y !ontemp(ting the !onte0t of )er,( e0!hnge".The mening of (ingi"ti! e0pre""ion i" gi)en ,y it" "e8 n&er !ertin !ir!m"tn!e"83here (ngge "er" 3ith "pe!ifi! i&entitie" hr,or "pe!ifi! intention" n& fo((o3"pe!ifi! !ommni!ti)e prpo"e". For in"tn!e8 the mening of $I%m "orry% i" "pp(ie& ,y3ht the e0pre""ion &oe" for "pe4er n& herer (i4e8 n&er "pe!ifi! (ingi"ti! n&e0tr+(ingi"ti! !onte0t Nehr(i!h n& C(r4e 17.

A" Mey note"8

prgmti!" fo!"e" on the "er n& hi" or her !on&ition" of (ngge "e. =y thi" i"ment not on(y tht the "er i" !on"i&ere& " ,eing in the po""e""ion of !ertin(ngge f!i(itie" either innte8 " "ome h)e po"t(te&8 or !:ire&8 or

!om,intion of ,oth 3hi!h h)e to ,e &e)e(ope& throgh pro!e"" of in&i)i&(gro3th n& e)o(tion8 ,t8 more "pe!ifi!((y8 tht there re !ertin "o!iet( f!tor"tht inf(en!e the &e)e(opment n& "e of (ngge8 ,oth in the !:i"ition "tgen& in "ge it"e(f Mey 1@; >'.

A!!or&ing to Wittgen"tein 12'8 (ngge i" "e& in m(tip(i!ity of 3y" n&(ngge "er" engge in m(tit&e of $lan+ua+e+ames8 "!h "; gi)ing or&er"8form(ting in)ittion"8 thn4ing8 !r"ing8 greeting8 prying8 &e"!ri,ing o,6e!t" orper"on"8 nrrting e)ent"8 "pe!(ting ,ot hppening"8 m4ing ""mption"8 emittingn& "pporting hypothe"e"8 f,ri!ting (ie"8 p(y+!ting8 "inging8 !on!o!ting n& ge""ingri&&(e"8 te((ing 6o4e"8 n& ("t ,t not (e"t8 trn"(ting from one (ngge into nother.

Ine)it,(y8 "e+fo!"e& orprgmti! )ie3" on (ngge regr& mening "!onte0t+&epen&ent 3ith referen!e to the po""i,(e net3or4" of !tion" n& the potenti(

effe!t" "!h !tion" my generte. S!h )ie3" rn !ontrry to trth+!on&ition( or)erifi!tioni"t )ie3" on (ngge8 3hi!h ""e"" "enten!e mening in term" of trth+!on&ition" tht nee& te"ting in the e0tr+(ingi"ti! 3or(&. A!!or&ing to Str3"on8mening e0!ee&" the (imittion" of referen!e n& i" not "o(e(y "e& to &e"!ri,e the 3or(&.Hen!e8 Str3"on%" $des!ripti%e falla!y; Sin!e &e"!ription i" not the on(y prpo"e of"ing (ngge8 (!4 of referen!e &oe" not ne!e""ri(y enti( mening(e""ne"" Stinton178 Chpmn #.

In hi" "emin( ,oo48 $How to do thin+s with words17#8 A"tin "tte& tht oneof the ge+o(& enigm" of phi(o"ophy + ho3 to ,ri&ge the gp ,et3een (ngge n&re(ityJ + ri"e" on(y 3hen &e"!ription or repre"enttion i" regr&e& " the "o(e fn!tionof (ngge8 o)er(oo4ing in"tn!e" 3here lan+ua+e and reality a!tually !ollapse into one*deed !!omp(i"he& 3ith n& throgh (ngge. In the )ein of thoght ingrte& ,yWittgen"tein8 A"tin rge" tht8 in"te& of "ying "omething "pe4er my ,e &oing"omething or ,e performing n !tion; as) uestions4 +i%e order or !ommands4 +etmarried4 /aptie4 e-!ommuni!ate4 appoint some/ody in a !ertain so!ial or professional

position4 ma)e /ets4 in%itations4 offers and promises4 !on+ratulate4 warn4 apolo+ise4

threaten4 !urse4 protest4 toast4 than) and /less.

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A" Se& 17; 11# emph"i"e"8 prt of the mening of n ttere& e0pre""ionre"i&e" in $its intended so!ial fun!tion. If inter(o!tor" en&e)or to emp(oy (nggere(i"ti!((y n& effi!ient(y8 they nee& to !on"i&er the go(" "((y pr"e& ,y ttering!ertin (ingi"ti! e0pre""ion" 3ithin "pe!ifi! !(tr( !ommnitie"8 the intention"n&er(ying the "e(e!tion of "!h ttern!e" o)er other" " 3e(( " the mnner in 3hi!h

the"e "e" re "ign((e&.O,)io"(y8 "e+!entre& ppro!he" to (ngge ,ring into &i"!""ion theoppo"ition ,et3een )erifi!tioni"m n& !onte0t(i"m8 ine)it,(y fo((o3e& ,y thee(!i&tion of the ,on&ry ,et3een "emnti!" n& prgmti!".

1.3. erifi#"i&ni$! -er$$ #&n"e",i$!

The &i"tin!tion ,et3een tre n& non+tre "enten!e" i" !entry o(&. Ari"tot(eremr4e& tht $Not (( "enten!e" re "ttement" apophanti)os on(y "!h " h)e in

them either trth or f("ity. Th" pryer i" "enten!e8 ,t neither tre nor f("e% 8n9nterpretation1>81. The Stoi!" (,e((e& $6&gment% a-ioma " either tre or f("e3hi(e n interrogtion8 n in:iry or n imperti)e8 !o(& not ,e ""igne& trth )(e !f.Diogene" *erti"(i%es :99; 72+7@. For more thn t3o mi((enni8 (ogi!in" n& (nggephi(o"opher" fo!"e& on "ttement" n& their )(i&ity8 e0!(&ing other propo"ition( type":e"tion"8 !ommn&"8 e0!(mtion" of "rpri"e8 &i",e(ief or regret8 et!.

A (ong+("ting fiery &i"pte h" ,een nfo(&ing ,et3een ntr( (ngge8!ommni!tion+ oriente& phi(o"opher" on the one hn& n& trth+!on&ition( "emnti!"on the other8 "pringing from )erifi!tioni"t )ie3" on (ngge.

/erifi!tioni"m 3" phi(o"ophi!( mo)ement in the !&emi! !ir!(e" of /ienn

in the 1#" n& 1'"8 in)o()ing phi(o"opher" "!h " Morit5 S!h(i!4 n& R&o(fCrnp. *rge(y n&er"too& " n e0treme form of empiri!i"m8 n& getting tr!e& ,!4 tothe $phi(o"ophie po"iti)e% of 1th!entry Fren!h thin4er Ag"te Comte8 )erifi!tioni"mpo"e& phi(o"ophi!( i""e" in term" of (ngge. One of the ,"i! !(im" 3" tht ny"ignifi!nt ""ertion !o(& ,e te"te& for trth or f("ity ,y 3y of e0perien!e. Hen!e theprin!ip(e of )erifi,i(ity; The Mening of Propo"ition i" the Metho& of )erifi!tionJ.The :e"tion Wht &oe" thi" "enten!e men2or Thom" Lhn 17#1>8 3ho !onte"te& )erifi!tioni"t ppro!he" " the "o(ere(i,(e in"ight" into "!ien!e. S!h phi(o"opher" rge in f)or of e"po"ing )riety ofmetho&o(ogi!( "tn&r&" 3hen ppri"ing "!ientifi! f!t" or phi(o"ophi!( !(im"8 3hi(ere6e!ting the "e of ni:e "!ientifi! metho&" regr&e& " ni)er"( n& re"i"tnt to

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(tertion. Metho&" re open to re)i"ion n& hmn4in& "ho(& 3e(!ome pro&!ti)ehi"tori!( )rition of pr&igm" of "!ientifi! re"oning. In &&ition8 meningf(o,"er)tion 3" regr&e& " !onte0t+&epen&ent rther thn "e(f+"tn&ing n& theory+(&enrther thn in&epen&ent of theoreti!( n&erpinning". A!!or&ing to thin4er" "!h "Feyer,en& 1>2 or Lhn 17#1>8 Mening i" &etermine& in ho(i"ti! mnner8

,y men" of the 3ho(e theoreti!( !onte0t in 3hi!h the o,"er)tion( term i" "e&JSn4ey #; 1#7

Initi((y ,!4("h gin"t the tr&ition( )erifi!tioni"t )ie38 !onte0t(i"m h",e!ome tren& in the phi(o"ophy of (ngge mintining tht "enten!e" !:ire f((+f(e&ge& !ontent on(y 3hen pro&!e& in the !onte0t of "pee!h !t. Conte0t(i"mreinfor!e" the po"ition he(& in the 12" ,y or&inry (ngge phi(o"opher" "!h "Wittgen"tein8 B. *. A"tin8 n& ","e:ent(y B. Ser(e. In the !onte0t(i"t )ie38 mening!n on(y ,e "!!e""f((y &e()e& into 3hen the "enten!e i" immer"e& in the !onte0t in3hi!h it 3" ttere&. Dmmet #' h" "tri)en to re!on!i(e the t3o !("hing po"ition",y !(iming tht the )ie3 "pporting the !(im tht (ngge i" "e& to !ommni!te

pre"ppo"e" the )ie3 tht (ngge i" 3y of e0pre""ing rti!(ting thoght". Th"8the t3o )ie3" re rther !ompti,(e thn mt((y e0!("i)e8 " re)e(e& in the &i"!""ion,et3een the interf!e ,et3een "emnti!" n& prgmti!" ,e(o3. Thi" topi! 3i(( ,e moref((y &e(t 3ith in the ne0t !hpter.

1.4. T%e $e!n"i#$prg!"i#$ in"erf#e

Trth+!on&ition( "emnti!" fo!"e" on "enten!e mening8 n& it" prpo"e i" ton(y"e "enten!e mening in the (ight of form( rigor n& (ogi!( p("i,i(ity ,y""igning trth !on&ition" to "enten!e mening in !omp(in!e 3ith ongoing "tte"+of+

ffir". Ne)erthe(e""8 the n(y"i" of the "tr!tre of the "enten!e n& the en!o&e& (e0i!(!ontent in term" of trth+!on&ition"8 nee&" "pp(ementing ,y inferring informtion ,otmening "pp(ie& ,y other "or!e" Chpmn #. The utteran!e i" the re(8 phy"i!((ygr"p,(e nit of mening tht !rrie" "ome informti)e !ontri,tion throgh the 3or&""e&8 the "tr!tre8 it" (o!tion in the !on)er"tion "etting 8 the &&ition( "en"e" ittrigger" 3ithin tht prti!(r !onte0t8 the immer"ion in the o)er(( "y"tem of ge"tre" n&other 3y" of !on)eying mening. The mo"t importnt of the"e "or!e" i" the !onte0t ofttern!e8 n&er"too& ,ro&(y " the ,!4gron& 4no3(e&ge of the inter(o!tor"8informtion !on)eye& in other prt" of the !on)er"tion or 3ritten te0t !o+te0t8 " 3e((" the ,ggge of 3or(& e0perien!e ,roght to the "ittion of &i"!or"e ,y theinter(o!tor"J B"5!5o(t #7; '.

A(ong thi" (ine of in)e"tigtion8 the interf!e ,et3een "emnti!" n& prgmti!",oth &e(imit" n& renite" t3o !omprti)e(y "eprte &i"!ip(ine"8 the form( "t&y of"enten!e mening n& the "t&y of the propertie" of "pee!h !t" " in"tn!e" of (nggein "e n& (ngge "er"% intention". A" Cpone #2 point" ot8 (ngge i" ,oth $nin"trment of thoght% n& $n in"trment of "o!i( !tion%

Spee!h !t" h)e their effe!t" not on(y ,e!"e !ertin per"on" h)e got ppropritethoght" ,t8 min(y8 ,e!"e the"e thoght" h)e ,een p,(i!(y e0pre""e& ,y

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men" of ttern!e" 3hi!h re "o!i((y noti!e,(e e)ent" ,on& to h)e !ertin!on)ention( "o!i( !on"e:en!e". A "pee!h !t A i" norm((y ,roght into effe!t,y men" of n i((o!tionry for!e in&i!ting &e)i!e8 e""enti((y "ome (ingi"ti!men" !on)ention((y &opte& to )o!(i5e !ertin thoght tht8 on!e it i")o!(i5e& in p,(i!8 ,e!ome" ""o!ite& 3ith n !tion A Cpone #2; #'.

Sin!e "emnti!" n& prgmti!" h)e ,e!ome in!re"ing(y intert3ine&8 the!ontri,tion of prgmti! inferen!e to the e(!i&tion of the "pe4er%" intention" h"gro3n prominent8 (ong"i&e 3ith the !ontri,tion of !onte0t+,on& informtion to the!(rifi!tion of "emnti! !ontent. Thi" h" f!i(itte& the "hift of the !entre of ttentionfrom the "enten!e to the ttern!e.

In n(y"ing mening in !t( !ommni!ti)e "ittion"8 the 4ey notion" to ,e(oo4e& into re "pe4er%" mening n& intention n& re!o)ery of "pe4er%" mening n&intention" ,y the &&re""ee. Gri!e &efine" thi" mening ,y re"orting to "pe4er%"intention" n& the ref(e0i)e ntre of tho"e intention"8 nme(y their nee& to ,e re!ogni"e&" "!h ,y the &&re""ee. In hi" &efinition of non+ntr( or !on)ention( mening8 Gri!e

in"i"t" on the !r!i( ro(e p(ye& ,y intention(ity; A ment NN "omething ,y -% i"rogh(y e:i)(ent to QA ttere&- 3ith the intention of in&!ing ,e(ief ,y men" of there!ognition of thi" intentionJ Gri!e 1>2; #1.

Cppe(en n& *epore !(im tht it i" mi"t4e to ""me tht "emnti! theory"ho(& !!ont for "pe4er"% intition" ,ot the !ontent of the ttern!e8 i.e. ,ot the"pe4er%" mening.

Semnti!" i" ,ot ho3 ,e"t to "pe!ify the "emnti! )(e of the (e0i!( item" n&their !ontri,tion to the "emnti! )(e" of !omp(e0 e0pre""ion" n& "enten!e" in3hi!h they o!!r. On the other hn&8 3hen 3e thin4 ,t n& &e"!ri,e 3ht peop(e

"y8 i.e.8 3hen or im i" to repre"ent or rti!(te 3ht%" "i& ,y n ttern!e8 3eim to !hr!teri5e "pe4er%" !t tht ttern!e8 n& in "o &oing or im i" to&etermine "omething ,ot prti!(r !t in prti!(r !onte0t Cppe(enn& *epore #2; 2@.

The ro(e prgmti!" p(y" in "pe!ifying the !ontent of "pee!h !t in !onte0t i" to&& fetre" of mening to the "emnti!" of the "enten!e it i" (3y" po""i,(e to retrnfrom the !onte0t(i5e& "pee!h !t to the (iter( "pee!h !t ,y ",tr!ting the !onte0t+&epen&ent fetre". Mey emph"i"e" the inter&epen&en!e ,et3een the (iter( "pee!h !tn& the !onte0t of "e.

Spee!h !t"8 in or&er to ,e effe!ti)e8 h)e to ,e "itte&. Tht i" to "y8 they ,othre(y on8 n& !ti)e(y !rete8 the "ittion in 3hi!h they re re(i5e&. Th"8 "itte&"pee!h !t !ome" !(o"e to 3ht h" ,een !((e& "pee!h e)ent in ethnogrphi! n&nthropo(ogi!( "t&ie" =mn n& Sher5er8 1>-; "pee!h " !entre& on nin"tittion(i5e& "o!i( !ti)ity of !ertin 4in&8 "!h " te!hing8 )i"iting &o!tor%" offi!e8 prti!ipting in te+!eremony8 n& "o on. In (( "!h !ti)itie"8"pee!h i"8 in 3y8 pre"!ri,e&; on(y !ertin ttern!e" !n ,e e0pe!te& n& 3i((th" ,e !!ept,(e !on)er"e(y8 the prti!ipnt" in the "ittion8 ,y their !!eptn!e

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of their o3n n& other"% ttern!e"8 e"t,(i"h n& reffirm the "o!i( "ittion in3hi!h the ttern!e" re ttere& n& in 3hi!h they fin& them"e()e" " tterer" Mey#1; #1.

The ,on&ry ,et3een 3ht i" "i& n& 3ht i" imp(ie& i" "(ippery8 " "ome type"

of imp(i!tre" re !(o"er in their !hr!teri"ti!" to the "emnti! !ontent of the "enten!e83hi(e other" more he)i(y re(y on &eri)ing "pe4er%" intention" ot of !onte0t+re(te&f!tor". *e)in"on 128 # propo"e" (e)e( of mening tht (ie" ,et3een "emnti!"n& prgmti!" 3hi(e pre"er)ing the 3eight of !onte0t( f!tor" in mening!omprehen"ion. retining the !onte0t(i"t ""mption". *e)in"on%" theory i" one ofpre"me& or $pre"mpti)e% mening"8 re(ying on gener(i5e& !on)er"tion( imp(i!tre"*e)in"on #. Pre"me& mening" re )ery "ef( for hmn !ommni!tion8 "in!ehmn "pee!h nfo(&" re(ti)e(y "(o3(y n& i" th" time+!on"ming. On the other hn&8hmn"% ment( !p!ity for "pee!h pro&!tion n& "pee!h !omprehen"ion i" remr4,(e.*e)in"on &e"!ri,e" thi" !ontr"t " $,ott(ene!4 in the "pee& of hmn !ommni!tion%*e)in"on #; #@ n& pre"ent" it " 6"tifi!tion for !ommni!ting throgh

imp(i!tre"; 3hi(e pro&!ing "pee!h "(o3" !ommni!tion &o3n8 inferen!ing !n "pee&it p8 t4ing into !!ont tht inferen!e i" !hep8 rti!(tion e0pen"i)e8 n& th" the&e"ign re:irement" re for "y"tem tht m0imi5e" inferen!eJ *e)in"on #; #.Other3i"e form(te&8 n&er"tn&ing !ommni!ti)e intention" in)o()e" pproprite(y6&ging the imp!t of e0pe!ttion"8 inferen!ing8 in&i)i&( ment( repre"enttion" n&"hort!t" ,roght ,ot ,y "hre& !o((e!ti)e repre"enttion" ment to e(!i&te themening of !onte0t((y+"itte& ttern!e".

Cpone !((" "!h !onte0t((y+"itte& $prgmeme"%8

A prgmeme i" "pee!h !t n ttern!e ""o!ite& 3ith go( n& n intentionto ,ring ,ot "!h+n&+"!h effe!t"8 3hi!h i" to mo&ify "ittion n& !hnge the

ro(e" of the prti!ipnt" 3ithin tht "ittion or to 4eep the ro(e" the "me 3hi(e,ringing ,ot other type" of effe!t"8 "!h " e0!hnging or ""e""ing informtion8or engging in n inter!tion( epi"o&e 3ho"e "ignifi!n!e (ie" in the pro&!tion of"o!i( grtifi!tion or8 other3i"e8 "o!i( ,on&" Cpone #-; 2-.

The ,o)e &efinition of prgmeme" reinfor!e" the !(im tht "!!e""f(!ommni!tion e0p(oit" not on(y the (ingi"ti! mening of "enten!e" ,t ("o there!ognition of the "pe4er%" intention" to !hnge ongoing "tte"+of+ffir"8 to pr"e!ertin go("8 to engge in e"po"ing !ertin ro(e" n& to pro&!e nti!ipte& ffe!t" ponthe &&re""ee. Often mo"t "!h go(+oriente&8 ro(e+,"e& inter!tion" in!(&e "ome&i"!repn!y ,et3een 3ht i" "i& the trth+!on&ition( "pe!t" of the "enten!e n& 3hti" imp(ie& or imp(i!te& the prgmti!8 !onte0t+,on&8 inferenti( "pe!t" of thettern!e. A" pointe& ot ,y "ee ("o *yon" 1@>;12>8 the ,on&ry ,et3een "emnti!"n& prgmti!" h" ,een mp(y &i"!""e& in term" of the fo((o3ing interre(te&&i"tin!tion";i mening )". "eii !on)ention( )". non+!on)ention( meningiii trth+!on&ition( )". non+trth+!on&ition( meningi) propo"ition" )". ttern!e"

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) !onte0t+&epen&ent )". !onte0t+in&epen&ent mening.The ne0t "e!tion 3i(( pro)i&e "e)er( )ie3" on !onte0t " &e(inete& from the

"tn&point" of )riety of &i"!ip(ine".

1.5. C&n"e"

The 3or& $!onte0t% &eri)e" from te-ere$to 3e)e% in *tin. The re(te& )er,!onte-eremen" $to 3e)e together%8 $to inter3e)e% or $to !ompo"e%. Initi((y the term&e"ignte& the !t of !ompo"ition8 of rti!(ting "!rp" of (ngge into !oherent n&hrmonio" 3ritten te0t". *ter on8 the term e0pn&e& from &enoting the !ompo"ition ofmeningf( &i"!r"i)e "tret!he" of either "po4en or 3ritten (ngge to the !on&ition" thtf!i(itte n&er"tn&ing pre"m,(y meningf( "tret!he" of (ngge; From &e"!ri,ingthe !t of !on6oining8 the term then !ome" to &e"ignte the !on&ition" "hping tht 3hi!hh" ,een !on6oine&J Di((ey ##; --#

A&opting !onte0t " n n(yti!( too( generte" &i(emm ,et3een re(ti)i"m8 or

3ht C((er !((" $the n,on&e&ne"" of !onte0t% 1@'8 n& the en&e)or forni)er"(ity n& o,6e!ti)ity. Conte0t+&epen&en!e )ie3" on (ngge8 ,"i!((ynthropo(ogi!(8 oppo"e per"pe!ti)e" tht regr& (ngge " form(8 !onte0t+free8 "e(f+re(int n& "e(f+reg(te& "y"tem. Conte0t(i"t" Hyme" 17# &e"i"t from (oo4ing t(ngge " if it 3ere n ,"tr!t8 i&e(8 "e(f+"ffi!ient "y"tem8 ment to ,e in)e"tigte&irre"pe!ti)e of the !onte0t" in 3hi!h it i" "e& n& of the !t( "er". E0!("i)e(yfo!"ing on (ngge "tr!tre" n& me!hni"m"8 Chom"4yn (ingi"ti!" h" re"er!he&(ngge " n tonomo" entity8 in i"o(tion from other "o!i( !ti)itie" !!ompnyingit or "imp(y "moothening it" fn!tioning " !ommni!ti)e in"trment. =y !ontr"t8"o!io(ingi"ti!" n& nthropo(ogi!( (ingi"ti!" h" emph"i"e& the !r!i( ro(e of !onte0tin )er,( !ommni!tion ; A" n "pe!t of the "pe4er%" "ittion or " n "pe!t of the

"rron&ing "o!i( "ittion8 !onte0t in (ingi"ti!" !o)er" ,ro& rnge of "o!i(phenomen " 3e(( " !tor+oriente& !hr!teri"ti!"J Di((ey ##; --2.*ngge i" "o!i( re"or!e8 "et of !(tr( pr!ti!e" "ing intrper"on(

in&i)i&( repre"enttion" n& interper"on( !o((e!ti)e(y "hre& repre"enttion" toor&er to en,(e peop(e to !ommni!te Drnti 1>; '. A" n !t of !ommni!tion8ny "pee!h !t i" prt of net3or4 of "o!i( !t" n& prti!ipnt" in )er,( inter!tion"re "o!i( !tor"8 mem,er" of "pe!ifi! !ommnitie"8 orgni5e& in "y"tem of "o!i(in"tittion" n& en)i"ging !ertin "et" of e0pe!ttion"8 ,e(ief" n& mor( )(e".*ngge i" "e& not on(y to repre"ent the "rron&ing 3or(&8 ,t to inter!t 3ith it n&!ti)e(y mo(& it n& re!on"titte it Drnti 1>; #1-.

1.5.1. M,in&$i($ '#&n"e" &f $i""i&n(

*ngge pr!ti!e" nee& to ,e gr"pe& n& emp(oye& for !ommni!ti)e prpo"e")i ,eing n!hore& in !onte0t of "ittion8 3hi!h ((o3" (ngge to trn into $ mo&eof !tion% M(ino3"4i 1#' in Drnti 1>; #128 Anthropo(ogi!( (ingi"ti!" mintin"tht the "t&y of ny (ngge !nnot ,e !hie)e& n(e"" the "t&y of the !(tre n&"o!i( en)ironment of the re"pe!ti)e (ngge "pe4er" i" e:((y pro,e& into. A!!or&ing

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to M(ino34i8 the notion of $!onte0t of "ittion% in&i!te" on the one hn& tht the!on!eption of !onte-th" to ,e ,ro&ene& n& on the other tht thesituationin 3hi!h3or&" re ttere& !n ne)er ,e p""e& o)er " irre(e)nt to the (ingi"ti! e0pre""ionJM(ino3"4i 1#'; '7. M(ino3"4i regr&" (ngge " n in&i"pen",(e !omponent ofhmn ,eh)ior8 "in!e he ""tin" tht the min fn!tion of (ngge i" not to e0pre""

thoght8 not to &p(i!te ment( pro!e""e"8 ,t rther to p(y n !ti)e prgmti! prt inhmn ,eh)iorJ 1'2. Con"e:ent(y8 M(ino3"4i &efine" $!onte0t of "ittion% "tntmont to $!onte0t of !(tre%8 notion tht en!omp""e" f!i( e0pre""ion8 ge"tre"8,o&y mo)ement"8 the pre"en!e of other (i"tener"8 " 3e(( " the !ti)itie"8 ,e(ief" n&!(tr( pr!ti!e" the re"pe!ti)e !ommnity h" &opte& n& "hre&. A(ong the "me (ineof in)e"tigtion8 (ingi"t" "!h " Firth n& Hyme" &e)i"e& ethnogrphi!8 "o!i((y n&hi"tori!((y "itte& frme" of referen!e for the interprettion of )er,( e0!hnge".

1.5.2. Geer"8($ 'in"erpre"i-e( -ie &n #&n"e"

In f)or of "itting (ngge !onte0t((y8 Geert5 1>' e(,orte& hi"ethnogrphy+,"e&8 $interpreti)e% ppro!h to n&er"tn&ing !(tre n& "o!i( (ife8"trting from the premi"e tht the !(tre of peop(e i" n en"em,(e of te0t"J Geert51>'; -2#. Whi(e ,eing n en"em,(e of te0t"8 !(tre e:((y pro)i&e" the !onte0t thtfrme" the mening" ""igne& to !(tr( e0perien!e" )er,( one" in!(&e& ,y "o!i(!tor". Simi(r(y to the po"t"tr!tr(i"t n& &e!on"tr!tioni"t notion of $interte0t(ity%8Geert5 !onte"t" the i&e of !onte0t " fi0e&8 ho(i"ti! mtri0 n& re&efine" it " the (o!"of permnent(y &i"p(!e& hmn e0perien!e8 gi)en tht8 in the !ontemporry 3or(&8tr)e( h" trn"gre""e& former(y n,re!h,(e !(tr( ,on&rie"; The o(& !on!eptionof !onte0t " fi0e& frme3or4 3ithin 3hi!h "o!i( !ti)itie" t4e p(!e ,e!ome""tret!he& n& e)en "httere& ,y men" of mo)ement" of peop(e ,et3een Qinter"e!ting

!onte0t"J Geert5 1>; @1. Ethnogrphi! ppro!he" to !(tre8 n& imp(i!it(y to(ngge "e8 "ho(& not pri)i(ege the o,"er)er o)er the prti!ipnt ,t rther grnt theo,"er)er the opportnity to engge in $free p(y% in the Derri&en "en"e ,y ""igning p(r(ity of mening" to !onte0t(i"e& te0t.

Ethnogrphi! nthropo(ogi!( )ie3" &efine !onte0t " "o!i( !on"tr!t; An o,6e!ti" "et in !onte0t ,y re(tion" to it" re(e)nt "rron&ing"J Di((ey ##; -'. A(( "o!i(hppening" re !(rifie& ,y the 3y" they !onne!t to their "rron&ing"8 3hi(e "!h"rron&ing" re them"e()e" "e(e!te& n& interprete& in &ifferent 3y"J Di((ey ##;-'. Any !t of interprettion in)o()e" m4ing !onne!tion" n&8 imp(i!it(y8&i"!onne!tion"8 !!or&ing to the go("8 intention" n& ,!4gron& 4no3(e&ge of theinterpreter. Conte0t i" not pre+e"t,(i"he& gi)en8 ,t f(!tnt f!tor8 ,eing !on"tnt(y$generte& n& negotite& in the !or"e of "o!i( inter!tion n& e0!hnge%. Any "o!i(phenomenon8 (ngge pr!ti!e" in!(&e&8 my ,e per!ei)e& ,y (ngge "er "em,e&&e& 3ithin "o!i((y !!ept,(e or !ongrent !onte0t8 th" !reting $!onte0t" ,y!onne!tion%. *ngge "er" my regr& the "me (ngge pr!ti!e " inpproprite3ithin &ifferent !onte0t8 ,e it f!t( !onte0t or ment((y repre"ente& !onte0t. A" "er+&epen&ent n& !ir!m"tn!e+,on& phenomenon8 !onte0t(i"tion i"8 then8 "o!i( pr!ti!e 3hi!h h" performti)e !hr!ter to itJ Di((ey ##; --.

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1.5.3. F&r pr!e"er$ +efining "%e $i, +i!en$i&n$ &f #&n"e"

Drnti n& Goo&3in 1# emph"i"e for prmeter" of !onte0t8 regr&e& " ,oth the

ot!ome n& the "or!e of "o!i( inter!tion; the "etting8 the "o!i((y "itte& frme3or4 of the )er,( en!onter, the ,eh)ior( en)ironment8 the "e of ,o&y "tn!e" n& ,eh)ior( tren&"

&ring the )er,( en!onter! (ngge " !onte0t8 the 3y the )er,( e0!hnge in)o4e" the "e of !onte0t n&8

!on!omitnt(y8 generte" !onte0t for frther )er,( en!onter". Prti!ipnt" in)er,( e0!hnge" !t " "o!i( protgoni"t"8 m4ing f(( "e of their inter!ti)ity8&efine& " the !p!ity of hmn ,eing" to &ynmi!((y re"hpe the !onte0t thtpro)i&e" orgni"tion for their !tion" 3ithin the inter!tion it"e(fJ Drnti n&Goo&3in 1#; 2.

& the e0tr+"ittion( !onte0t8 the ,!4gron& 4no3(e&ge 3hi!h en,(e"

prti!ipnt" n& ot"i&e !omprehen&er" &eri)e mening ot of the )er,(e0!hnge.

To !on!(&e 3ith8 nthropo(ogi!( )ie3" on (ngge "e regr& !onte0t " f(i&8&ynmi! n& hi"tori!((y ,on&8 the (o!" of inter!tion ,et3een "o!i( !tor" 3hi!hnee&" to ,e n(y"e& " n inter!ti)e(y !on"titte& mo&e of pr0i"J Drnti n&Goo&3in 1#; ##.

Whi(e !4no3(e&ging the nee& to re!onte0t(i"e mening8 &e!on"tr!tioni"t""!h " C((er or Derri& ""tin tht !onte0t(i"tion on(y m4e" !omprehen"ion more,r&en"ome8 "in!e8 gi)en the ,on&(e"" ntre of !onte0t"8 mening" !n ne)er ,e!ome

$"trte&% ,y 3y of !onte0t( frme" n& on(y enhn!e the $gme% of ,eing !ir!(r(yinterprete&. $I( n%y rien &e hor" te0te% Derri& in C((er 1@'; 1#8 therefore te0t" nee&to ,e trne& gin"t them"e()e"8 3hi!h engen&er" en&(e"" in"tn!e" of ne3(y emerge&interte0t(itie" n& ne3(y po"ite& re&ing". Whi(e &mitting tht !onte0t i" e0pn&,(en& tht interprettion" re ne)er finite8 nthropo(ogi!( n& !ogniti)e )ie3" of (nggene)erthe(e"" nee& the notion of !onte0t " 4ey+!on!ept tht pro)i&e" (ngge "e 3ith frme of referen!e n& "pe!ifie" the "o!io+hi"tori!( (o!tion of the (ngge "er".Mening" n& interprettion" my ,e nrro3e& &o3n n& my )oi& homogeni"tionimpo"e& ,y hegemoni! re&ing" if !onte0t i" per!ei)e& " n rti!(tion !on!erning "et of !onne!tion" n& &i"!onne!tion" thoght to ,e re(e)nt to "pe!ifi! gent tht i""o!i((y n& hi"tori!((y "itte&8 n& to prti!(r prpo"eJ Di((ey ##; -2-.

1.5.4. Defining #&n"e" &09e#"i-e,$09e#"i-e,

Whi(e &efining "pee!h !t" " n!hore& in !onte0t8 S,i" ## "trt" from A"tin%"&efinition; the tot( "pee!h !t i" the tot( "pee!h "ittionJ A"tin 17#; 1-@ n&"trengthen" the A"tinin !(im tht the 3y in 3hi!h the !onte0t of "pee!h !t i"!on!ei)e& !ontri,te" to 3ht the !t i" "ppo"e& to ,e.

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A" I 3i(( e0p(in frther in Chpter #8 A"tin regr&" the !onte0t of Spee!h A!t " !("ter of e)ent" n& "tte" of ffir" ,e they e0tern( or p"y!ho(ogi!(8 i.e. "pringing otof the prti!ipnt"% moo&" or ttit&e" re(te& to pro&!ing n ttern!e n& en&o3ing it3ith "pe!ifi! i((o!tionry for!e. Con"e:ent(y8 "pee!h !t" re !onte0t+!hnging"o!i( !tion"J S,i" ##; -#1

With Ser(e "ee #.#.1. to #.#.'.8 !onte0t i" "et of ttit&e" n& ,e(ief" e"po"e& ,ythe prti!ipnt" rther thn n !t( "tte of ffir" ",6e!ti)e8 !ogniti)e &efinition of!onte0t emerge". In"pire& ,y Gri!e%" intention+,"e& theory of !ommni!tion8 =!hn& Hrni"h 1>; 28 71 in"i"t of &efining !onte0t in term" of the "pe4er%"!ommni!ti)e intention n& the herer%" re!ognition of tht intention ,y re"orting to$mt( !onte0t( ,e(ief"%8 i.e. ,e(ief" !ti)te& ,y the !onte0t of ttern!e8 pre"m,(y"hre& ,y the inter(o!tor".

A,i&ing ,y the min tenet" of Spee!h A!t Theorie" to ,e en(rge& pon in Chpter#8 S,i" mintin" tht !onte0t i" &efin,(e in term" of three oppo"ition";

;< +i%en %s !onstru!ted

Mo"t re"er!her" prefer to &efine !onte0t " gi)en; i&e((y8 A"tin%" fe(i!ity !on&ition"!on&ition" re:ire& for n !t of !ommni!tion to ,e regr&e& " "!!e""f( nee& to ,e"ti"fie& ,y the "pe4er8 &&re""ee n& "ittion of ttern!e. Fe(i!ity of Spee!h A!t i"not !he!4e& ,efore re!ogni5ing it h" ,een !!omp(i"he&. Whene)er there i" no e)i&en!eof the !ontrry8 3e ""me tht or inter(o!tor"% Spee!h A!t" re fe(i!ito". Fe(i!ity!on&ition" re ""me& ,y &ef(t8 n& "o re pre"ppo"ition".

)7*$George h" "toppe& "mo4ing%

gi)e" ri"e to the pre"ppo"ition tht George "e& to "mo4e.

: $We regret tht "!hoo(" h& to ,e !(o"e& ,e!"e of the f( epi&emi!J

,ring" to min& the pre"ppo"ition tht there 3" f( epi&emi! 3hi!h (e& to !(o"ing&o3n "!hoo(". If "!h pre"ppo"ition" 3ere not (re&y entertine& ,y the herer8 theyn&ergo the pro!e"" of $!!ommo&tion%8 3hen the re!ei)er in!(&e" the pre"ppo"ition"et forth ,y the "pe4er mong their pre)io" ,!4gron& ""mption".

# limited %s. unlimited

With A"tin8 !onte0t i" !onfine& to tho"e "pe!t" of the "ittion en!omp""e& ,y thefe(i!ity !on&ition" re:ire& ,y "pe!ifi! "pee!h !t" i.e. !on&ition" to ,e met for the"pee!h !t in :e"tion to 3or4 proper(y. A frther 4in& of &e(imittion emerge" 3hen""ertion" nee&" to ,e (,e((e& " tre or f("e8 3hi!h hppen" !!or&ing to theinter(o!tor"% go("8 i.e. !onte0t((y. An ""ertion "!h "

; $Frn!e i" he0gon(%

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my !ont " tre if !on"i&ering from ho3 mny "i&e" n rmy !o(& in)&e Frn!e ormy !ont " f("e if it 3ere to pro)i&e f((y &eti(e& &e"!ription of the "hpe of it",or&er".

With Ser(e8 !onte0t ten&" to ,e!ome high(y e0ten"i,(e8 potenti((y ((+in!("i)e8

"in!e e)ery Spee!h A!t !:ire" mening gin"t "et of n in&efinite nm,er of,!4gron& ""mption". S!h n ((+in!("i)e &efinition of !onte0t nnihi(te""itte&ne"" n& therefore re&!e" the o&&" of me"ring ppropritene"" of "pe!ifi!Spee!h A!t". Con"e:ent(y8 !ertin &e(imittion" nee& to ,e impo"e& on the )eryper!eption of !onte0t8 in n ttempt to m4e it !(er n& "!ertin,(e for theinterprettion of )er,( e0!hnge".

' o/0e!ti%e %s. su/0e!ti%e1!o+niti%e

A !onte0t i" o/0e!ti%ein the "en"e tht it i" n!hore& in !ertin re(e)nt "tte" offfir"8 3hi!h re not !ontro((,(e ,y the inter(o!tor" or 3hi!h e)en e"!pe the

inter(o!tor"% 3rene"". A !onte0t i" su/0e!ti%e in the "en"e tht it em,e&" theintention(itie" n& ment( repre"enttion" of the inter(o!tor". Th"8 I my fe(i!ito"(yor&er yo to open the 3in&o3 if I on(y ,e(ie)e it i" !(o"e& n& tht i" the re"on 3hy Ifee( "tffy. et8 if the 3in&o3 i" (re&y open8 my re:e"t ,e!ome" infe(i!ito". I mypo(ogi"e for h)ing rine& yor ,oo4 if I "in!ere(y ,e(ie)e it got rine& ,y my h)ing (etit get "o4e& ot in the rin. et8 if the !t "pi(t 3ter on the ,oo4 n& th" rine& it8 mypo(ogy i" "in!ere yet not fe(i!ito".

1.5.5. S&!e in$"n#e$ &f #&n"e",,/$%if"ing !ening$

The "imp(e"t "enten!e" my !:ire &ifferent mening" !!or&ing to the !onte0tin 3hi!h they re ttere&. Prgmti!" &e(" 3ith ttern!e"8 3hi!h re !t(mnife"ttion" of (ngge e0pre""ion" n& 3hi!h re (o!te& "pti((y n& tempor((y8n(i4e "enten!e" 3hi!h &i"p(y the "me 3e((+ or i((+ forme& "tr!tre irre"pe!ti)e of it"tterer or !onte0t of ttern!e. Th"8 )ery "imp(e ttern!e (i4e $Pm h" ,een 3itingfor yo% i" to ,e "ynt!ti!((y n(y"e& in on(y one 3y. Prgmti!((y8 there my ,e"e)er( interprettion" ((ott,(e to thi" ttern!e8 in !omp(in!e 3ith 3ho tter" it n&n&er 3hi!h "pe!ifi! !ir!m"tn!e". Th"

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11 $o%re mrrie&%.

O,)io"(y8 the ttern!e "on&" re&n&nt "in!e mo"t &&re""e" my not fin& ny ne3informtion in it8 gi)en tht mo"t re 3re 3hether they re mrrie& or "ing(e. et8 thi"remr4 my "on& !ommon"en"i!( in !omp(eting :e"tionnire n& !he!4ing 3hether

the inter)ie3er h" ti!4e& the right ,o0 in the !"e of tht prti!(r inter)ie3ee. When"4e& ot on &te thi" my ,e form( ment to re6e!t the in)ittion8 3hi(e note0pre""ing ref"( e0p(i!it(y8 on(y mentioning the re"on n&er(ying ref"( the 3o(&+,e &te i" mrrie&8 "o the re(tion"hip i" not ,on& to h)e ftre. If per"on ,e theym(e or fem(e engge in e0!e""i)e f(irting or in mor((y "n!tion,(e e0tr+mrit(enterpri"e"8 remr4 "!h " o%re mrrie&J ttere& ,y frien&8 re(ti)e or "imp(e,y"tn&er my ,e ment to ,ring them ,!4 to re(ity n& rge them into re(in:i"hingtempttion.

If profe""or te((" hi"her "t&ent"

12 $I%(( pro)i&e yo 3ith (i"t of "pp(ementry re&ing"%8 they my + 6"tifi,(y + "4;

13 $I" tht promi"e or thret


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""pe!t 3ht they my ,e !hrge& 3ith !!or&ing to the e)i&en!e n& to their pre)io"in&i!tment".

We often e0!(im;

16 $Thn4" Go& it%" Fri&y?%

It my "imp(y ,e n e0pre""ion of re(ief t the thoght tht nother 3or4ing 3ee4 h"!ome to n en&8 or n e0pre""ion of 6oy !on!erning promi"ing 3ee4en&. O,)io"(y8 thettern!e my ,e ""igne& frther emotion( or f!t( !onnottion" !!or&ing to the!onte0t. A ppi( my "y tht in or&er to imp(y to their prent" thi" i" home3or4+freee)ening or n e)ening ment for "(m,er prty or ny other fn+re(te& !ti)ity. In Be3i"h fmi(y8 it my ,e 3rning tht the ne0t &y i" S,,th n& tht !hore" nee& to ,efini"he& ,efore "n"et "in!e on S,,th no,o&y i" "ppo"e& to 3or4. It my ,e ne0!(mti)e n& remin&er8 in !"e the inter(o!tor" "hre "ome ,!4gron& 4no3(e&ge,ot "ome Fri&y night e)ent they h)e ,een (oo4ing for3r& to; (i4e $It%" Fri&y n&thi" i" QBeopr&y night% or $It%" Fri&y n& thi" i" &i"!o night?%

If one "4" !(o"e frien& $H)e yo !he!4e& yor ,reth


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To !on!(&e 3ith8 !onte0t i" f55y+e&ge& )er"ti(e !on!ept8 3hi!h "pee!h ren&er"f(!tnt n& 3ho"e f(!tnt ntre ((o3" for p(r(ity of interprettion 3hen it !ome"to "pee!h e)ent";

Conte0t" re ("o !ontino"(y !hnging8 not on(y ,e!"e non+)er,( !tion" or

e)ent" m4e !t( !ir!m"tn!e" !hnge8 ,t ("o ,e!"e "pee!h !t" them"e()e",ring ,ot !hnge" in the !on)ention( fetre" of the !onte0t8 not,(y tho"eregr&ing right"8 o,(igtion"8 entit(ement"8 !ommitment" of the prti!ipnt" S,i"##; -'-.

The intert3ining ,et3een the )er,( !ontri,tion n& the imp!t of f!tor" ,eyon&)er,( e0!hnge per "e 3i(( ,e more mp(y &e()e& into 3hen &i"!""ing typo(ogie" of"pee!h e)ent" or "pee!h !t" n& r(e" or !on)ention" 3hi!h go)ern "!h !(""ifi!tion".Thi" 3i(( m4e the o,6e!t of the ne0t !hpter.

1.5. 6. Defining C&!!ni"ie$ &f Pr#"i#e

Gen&er+,"e& ppro!he" to (ngge "e h)e en&e)ore& to 3i&en notion""!h " !onte0t n& i&entity of (ngge "er" "o " to in!(&e not on(y "pe4er"%intention" n& !ommni!ti)e go("8 ,t ("o "pe4er"% ffi(ition 3ith !ertin!ommnitie" of pr!ti!e. The term $!ommnity of pr!ti!e% 3" intro&!e& into gen&ern& (ngge re"er!h ,y E!4ert n& M!Conne((+Ginet 3ho &efine& it "

n ggregte of peop(e 3ho !ome together ron& mt( enggement in nen&e)or. Wy" of &oing thing"8 3y" of t(4ing8 ,e(ief"8 )(e"8 po3er re(tion" in "hort pr!ti!e" emerge in the !or"e of thi" mt( en&e)or. A" "o!i(

!on"tr!t8 !ommnity of pr!ti!e i" &ifferent from the tr&ition( !ommnity8primri(y ,e!"e it i" &efine& "im(tneo"(y ,y it" mem,er"hip n& ,y thepr!ti!e in 3hi!h tht mem,er"hip engge" E!4ert n& M!Conne((+Ginet 1#;-7-.

E!4ert n& M!Conne((+Ginet%" &efinition i" in it" trn in"pire& ,y *)e n& Wenger118 3ho &o not &efine the !on!ept of $!ommnity of pr!ti!e% in term" of it"geogrphi!( (o!tion or !on"titti)e pop(tion8 ,t ,y the f(e0i,(e mem,er"hip of thepeop(e !on"titting it. Con"e:ent(y8 mem,er"hip i" &efine& ,y three prmeter";

mt( enggement 8 typi!((y re(te& to reg(rity of inter!tion, 6oint enterpri"e 8 en!omp""ing the pro!e""e" of go(+"hring n& of !ontri,tion

negotition! "hre& repertoire8 !ompri"ing the )i(,(e "hre& re"or!e" mem,er" emp(oy in

or&er to negotite mening"8 in!(&ing "pe!i(i"e& term" n& (ingi"ti! rotine". E!4ertn& M!Conne((+Ginet 1#; 28 Ho(me" n& Meyerhoff 1; 1>2+1>7.

Th"8 in &&ition to mem,er"hip8 $!ommnity of pr!ti!e% hen!eforth CofP i"&efine& in term" of the "o!io+!(tr( pr!ti!e" !ho"en to ,e !rrie& ot ,y thtmem,er"hip8 of in&i)i&( mem,er"% &egree of enggement in the re"pe!ti)e pr!ti!e" "3e(( " of m(tifrio" 3y" of e0p(oiting )i(,(e !(tr( n& !ogniti)e re"or!e"8

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in!(&ing (ingi"ti! re"or!e" E!4ert n& M!Conne((+Ginet 1#8 Ho(me" n&Meyerhoff 1.

In hi" "t&y $The interse!tion of se- and so!ial !lass in the !ourse of lin+uisti!!han+e18 *,o) in"i"t" on the ne!e""ity to !hie)e in"ightf( n&er"tn&ing of "e0&ifferen!e" in (ngge "e 3ithin !ommnitie" of "pee!h ,y minimi"ing the effe!t of

o,"er)tion n& m0imi"ing the pi!tre of the "o!i( !onte0t. In *,o)%" )ie38 (o!(informtion i" )(,(e to the e0tent to 3hi!h it i" repre"entti)e8 o,6e!ti)e n&gener(i",(e. He "gge"t" Thi" i" ,e"t !hie)e& ,y the f(( prti!iption of the o,"er)erin the "o!i( "!ene8 3ith n !te "en"iti)ity to the norm" of (o!( !(tre n& the (o!(!onfigrtion of "o!i( inter!tionJ *,o) 1; #@.A(ong the (ine of rgmentinitite& ,y *,o) 1 n& frther refine& ,y E!4ert n& M!Conne((+Ginet 1#8Ho(me" n& Meyerhoff 1;1> &r3 ot minte !ompri"on CofP ppro!he" n&other "o!io(ingi"ti! ppro!he"8 min(y high(ighting the fo((o3ing "pe!t";

CofP ppro!he" !enter on the "hring of 3i&er "o!i( pr!ti!e" n& not "o(e(y on$"hre& i&entifi!tion"% or $"hre& norm"%8

CofP ppro!he" mintin tht mem,er"hip i" $intern((y !on"tr!te&%.

CofP ppro!he" !(im tht ,oth per"on( n& grop i&entitie" re $!ti)e(y!on"tr!te&% ,y grop mem,er" n& in"i"t on the :(ity of ingrop n& otgropreg(r n& mt((y &efining inter!tionJ Ho(me" n& Meyerhoff 1; 1>.

CofP ppro!he" en)i"ge mt(ity of "o!i( n& in"trment( go(" n& fo!"e" onthe te(eo(ogi!( &imen"ion of !ommnitie". A" regr&" mintining or ,(rringintergrop ,on&rie"8 CofP ppro!h !on"i&er" tht ,on&rie" re mintine& ,tnot ne!e""ri(y &efine& in !ontr"t 3ith otgrop".

CofP ppro!he" (y !on"i&er,(e emph"i" in the ,o&i(y rotine" "!h mem,er"n&ert4e ,y )irte of their mem,er"hip =!ho(t5 1. n& mem,er" of !ommnity!nnot ,e ",6e!te& to either homogeni"tion or mrgin(i"tion. Th"8 =!ho(t5%" CofP+,"e& "t&y of !ommnity of $ner& gir("% t KS high "!hoo( 1; #'+##'&emon"trte" the !ompti,i(ity of ethnogrphi!8 !ti)ity+,"e& (ngge pr!ti!e" " 3e((" the f(3" of pre)io" "o!io(ingi"ti! theorie". S!h f(3" my ,e "mmri"e& "fo((o3";

mrgin(i"tion of pr!ti!e" other thn (ingi"ti! n& n&er"tn&ing of (ngge "&i"em,o&ie& n& neg(e!ti)e of $ the phy"i!(ity of "pe4er" $ =!ho(t5 1; #@

omi""ion of mrgin( mem,er"8 too (itt(e emph"i" (i& on heterogeneity8 onin&i)i&( prpo"ef( !hoi!e" n& gen!y.

fi(re to pi!tre in&i)i&( i&entitie" " $f(i&8 not fro5en% =!ho(t5 1; #

&i"p(yer" of m(tip(e "e()e"8 "im(tneo"(y emerging from the !om,ine& effe!t" ofmt(ity n& gen!y.

in)i"i,i(ity of (o!( interprettion" 3hi!h re !entr( in ethnogrphi! ppro!he" "!h" CofP.

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To )oi& engging in premtre or e0!e""i)e gener(i"tionJ =erg)(( 1;#@8 CofP ppro!he" (y !on"i&er,(e emph"i" on the ro(e p(ye& ,y (o!( "r)ey". Inthe (ight of E!4ert n& M!Conne((+Ginet%" propo"( 1#; Thin4 pr!ti!((y n& (oo4(o!((yJ8 =erg)(( in"i"t" on "hring "o!io(ingi"ti! re"er!h 3ith other "o!io+!onte0t(f!tor"8 mong 3hi!h gen&er rn4" prominent8 "o " to fo"ter !ro""+!(tr( pp(i!,i(ity

n& to pro)i&e n effi!ient 3y to !om,ine (o!( in)e"tigtion 3ith ,ro&er !omprti)eppro!he" n& to pre!(&e n","tntite& gener(i"tion" =erg)(( 1; #>@.S!h ethnogrphi! ppro!he" to (ngge "e high(ight tht !onte0t i" ",6e!t to

&ynmi! re&efinition n& ongoing &e(inetion. Boine& enterpri"e n& mt( enggement,er !on"i&er,(e imp!t pon the 3y mem,er" of CofP hn&(e their (nggere"or!e". On the other hn&8 (ngge re"or!e" !e"e(e""(y re"hpe the !(tr( i&entityof the !ommnity mem,er" n& e)en the &egree of mem,er"hip in term" of "e n&po""i,(y ,"e of !ommnity+re(te& norm" n& )(e". S!h ppro!he" re !on"onnt3ith the Ser(en &efinition of !onte0t in term" of intention8 notion 3hi!h they","titte for the more !omprehen"i)e !on!ept or $enterpri"e%. =ering in min& the !(o"e!onne!tion ,et3een !ommni!ti)e intention n&or !(tr( enterpri"e n& ffi(ition to

"pe!ifi! !ommnity 3i(( ,e t4en into !!ont 3hi(e pro)i&ing prgmti! n(y"e" of&)ert" or "it!om" in ","e:ent "e!tion". Whi(e operting te0t+,"e&8 hopef((yrigoro" n(y"i" of !orp" of repre"entti)e "mp(e" pertining to the t3o genre"8!ertin !on!("ion" nee& to en)i"ge either the typi!( or the (i4e(y point of )ie3 of the!ommnity of 3t!her" n&or !on"mer".

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2. SPEECH ACT THEORIES

We et n& 3e &rin48 3e fee( n& 3e thin4Fr &o3n the "treet 3e "try

I (gh n& I !ry n& I%m hnte& ,yThing" I ne)er ment nor 3i"he& to "y

The mi&night rin fo((o3" the trinWe (( 3er the "me thorny !ro3n

So( to "o(8 or "h&o3" ro((An& I%(( ,e 3ith yo 3hen the &e( goe" &o3n

=O= D*AN+ &hen the #eal Goes #own MODERN TIMES #7

Contemp(ting (ngge " &ynmi!8 "o!i((y+,on& n& !(tr((y+n!hore&phenomenon imp(ie" treting "enten!e" or propo"ition" or te0t" " inter!ti)e meningf(nit" of !ommni!tion. /ie3ing !ommni!ti)e !ti)itie" " the ,"i! nit" of )er,(

e0!hnge" i" primri(y roote& in regr&ing "pee!h " form of "o!i( pr!ti!e n&(ngge " 3y of performing !tion" rther thn m4ing tre or f("e "ttement" ,otthe 3or(&.

2.1. A$"in($ -ie &n "%e perf&r!"i-e n"re &f ,ngge

A" (re&y pointe& ot in 1.'.8 A"tin 3" n ot"tn&ing &i"!ip(e of the O0for&S!hoo( of $or&inry (ngge phi(o"opher"% 3ho oppo"e& )erifi!tioni"m n& the

""e""ment of propo"ition" "o(e(y in term" of the tref("e &i!hotomy. In &&ition8 A"tin3" the fir"t to "y"temti!((y n)ei( the f(3" of trth+!on&ition( "emnti!" in then(y"i" of meanin+ in (ngge. A"tin rge" tht prt from ""ertion"phi(o"ophi!((y "pe4ing or &e!(rti)e "enten!e" grmmti!((y "pe4ing8 (ngge i"fre:ent(y emp(oye& not to mere(y &e"!ri,e "tte" of ffir" ,t to in"tte ne3(y emerge&"tte" of ffir"8 other3i"e pt8 to perform "o!i( !tion". A" "o!i( !t"8 ttern!e"!on"titte 3ht A"tin !((" $Spee!h A!t"%. A!!or&ing to A"tin8 ,eyon& the&e!onte0t(i"e& $&i!tionry% mening of 3or&"8 "emnti!((y meningf( "tret!he" of3or&" f(fi( !onte0t((y n!hore& fn!tion. Hen!e the oppo"ition ,et3een "%eperformative aspect of language8 3hi!h refer" to "ome 4in& of a!tion!on"i&ere& to ,eperforme& ,y "ying "omething8 n& "%e constative aspect of language8 3hi!h refer" to

mening ""e""e& in trth+!on&ition( term". Th"8 "enten!e (i4e the one !ite& ,yH((i&y8 $I 3o(&n%t &o thi" if I 3" yo%8 pper" " de!larati%ein constativeterm"83here" it"performative"pe!t ""ign it theforceof !ommand8 warnin+8 et!.8 in"te&of mere "ttement. Thi" &i"tin!tion 3i(( ,e more mp(y &i"!""e& in #.1.'.

2.1.1. Speer= Herer n+ ref,ei-e in"en"i&n

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The "e+!entre&8 "o!i(+inter!tioni"t )ie3 on (ngge &i"!""e" (ingi"ti!phenomen in term" of Speech Acts hen!eforth SAs. A" "o!i( !tion"8 Spee!h A!t"in)o()e !t" of "pe4ing or 3riting 3hen "omeone hen!eforth referre& to " Speaker"y" or 3rite" "omething to "omeone e("e hen!eforth referre& to " Hearer t "pe!ifi! time in "pe!ifi! p(!e8 often " prt of (onger &i"!or"e or inter!hnge A"tin

17#8 Ser(e 178 1>8 =!h n& Hrni"h 1>. Engging in ny SA i" n&er(in ,ythe ""mption tht the Spe4er inten&" to !ommni!te 3ith the Herer. A" re!ogni5e&,y Gri!e 17 the intention i" ref(e0i)e; it i" Spe4er%" intention to h)e the per"on&&re""e& re!ogni5e tht the Spe4er 3nt" himher to !!ept the ro(e of Herer n&therefore ,e n or the inten&e& re!ipient of the Spe4er%" me""ge. In other 3or&"8Spe4er%" REF*EI/E INTENTION to3r& Herer i" the intention to h)e the Hererre!ogni5e tht 3hen m4ing an utterancehen!eforth U in "pe!ifi! !onte0t8 Spe4erinten&" their ttern!e to h)e !ertin effe!t on the Herer. S!h n effe!t i" prt(y!"e& ,y the Herer re!ogni5ing tht Spe4er h" the intention to !ommni!te 3ith himor her ,y men" of tht prti!(r ttern!e UGri!e1>28 Re!nti 1'.

Whene)er 3e o)erher "ome,o&y t(4ing in their "(eep8 3e 3i(( not ""me theyh)e ref(e0i)e intention to3r&" "8 in)o(ntry herer". Con"e:ent(y8 Herer i""omeone inten&e& ,y the Spe4er to re!ogni5e the Spe4er%" intention in !rrying ot !ertin Spee!h A!t. There re nm,er(e"" effe!t" tht "pe4er" might ttempt to pro&!e8e.g. per"&ing the Herer8 intimi&ting the Herer8 3rning the Herer of &nger8 gettingthe Herer to &o "omething ,y men" of "gge"tion8 hint8 re:e"t8 or !ommn&.The Spe4er &6"t" hi"her ttern!e to "it the Herer8 t4ing into !!ont the !onte0t8the ""me& "hre& ,!4gron& 4no3(e&ge n& 3ht "he 4no3" or "ppo"e" ,ot theHerer%" ,i(ity to n&er"tn& the me""ge "he 3nt" to !on)ey.

A &i"tin!tion nee&" to ,e m&e ,et3een Herer " $dire!t addressee8 n& Herer

" $ratified parti!ipant Goffmn 1@1; 1'1. An ddressee i" "omeone 3ho !nnotre6e!t the ro(e of Herer 3ithot "erio" ffront to Spe4er. Dire!t &&re"" i" &etermine&!onte0t((y + ,y &ire!tion of g5e8 pointing finger8 to!hing n rm8 "ing nme8 Inthe fir"t e0mp(e ,e(o38 there i" !hnge of &&re""ee8 3hi(e in e0mp(e # there i" non+"pe!ifi! &&re""ee.

1 $=o""8 I !n%t te(( yo ho3 m!h effort Mr4 h" pt into thi" pro6e!t8 h)en%t yo8Mr4


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them"e()e" in n nf)or,(e (ight n& potenti((y ffronting the Spe4er. Peop(e iner"hot re e0pe!te& to o)erher8 thogh not ne!e""ri(y to (i"ten on(y herer" reproper(y e0pe!te& to (i"ten. The Spe4er h" ref(e0i)e intention to3r&" the Herer ,tnot to3r&" n o)erherer. An o)erherer my n&er"tn& the me""ge the "me 3y theHerer &oe" ,e!"e they "hre "ome ,!4gron& 4no3(e&ge ,t8 for 3nt of

pproprite !onte0t( informtion re(e)nt to the !orre!t interprettion of the ttern!e8"he my mi"interpret it. A =y"tn&er 3ithin er"hot my not h)e ,een origin((yinten&e& " Herer8 yet my8 &epen&ing on !ir!m"tn!e"8 !!ept or re6e!t the ro(e ofthe Herer 3ithot (o"" of f!e !on"i&er n o!!"ion 3here i" rging 3ith iner"hot of . =e(o3 there re "ome i(("trtion" pro)i&e& ,y A((n 1@7

to " &&re""ee; A&mit it or I%(( "m"h yor f!e?

to " rtifie& prti!ipnt; o her& him threten me8 &i&n%t yo8 "ttement"8 re:e"t"8 promi"e" n&po(ogie" re e0mp(e" of the for m6or !tegorie" of !ommni!ti)e i((o!tionry !t"8&enominte& " fo((o3"; !on"tti)e"8 &ire!ti)e"8 !ommi""i)e" n& !4no3(e&gment".

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Within the for !tegorie"8 e!h type of i((o!tionry !t i" &e(inete& ,y the type ofttit&e e0pre""e& " 3e(( " ,y the propo"ition( !ontent of the ttern!e.

Con"tti)e" !ompri"e i((o!tionry !t" "!h "; affirmin+4 alle+in+4 announ!in+4answerin+4 attri/utin+4 !laimin+4 !lassifyin+4 !on!urrin+4 !onfirmin+4 !on0e!turin+4

denyin+4 disa+reein+4 dis!losin+4 disputin+4 identifyin+4 informin+4 insistin+4 predi!tin+4ran)in+4 reportin+4 statin+4 stipulatin+.

Dire!ti)e" !ompri"e i((o!tionry !t" "!h "; ad%isin+4 admonishin+4 as)in+4 /e++in+4dismissin+4 e-!usin+4 for/iddin+4 instru!tin+4 orderin+4 permittin+4 reuestin+4 reuirin+4

su++estin+4 ur+in+4 warnin+

Commi""i)e" !ompri"e i((o!tionry !t" "!h "; a+reein+4 +uaranteein+4 in%itin+4offerin+4 promisin+4 swearin+4 %olunteerin+

A!4no3(e&gment" !ompri"e i((o!tionry !t" "!h "; apolo+iin+4 !ondolin+4

!on+ratulatin+4 +reetin+4 than)in+4 a!!eptin+.

=!h n& Hrni"h "pe(( ot the !orre(tion ,et3een the type of e!h i((o!tionry!t n& the typi!((y e0pre""e& ttit&e. In mny !"e"8 "!h " n"3ering8 &i"pting8e0!"ing n& greeing8 " 3e(( " in !4no3(e&gment"8 the !t n& the ttit&e e0pre""e&pre"ppo"e the pre"en!e of "pe!ifi! !on)er"tion( or "o!i( !on)ention( !ir!m"tn!e".

The !t i" fe(i!ito" if the herer re!ogni5e" the ttit&e ,eing e0pre""e&8 3hi!hmy ,e ,e(ief in the !"e of "ttement or &e"ire in the !"e of re:e"t. Any frthereffe!t it h" on the herer8 "!h " ,eing ,e(ie)e& or ,eing !omp(ie& 3ith8 or 6"t ,eingt4en " "in!ere8 i" not in&i"pen",(e to it" !onting " "ttement or re:e"t. Th" n

ttern!e !n ,e !ommni!ti)e(y fe(i!ito" &e"pite in"in!erity on the prt of the"pe4er. Commni!ting i" ,ot o)ert(y &i"p(ying n ttit&e "in!erity i" ,otem,r!ing the e0pre""e& ttit&e. The herer !n n&er"tn& the ttern!e 3ithotregr&ing it " "in!ere t4ing it " n po(ogy or 3ithot 3ho(e+herte&(y ,e(ie)ing thtthe "pe4er regret" h)ing &one the &ee& in :e"tion. Getting one%" &ien!e to ,e(ie)e3hi!h ttit&e one e0p(i!it(y &opt" i" not n i((o!tionry ,t per(o!tionry !t.

2.2.1. Ser,e($ $pee#% #" #,$$ifi#"i&n n+ fe,i#i" #&n+i"i&n$

A" minte(y n& "y"temti!((y pointe& ot in Corni(e"! n& Chitorn 1@78 in&&ition to A"tin%" !(""ifi!tion of !t"8 ,"i!((y re(ying on the !(""ifi!tion of

i((o!tionry )er,"8 n& &e"!ription of Spee!h A!t" in term" of their (o!tion8 i((o!tionn& per(o!tion8 Ser(e 1>2 pro,e& &eeper intofeli!ity !onditions. He refine& A"tin%""et of fe(i!ity !on&ition"8 !((ing the f(fi(ment !on&ition *essential !ondition n&intro&!ing *propositional !ontent !ondition4 3hi!h prti((y ","titte" the e0e!ti)e!on&ition. Ser(e !(""ifie" "!h !on&ition" !!or&ing to "e)er( type" of !on"titti)er(e"8 e!h of 3hi!h fo!"e" pon "(ight(y &ifferent "pe!t of 3ht i" "i&;

1 the pr&p&$i"i&n, #&n"en" #&n+i"i&n fo!"e" on(y pon the te0t( !ontent

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# the ee#"i-eprepr"&r #&n+i"i&n$fo!" pon ,!4gron& !ir!m"tn!e"' the $in#eri" #&n+i"i&nfo!"e" pon the Spe4er%" p"y!ho(ogi!( "tte- thef,fi,!en"e$$en"i, #&n+i"i&nfo!"e" pon the i((o!tionry point.

In !omp(in!e 3ith the ,o)e+mentione& "pe!t"8 Ser(e &i"!""e" fi)e !(""e" of "pee!h

&enominte& !!or&ing to "et of re(ti)e(y heterogeneo" !riteri8 !ompri"ing;

1. THE I**OCKTIONAR POINT8 3hi!h in&i!te" the prpo"e of the Spee!h A!t

If 3e &opt i((o!tionry point " the ,"i! notion on 3hi!h to !(""ify "e" of(ngge8 then there re rther (imite& nm,er of ,"i! thing" 3e &o 3ith(ngge 3e te(( peop(e ho3 thing" re8 3e try to get them to &o thing"8 3e!ommit or"e()e" to &oing thing"8 3e e0pre"" or fee(ing" n& ttit&e"8 n& 3e,ring ,ot !hnge" throgh or ttern!e". Often 3e &o more thn one of the"et on!e in the "me ttern!e Ser(e 1>2; '7

For in"tn!e8 the point of &ire!ti)e" i" to get Herer to &o "omething n ""erti)e i" repre"enttion of n e)ent or "tte of ffir" promi"e i" the n&ert4ing of !rryingot ftre !tion ,y the Spe4er.

#. THE DIRECTION OF FIT ,et3een the 3or&" ttere& n& the 3or(& referre& to; e.g."ttement" h)e 3or&"+to+3or(& fit ,e!"e trth )(e i" ""igne& on the ,"i" of3hether or not the 3or&" &e"!ri,e thing" " they re in the 3or(& "po4en of re:e"t" h)e 3or(&+to+3or&" fit ,e!"e the 3or(& m"t ,e !hnge& or prti((y &6"te& "o " tof(fi( Spe4er%" re:e"t.

'. THE EPRESSED PSCHO*OGICA* STATE &enote" the Spe4er%" "tte of min&

Th"8 "ttement "!h "34 $Thi" mo)ie i" 3orth "eeing%e0pre""e" Spe4er%" ,e(ief tht a !ertain mo%ie deser%e to /e wat!hed promi"e35 $I%(( t4e yo to H3ii on or honeymoon% e0pre""e" Spe4er%" intention to &o"omething re:e"t36 $Wi(( yo he(p me 3ith the"e gro!erie"8 p(e"e


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(thogh ,oth in)o()e the Spe4er%" n&ert4ing to engge in "ome ftre !tion inre(tion to the Herer. More pre!i"e(y8 promi"e" &iffer from thret" in term" of 3hetherthe "pe!ifie& ftre e)ent i" ,enefi!i( or hrmf( to the Herer.

2.2.2. A$$er"i-e$= +ire#"i-e$= #&!!i$$i-e$= epre$$i-e$ n+ +e#,r"i&n$ i"%in "%e

Ser,en fr!e&r

In !omp(in!e 3ith the !on&ition" "pe!ifie& ,o)e8 Ser(e !(""ifie" Spee!h A!t" into fi)e!tegorie" " fo((o3";

A$$er"i-e$ !((e& repre$en""i-e$in Ser(e 1>2 re Spee!h A!t" 3hi!h !ommit theSpe4er to the trth of the e0pre""e& propo"ition pr&igm !"e"; ""erting8 !on!(&ing.They h)e trth )(e8 "ho3 3or&"+to+3or(& fit8 n& e0pre"" Spe4er%" ,e(ief thtp.

Dire#"i-e$re Spee!h A!t" 3hi!h re ttempt" the Spe4er m4e" in or&er to get the&&re""ee engge in !ertin !tion. Pr&igm !"e" in!(&e re:e"ting or :e"tioning.

They in&i!te 3or(&+to+3or&" fit8 n& e0pre"" Spe4er%" 3i"h tht Herer &o the !t A.

C&!!i$$i-e$!ommit Spe4er to "ome ftre !or"e of !tion8 "o they "ho3 3or(&+to+3or&" fit8 n& Spe4er e0pre""e" the intention tht Spe4er &o the !t A. Pr&igm !"e"!ompri"e promi"ing8 thretening8 offering.

Epre$$i-e$e0pre"" Spe4er%" ttit&e to !ertin "tte of ffir" "pe!ifie& if t (( inthe propo"ition( !ontent. Among pr&igm !"e"8 thn4ing8 po(ogi"ing8 3e(!oming8!ongrt(ting re fre:ent. There i" no &ire!tion of fit )riety of &ifferentp"y!ho(ogi!( "tte" n& propo"ition( !ontent m"t ,e re(te& to Spe4er or Herer1>2; '2>.

De#,r"i&n$re Spee!h A!t" 3hi!h effe!t imme&ite !hnge" in the in"tittion( "tte offfir" n& 3hi!h ten& to re(y on e(,orte e0tr(ingi"ti! in"tittion". Pr&igm !"e"in!(&e e0!ommni!ting8 &e!(ring 3r8 !hri"tening8 mrrying8 firing from emp(oyment.They ,ring ,ot !orre"pon&en!e ,et3een the propo"ition( !ontent n& the 3or(& th"&ire!tion of fit i" ,oth 3or&"+to+3or(& n& 3or(&+to+3or&".=!h n& Hrni"h 1>; -#+218 11+11> emp(oy Ser(e%" !riteri8 3hi(e m4ingSpe4er%" psy!holo+i!al state or Spe4er%" attitude more "(ient. They i&entify "i0!(""e"8 "p(itting Ser(e%" $&e!(rtion"% into effe#"i-e$= !t" ment to ,ring ,ot !hnge"in in"tittion( "tte" of ffir" n& -er+i#"i-e$= !t" 3hi!h ,er offi!i(8 in"tittion(i"e&imp!t in the "ittion" in 3hi!h they 3ere performe& for more e(,orte &i"!""ion"ee Corni(e"! n& Chitorn 1@7. If ""erti)e"8 &ire!ti)e"8 !ommi""i)e"8 n&e0pre""i)e" re INTERPERSONA* ACTS8 typi!((y &ire!te& t in&i)i&("8DEC*ARATIONS re typi!((y enfor!e& n& )(i&te& 3ithin "o!i( grop8 n&er(eg((y or "o!i((y "tip(te& !on&ition" tht ((o3 "n!tioning the &&re""ee. Kn&er "!h!ir!m"tn!e"8 Herer%" re!tion " n in&i)i&( i" irre(e)nt to the effe!ti)ene"" of the&e!(rtion e.g. ,eing ,pti5e&8 &i":(ifie& from &ri)ing8 or &i"mi""e&.

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2.2.3. I,,$"r"i&n$ &f "%e Ser,en fr!e&r

Thom" 12 pro)i&e" "e)er( i(("trtion" of "pee!h !t !tegorie" in theSer(en frme3or48 3hi(e high(ighting !ertin (imittion" of the re"pe!ti)e ppro!h.

The pre"ent "e!tion 3i(( &e( 3ith promi"e"8 :e"tion" n& re:e"t".

2.2.3.1. Pr&!i$e$

Thom" 12 "mmri"e" the "et of fe(i!ity !on&ition" re:ire& ,y "!!e""f( promi"e"" fo((o3";

Con&ition" for PROMISINGS X "pe4er8 HX herer8 A X ftre !tion8 P X propo"ition e0pre""e& in the SA8 e X(ingi"ti! e0pre""ion

Preprtory !on&ition 1; H 3o(& prefer S%" &oing A to their not &oing AS ,e(ie)e" H 3o(& prefer S%" &oing A to not &oing A.Preprtory !on&ition #; It i" not o,)io" to ,oth S n& H tht S 3i(( &o A in the norm(!or"e of e)ent"Propo"ition( !on&ition; In e0pre""ing tht P8 S pre&i!te" ftre !t A of S.Sin!erity !on&ition; S inten&" to &o A.E""enti( !on&ition; the ttern!e e !ont" " n n&ert4ing to &o A

I !on!r 3ith Thom" tht "!h "et of !on&ition" (oo4" ((+!omprehen"i)e for n$i&e(% promi"e. et8 in re( (ife e0!hnge"8 Spe4er" &o not re& Herer"% min&"8 "o theymight not ,e f((y 3re 3hether the Herer i" 3i((ing to 3itne"" the Spe4er%" promi"e

f(fi((e& or not. If I tter "omething (i4e

)3;*$I promi"e yo to he(p yo 3ith tht pp(i!tion for Corne((%

3hen yo h)e 6"t m&e yor min& to go on Eropen tor in"te& of pp(ying forni)er"ity8 preprtory !on&ition 1 i" not met 3ith. If yo h)e (re&y mi(e& yorpp(i!tion n& it 3i(( re!h the "e(e!tion ,or& in the norm( !or"e of e)ent"8preprtory !on&ition # i" not f(fi((e&. A" to the propo"ition( !ontent !on&ition8 3eoften her peop(e te((ing their nere"t n& &ere"t n&er e0treme(y "tre""f( !ir!m"tn!e" !(o"e frien& or mem,er of the fmi(y i" n&ergoing ri"4+in!rring "rgery or h" ,eenreporte& mi""ing

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ttern!e" !nnot !ont " n n&ert4ing on the prt of the "pe4er to engge in "omeftre !tion ((ege&(y ,enefi!i( to the Herer.

Do promi"e" m&e n&er &re"" !ont " promi"e"< I" the ttern!e

42 $I promi"e I 3on%t pre"" !hrge" gin"t yo%

m&e ,y ho"tge ,eing he(& t "hotgn ,y their !ptor fe(i!ito" promi"e< It my ,e8"in!e t tht moment ,eing re(e"e& or e)en "tying (i)e i" tr&e& gin"t the (i4e(ihoo&of pre""ing !hrge" n& h)ing the offen&er pro"e!te&. Any3y8 preprtory !on&ition #i" not o,"er)e& if the po(i!e h)e "rron&e& the p(!e n& "niper" re trying hr& toeither h)e the !ptor "rren&er or phy"i!((y nnihi(te them.

Diffi!(tie" my ri"e 3hen it !ome" to &i"t

49081295 daniela sorea pragmatics rev oct2007

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