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THE ACADEMIC JOURNAL FOR THE GRADUATE SCHOOL. VOL.4 NUMBER .1 OCTOBER2013

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Bugema University

The Academic Journal of the School of Graduate Studies

Inside this issue

Assessment Of The Electrical Technician Programme In The Technical Colleges In ZambiaA. Samuel Adebayo

Tourism Revenue Sharing Programme and Community Attitude Towards National Park Conservation: ACase of Volcanoes National Park, Musanze District, RwandaMukagasana Esther

School Culture and School Climate on Pupils’ Academic Performance in K.C.P.E National Examinations:A Comparative Study of Public and Private Primary Schools in Kakamega North District - KenyaH. A. Oyando Stephen

Small-Scale Entrepreneurs’ Success in Kampala Capital Authority, UgandaKibuuka Muhammad

Home Environment And Pupils’ Academic Performance In Selected Government Primary Schools InLwanda Sub County, Rakai District, UgandaBabirye Fredah

School Facilities and Students Academic Performance in Public Secondary Schools in Bumbuli, LushotoDistrict, Tanga-TanzaniaD. Abraham Mcharo

Factors Influencing the Use of Modern Family Methods Among Married Women of Reproductive Age inArua Municipality, UgandaChandiga Bondo

Substance Abuse and Delinquency Among Youths of Walukuba Division, Jinja Municipality, UgandaP. Ddumba Matovu

O ISSN: 2070 - 7657

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Editor-in-Chief

Paul Katamba, PhD

Editorial Advisory Board

Prof. Patrick Manu, PhD, Vice Chancellor-Bugema University

Prof. Reuben T. Mugerwa, (MA), Deputy Vice Chancellor-Bugema University

Dr. Kakule I. Kisunzu, PhD, Dean School of Education-Bugema University

Dr. Amoah J. Kwaku, PhD, Director of Research and Publications-Bugema University

Dr. Sylvia Callender-Carter, Dr PH, MPH, CEAS, HOD Public Health-SGS, Bugema University

Peer Reviewers

Dr. Josephat Kerosi Bosire, PhD, Director of Research –Mount Kenya University-Rwanda

Prof. Musa Nyakora Ondora, PhD, Principal. Mount Kenya University-Rwanda

Dr.Julius Enon, Department Of Educational Psychology, Makerere University

Dr.Maurice B. Tamale, Department of Arts Education, Makerere University

Dr.Yona Balyage, University of Eastern Africa Baraton

Typesetting and Graphics

Joshua Musasizi,

Published by

School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University


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Disclaimer

It should be noted that all views expressed and recommendations given in the research articlespublished in the academic journal for the School of Graduate Studies vol.4.no.1 of October 2013 arethose of the contributing authors, and do not in manner whatsoever represent the views of the editor inchief, editorial advisory board, peer reviewers or the publisher of this journal.

In this Issue:

Pg.No. Author Title/ItemPaul Katamba. Message from the Editor in ChiefA. Samuel AdebayoS.Siasikabole Miyanda

Assessment Of The Electrical Technician ProgrammeIn The Technical Colleges In Zambia

Mukagasana EstherPaul KatambaI. Kakule KisunzuS. Kizza Stephen

Tourism Revenue Sharing Programme andCommunity Attitude Towards National ParkConservation: A Case of Volcanoes National Park,Musanze District, Rwanda

H. A. Oyando StephenPaul KatambaI. Kakule KisunzuJoshua Musasizi

School Culture and School Climate on Pupils’Academic Performance in K.C.P.E NationalExaminations: A Comparative Study of Public andPrivate Primary Schools in Kakamega North District– Kenya

Kibuuka MuhammadKiweewa Emmanuel

Sylvia NakateStephen S. Kizza

Small-Scale Entrepreneurs’ Success in KampalaCapital Authority, Uganda

Babirye FredahI. Kisunzu KakuleJoshua MusasiziLukwago Moses

Home Environment And Pupils’ AcademicPerformance In Selected Government PrimarySchools In Lwanda Sub County, Rakai District,Uganda

D. Abraham McharoPaul KatambaI. Kisunzu KakuleStephen S. Kizza

School Facilities and Students AcademicPerformance in Public Secondary Schools inBumbuli, Lushoto District, Tanga-Tanzania

Chandiga BondoNdungutse DavidVuzi PeterS. Stephen Kizza

Factors Influencing the Use of Modern FamilyMethods Among Married Women of ReproductiveAge in Arua Municipality, Uganda

P. Ddumba MatovuJulius EnonKizito WamalaS. Stephen Kizza

Substance Abuse and Delinquency Among Youths ofWalukuba Division, Jinja Municipality, Uganda

Paul Katamba The School of Graduate Studies-Bugema University


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Welcome dear readers!

It gives me a great pleasure to launch this fourth editionof the Academic Journal of the School of GraduateStudies: Bugema University. There are a lot ofchallenges which the growing economies face in therealms of basic necessities in life. Multidisciplinaryresearch can play a very distinct role in bringing aboutthis change. It is very important that differentstakeholders unite and collaborate on issues whichconfront the society. One of the key objectives ofresearch should be its usability and application. Thisjournal attempts to document and spark a debate on theresearch focused on multidisciplinary issues in contextof emerging Economies. The sectors could range fromthe diverse fields of professions ranging from businessand management with specifics in HRM, Accounting &Finance, Project Planning & Management, Information

Technology, Development studies, Counseling Psychology, Public Health and Education. The keyfocus would however be the emerging sectors and research which discusses application and usability insocietal or consumer context whether individual or industrial.

In the academic world the benefits of research can never be over-emphasized or under estimated. Wecontinually witness massive technological changes brought about by the innovative mind of mankind.Man is driven to research in an attempt to solve problems that face his society. It is, therefore,incumbent upon any institution of higher learning or any business entity to engage into serious researchif ever it will make a difference.

I would like to thank Bugema University and all the editorial team members, reviewers and initial teamwhich has helped in making this journal a possibility. We hope that the research featured here sets upmany new milestones. We have had an overwhelming response from some very eminent Editors andresearchers globally to support as Editorial Team. I look forward to to make this endeavour verymeaningful. A very warm thanks to Administration of Bugema University to provide an opportunity tomake this journal a reality.

Paul Katamba, PhDEditor - in - Chief

Dr.Paul Katamba Editor - inchief

Message from the Editor-in-Chief


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ASSESSMENT OF THE ELECTRICAL TECHNICIAN PROGRAMMEIN THE TECHNICAL COLLEGES IN ZAMBIA

Awoniyi Samuel Adebayo (Ph.D)*Saviour SiasikaboleMiyanda**

*Solusi University, Zimbabwe Email:[email protected],[email protected]

**ZeSco Training Centre Ndola, Zambia Email:[email protected],[email protected]

Abstract

The study was an assessment of the Electrical Technician Programme in technical colleges in Zambia.The research design used was descriptive. The population for the study consisted of all four (4)technical colleges offering Electrical Technician Programme, four (4) Heads of departments, twenty(20) teachers, and all the two hundred (200) students enrolled for the programme in year 2012. Alsoincluded as part of the population were students who graduated from the four (4) Technical Collegesbetween year 2007 and 2011. The sample for the study consisted of all heads of departments and all theteachers teaching in the programme. Forty-eight (48) students were selected using the stratified simplerandom sampling technique. Twelve (12) Electrical supervisors from four industries were purposivelyselected for the assessment of the skills and knowledge of the graduates employed. Two instrumentswere used for data collection and these were questionnaire and interviews. The instruments for datacollection were both face and content validated. The data collected was analysed using the descriptivestatistics and the descriptive interpretive method for the questionnaire and interviews respectively. Thestudy revealed that the content of the curriculum used for the program was as prescribed by TechnicalEducation, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Authority (TEVETA), that the curriculum was ofquality and that the curriculum was relevant and appropriate to the needs of the industry. All theteachers teaching in the Electrical Technician Programme were qualified as prescribed by TEVETA. Ofall the eighteen (18) essential training equipment examined, only five (5) were found to be adequate inthe perceptions of the respondents.

Key words: Assessment, Electrical Technician, Training Equipment, Skills and Knowledge

Introduction

Education is a fundamental human right and it isthe most important gateway for the realization ofnational and individual needs and aspirations.Education is an equalizer for individuals to beable to attain heights in personal development.Countries that have invested in the developmentof skilled manpower and technology have notregretted, but have reaped benefits on social,economic and in other sectors of development.

The Electrical Technician Programme is one ofthe training programmes under TechnicalEducation, Vocational Training (TEVET).Electrical Technicians are most needed in theelectrical industry as they are heavily involved inthe installation of electrical lines, supply andmaintenance of electricity to various mines,industries, commercial areas as well as domestichouseholds.There are four Technical Colleges that trainElectrical Technician Students in Zambia. These


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colleges are all affiliated to Technical Education,Vocational and Entrepreneurship TrainingAuthority (TEVETA) under the Ministry ofEducation, Science Vocational Training andEarly Education the body which regulates,coordinates and manages TEVET Programmesin the country.

The primary purpose of TEVET inZambia is to develop sufficient individuals withthe right skills to meet labour market demand.The skills base in Zambia is foundational tomicro and macro-economic development andconsequently in making the nation competesinternationally. Some TEVET programmesaccording to literature have serious mismatchbetween training equipment used during trainingand what is obtained in the industry.Nkanza (2007) and Tembo (2005) stated that thephysical structures of most TEVET institutionswere dilapidated, insufficient, and fully utilized.The training and materials wereinadequate…..the training equipment and plantwere worn out. There was a mismatch ofknowledge and skills gotten from TEVET to thatequipment found in the industry, in most casesgraduates were given on-job-training to enablethem perform to the expected standard. Theobserved mismatch will definitely affect thequality of training and development of fullpotential of students/trainees which willdefinitely affect their knowledge and skills formaking contribution to and participation in thecomplex rapidly changing society.

Literature revealed that the issue ofdilapidated physical structures, insufficienttraining equipment, teachers’ qualifications forTEVET programmes and mismatch ofknowledge and skills were not peculiar toZambia. For instance, Nyerere (2009) in thestudy carried out in Kenya confirmed that theeducation system philosophy had renderedTEVET educational sector less favorable.According to him (Nyerere, 2009) university(academic) knowledge was more valued inKenya than TEVET education irrespective of the

quality of graduation from the two sectors ofeducation.In the same vein, Abban and Quarshie (1996)pointed out that the paradigm shift towardpractical skills with TEVET in Africa wasincreasingly reshaped to make it more attractive,efficient and effective. One of the mostimportant features of TEVET as recognized byAfrican governments was its orientation towardthe world of work with the curriculumemphasizing the acquisition of employableskills, he added. Harrison and Reddan (2010)argued that TEVET institutions needed torestructure their programs to be responsive to theneeds of the job market especially to theindustry. In Bangladesh, Islam and Mia (2007)in their study of TEVET revealed that bothformal and non-formal TEVET lacked aneffective linkage between training and the worldof work. The study further noted that the lack ofcoherent mood, practical skills training did notproduce the requisite skills for the job market.Trainee also lacked training experience, theyadded.In Zimbabwe, the Technical Vocational andEducation Training (TVET) report (2005) oncurriculum relevance pointed out that the coursesthat were offered in TVET institutions throughHigher Education Examinations Council(HEXCO) were not always consistent with whatthe industry required. In Malawi, the country hadproblems on the teaching qualifications ofteachers/lecturers. UNESCO (2010) attributedinappropriate skills training to teachers whileUNESCO-WORLD TEVET Database (2010)reported that more than half of the total numberof TEVET in Afghanistan technical colleges hadlower level of education than the requiredminimum of a bachelor’s degree.Nyankov(1996) summarized the concerns of TEVET inGhana as:Poor quality in the delivery of TEVETprogrammes; high cost of training; training notsuited to actual socio-economic conditions;disregard of the needs of the informal sector anddisregard of the labour market.


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Training institutions should work with industrywhen preparing students training skills. Dasmani(2011) stated that technical institution curriculawere designed to provide a frame work forteaching and learning. This specified the skills,performance, attitudes and values trainees wereexpected to learn from workshops. If curriculummaterials were not provided, there was thelikelihood of considerable variation betweenwhat the curriculum specified that studentsshould learn, what teachers taught and whatstudents actually learnt. This situation likelycaused apathy in the teaching of practicalsubjects due to the absence of instructionalmaterials and effective instructional strategies,leading to inefficient use of instructional time.As a result many instructors were unable tocover the intended curriculum and only coveredthose parts that they expected to be examined.The industry expects a lot from educationalinstitutions in the provision of workforce withthe rights skills who can be functional withoutputting them on job-on- training. This is with aview to minimize financial expenses on the skillsdevelopment of people earlier trained attechnical colleges. According to Anarfi andAppiah (2012), the greatest concerns ofemployers today were finding the workforce thatpossesses capabilities to work. There is aseeming gap between the skills employerssought and the skills potential workerspossessed. Employers who possessed therequisite employable skills assist theorganizations to achieve targets or objectives.There are many benefits for employers wheneducation institutions equip young people withfunctional skills on the job, because itcontributes to employers’ competitiveness in avery competitive global economy, increaseprofitability and economic growth for theorganization.

This study therefore assessed theElectrical Technician program in TechnicalColleges in Zambia, in terms of curriculum,teachers’ qualifications, training equipment andskills and knowledge of students with the aim of

making recommendations on how ElectricalTechnician programme in particular and TEVETin general could be improved, so that herproducts would be able to stand the challenges ofglobal economic competitiveness since thewhole world was now a global village.

Method

SampleThe descriptive research design was used

for the study. The population for the studyconsisted of all four (4) technical collegesoffering Electrical Technician Programme, four(4) Heads of departments, twenty (20) teachers,and all the two hundred (200) students enrolledfor the programme in years 2012. Twelve (12)Electrical Engineers from four industries whoare supervisors were included as part ofpopulation.

The sample for the study consisted of thefour (4) heads of departments and all twenty (20)teachers teaching in the Electrical Technicianprogramme in the four technical Colleges. Forty-eight (48) students in the Electrical Technicianprogramme from the technical colleges wereselected using the stratified simple randomsampling technique. The students were stratifiedaccording to their year of study (year 1 and 2)and six (6) students were randomly selectedfrom each level.Twelve (12) Electricalsupervisors from four industries werepurposively selected for the assessment of theskills and knowledge of the graduates employed.Two instruments,questionnaire and interviewwere used for data collection. The instrumentsfor data collection were both face and contentvalidated. The questionnaire was also given toDirector – Curriculum Division Unit, TEVETA,to ascertain the adequacy of the instruments forassessing the Electrical TechnicianProgramme.The data collected was analyzedusing both the qualitative and quantitativemethods. The questionnaires were coded andanalyzed using the statistical packages for socialsciences (SPSS). The descriptive statistics was


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employed. Information obtained from theinterviews was analyzed using descriptiveinterpretive method.

ResultsThe results of the study were presented insuccession according to the research questions.

Research Question 1

To what extent were Technical Collegesimplementing the curriculum for ElectricalTechnician Programme as prescribed byTEVETA in the perceptions of Heads ofdepartments?The Heads of departments of the four Technicalcolleges offering Electrical TechnicianProgramme were interviewed on the relevance ofthe curriculum prescribed by TEVETA to theneeds of industry as well as their views on thecontent, coverage and quality of the curriculumfor Electrical Technician Programme. Accordingto the Heads of departments, the content of thecurriculum used for the program is as prescribedby TEVETA and they rated the quality of thecurriculum as good. On the average 93.25 percent of the curriculum is usually covered. In thecourse of the interviews, the Heads of

departments agreed that the curriculum isrelevant and appropriate to the needs of theindustry as well as geared towards the changingneeds of the industry. All the Heads ofdepartments agreed that the curriculum providedby TEVETA is usually updated from time totime in line with changing technology.

Research Question 2To what degree were qualified teachers availablein Technical Colleges in Zambia for theElectrical Technician Programme as respondedto by the Heads of departments?Table 1 below shows the number andqualifications of teachers in the ElectricalTechnician Programme in Technical Colleges.The table revealed that there are a total of twenty–four (24) teaching staff four (04) Heads ofdepartments and twenty (20) teachers for theElectrical Technician Programme in the four (4)Technical Colleges, and of these, twelve (12)had Diploma qualifications while the remainingtwelve (12) had degrees. It is noteworthy that allthe Heads of departments have degrees. Fromthe above, it was concluded that all the teachersteaching in the Electrical Technician Programmewere qualified and accredited by TEVETA.

Table 1: Qualification of teachers in Electrical Technician ProgrammePosition Number Qualification of teachers

Advancedcertificate

Diploma BachelorsDegree

MastersDegree

Doctor ofPhilosophyDegree

Heads ofdepartments

04 0 0 4 0 0

Teachers 20 0 12 8 0 0Total 24 0 12 12 0 0

TEVETA, Curriculum Division (2010) stated thatfor anyone to be a member of staff under TEVETinstitution, he/she should have the followingqualifications:Minimum of Diploma in ElectricalEngineering or related Programme, two yearsindustrial experience, teaching qualification andbe accredited trainer by TEVETA.

The interviews of the Heads ofdepartments however revealed that some of theteachers are less experienced. According to them,the teachers are well equipped in terms of skillsand source of knowledge but their skills andknowledge based on old machineries and as aresult some of them are not exposed to latest


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technology. The assertion of the skills andknowledge of the teachers by the Heads ofdepartments was attested to by TEVET (2004)

who stated that teaching staff in the country(Zambia) are very effective in technical educationdelivery.

Table 2:Training Equipment According to RespondentsDescriptive Statistics

Items Mean Std. Deviation Remark

Transformer testing equipment 1.9412 1.23243 Fairly adequate

Primary and secondary injection equipment1.7500 1.15092 Fairly adequate

Motor rewinding machine 1.6618 1.19214 Fairly adequate

Mandex tester 2.1471 1.64148 Fairly adequate

Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) tester 1.9265 1.23767 Fairly adequate

Micrometer 2.3971 1.33986 Fairly adequate

Filler gauge 1.7941 1.14029 Fairly adequate

Direct current tachogenerator 1.8235 1.25711 Fairly adequate

Electrical machine – direct current motor synchronous motor 2.4265 1.54839 Fairly adequate

Electrical – alternating current motor synchronous motor 2.6176 1.57432 Adequate

Spirit level indicator 2.5441 1.58758 Adequate

Frequency meter 2.3088 1.47878 Fairly Adequate

Clamp-on- Ammeter 3.0882 1.62752 Adequate

Power factor meter 2.0000 1.23385 Fairly Adequte

Board Ammeter 2.1912 1.37415 Fairly Adequate

Stop watch 2.7941 1.68007 Adequate

Earth loop impedance tester 1.8971 1.33986 Fairly Adequate

Deflection instruments 2.9853 1.42988 adequate

Availability of equipment average 2.2386 .85287 Fairly Adequate

Research Question 3To what degree were training equipment

available in Technical Colleges in Zambia for theElectrical Technician Programme in theperceptions of the respondents?

Table 2 above shows the perception ofrespondents on the degree to which trainingequipments are available in Technical Colleges inZambia for the Electrical Technician Programmein the perceptions of the respondents (HODs,teachers and students). Of all the eighteen (18)

essential training equipment listed on table 2below, only five (5) items namely, electricalalternating current synchronous motor, spiritlevel indicator, clamp –on –Ammeter, stop watchand deflection instruments with a mean of2.6176, 2.5441, 3.0882, 2.7941,and 2.9853respectively were found to be adequate in theperceptions of the respondents. All the otheritems were found to be fairly adequate. The highstandard deviation for each item indicated thatthe respondents were heterogeneous in their


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responses. The overall mean of 2.2386 shows thatin general training equipment for ElectricalTechnician Programme in Technical Colleges inZambia were fairly adequate. The overallstandard deviation of .85287, shows that therespondents were heterogeneous in theirresponses.

Zambia has a big problem of not havingadequate up to date training equipment in mosttechnical training colleges. Carmody, (2009),argued that the training and materials wereinadequate….the training equipment and plantwere worn out and technologically out-dated.According to Nkaza, (2007), the quality of highereducation had suffered from lack of investment inlaboratories and workshops. Consequently, thelearning facilities in Zambia’s TEVETinstitutions were still those of the 1960s and1970s.

Research Question 4

To what degree were the skills andknowledge acquired by students match the needsof industry as assessed by company electricalsupervisors and heads of departments?

In order to determine the degree to whichthe skills and knowledge acquired by electricaltechnician students match the needs of industry,the heads of departments and supervisors in fourindustries were requested to rate the skills andknowledge of the electrical technician graduatesbased on percentage.

The rating of the skills and knowledge ofelectrical technician graduates by heads ofdepartments in technical colleges and companysupervisors are as shown on table 3 below. Asreflected on the table, the Heads of departmentsrated the skills and knowledge of electricaltechnician graduates as 61.25 per cent whilecompany supervisors rated them to be at 73.33per cent.

Table 3: Assessment of skills and knowledge by supervisors in companies and heads ofdepartments for technical colleges

Industries Technical CollegesCompany/Institution

Number ofSupervisors

Skills and Knowledge rating inpercentages

Average No. ofHODs

Skills andKnowledgerating inpercentage

Supervisor 1 Supervisor 2 Supervisor 3

1 3 70 80 60 70 1 702 3 70 80 70 73.33 1 60

3 3 70 60 90 73.33 1 65

4 3 80, 70 80 76.66 1 50OverallAverage 73.33%

61.25%

In an interview, according to heads ofdepartments, the skills and knowledge acquiredby students does not meet the needs andexpectations of industries. This according to themis due to the fact that Technical Colleges are notequipped with the state of art training facilities.The training institutions were found to be usingobsolete training equipment for training and assuch industries take up the challenge of trainingthe new employees on the use of latest machines.

Electrical supervisors in industries ratedthe skills and knowledge of graduates employedas 73.33 per cent, according to electricalsupervisors in industries, the graduates employedare skilful and knowledgeable. The disparity inthe responses of the heads of departments andcompany electrical supervisors might be due tothe fact that soon after employment, the newemployees undergo a maximum inductionprogramme of six months on the use of latestmachines across various departments of the


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industry. The other issue is that graduatesemployed might have acquired more job skillsand knowledge during induction process andwhile on the job.

Findings

According to the Heads of departments, thecontent of the curriculum used for the program isas prescribed by TEVETA and they perceived thequality of the curriculum as good. In theiropinion, on the average 93.25 per cent of thecurriculum is usually covered. In the course ofthe interviews, the Heads of departments agreedthat the curriculum is relevant and appropriate tothe needs of industry as well as geared towardsthe changing needs of the industry. All the Headsof departments agreed that the curriculumprovided by TEVETA is usually updated fromtime to time in line with changing technology.All the teachers teaching in the ElectricalTechnician Programme are qualified, the leastqualification being Diploma as prescribed byTEVETA. The interviews of the Heads ofdepartments however revealed that some of theteachers are less experienced. According to them,the teachers are well equipped in terms of skillsand source of knowledge but their skills andknowledge based on old machineries and as aresult some of them are not exposed to latesttechnology.Of all the eighteen (18) essential trainingequipment examined, only five (5) namely,electrical alternating current synchronous motor,spirit level indicator, clamp –on –Ammeter, stopwatch and deflection instruments were found tobe adequate in the perceptions of the respondents.All the other items were found to be fairlyadequate. The overall mean of 2.2386 shows thatin general training equipment for ElectricalTechnician Programme in Technical Colleges inZambia werefairly adequate.The Heads of departments rated the skills andknowledge of electrical technician graduates as61.25 per cent while company supervisors ratedthem to be at 73.33 per cent. In an interview,

according to heads of departments, the skills andknowledge acquired by students doesn’t meet theneeds and expectations of industries. This is dueto the fact that Technical Colleges are notequipped with the state of art training facilities.The training institutions were found to be usingobsolete training equipment and as suchindustries take up the challenge of training thenew employees on the use of latest machines.

ConclusionThe study revealed that Technical

Colleges offering Electrical TechnicianProgramme followed the curriculum prescribedby TEVETA and ensured adequate coverage ofthe curriculum. All the teachers in the ElectricalTechnician Programme were found to bequalified; they are however not well exposed tolatest technology. The study also revealed thattraining equipment for the Electrical TechnicianProgram are just fairly adequate, thus resulting inthe inability of the students to acquire the skillsand knowledge that meets the needs andexpectations of industries.

RecommendationsThe Zambian Government through Ministry ofEducation, Science and Vocational Training andEarly Education should procure latest trainingequipment to enable students acquire skills andknowledge needed and as expected by industries.

Principals of Technical Colleges which run theElectrical Technician Programme should startorganizing partnership programmes, withindustries to enable teachers be in line with fastchanging technology since these industries are upto date with latest machines. At the same time,teachers can be attached to these industriesduring college recessions.


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REFERENCES

Abban, C. &Quarshie, J. (1996).Integrated skillstraining for self employment throughvocational training institutions. Turin,Italy: ILO.

Anarfi, J.K., &Appiah, E.N. (2012).Skills definedby curricula: Sub-Sahara Africa Accra:Institute for Statistical, Social andEconomic Research.

Carmody, B. (2009). The evolution of educationin Zambia. Ndola: Mission Press.

Dasmani A. (2011). Challenges facing technicalinstitute graduates in practical skillsacquisition in the Upper East Region ofGhana. Accra: Ghana Education service.

Harrison, G. &Reddan, G. (2010).Restructuringthe bachelor of exercise science degree tomeet industry needs. Asia – PacificJournal of Cooperative Education, 11 (1),13 –15. Islam, R. and Mia, A. (2007). Therole of education for ruralpopulationtransformation in

Bangladesh.Asia – Pacific Journal of cooperativeEducation 8 (1), 1-21.

Nyankov, A. (1996). Current issues and trends intechnical and vocational education.Paris,France: UNEVOC – International Projecton technical and vocational Education.

Nyerere, J. (2009). Technical & VocationalEducation and Training (TVET)SectorMapping in Kenya. Nairobi: ShrendPublishers.

Nkanza, P.K. (2007). The TEVET QualificationsFramework – a tool for economic growth.Lusaka: TEVETA.

Tembo, V. M. (2005). The Role of Education inDevelopment, Module EDAE7 1st edition.Lusaka: Zambian Open University.

TEVETA, (2005).TEVET statistics digest.Lusaka: Curriculum Development Unit.

UNESCO-World TVET Database, (2010).Assessing Education Data Quality in theSouthern African Development

Community (SADC): A synthesis of sevenCountry Assessments. Nairobi: TechnicalEducational Support Unit.

UNESCO, (2010).TVET Policy Review –Malawi.Lilongwe: Technical EducationalSupport Unit.


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TOURISM REVENUE SHARING PROGRAMME AND COMMUNITY ATTITUDETOWARDS NATIONAL PARK CONSERVATION:

A CASE OF VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK,MUSANZE DISTRICT, RWANDA

Mukagasana Esther*Paul Katamba, PhD**

I. Kakule Kisunzu, PhD***S. Kizza Stephen, MA****

*MA (DVST) Student, School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University, Kampala, Uganda**Senior Lecturer & Dean, Graduate School of Education, Bugema

University.Email:[email protected]***Senior Lecturer & Dean, School of Education Bugema University.Email:[email protected]

****Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University.Email:[email protected]

Abstract

Worldwide, conservation of fauna and flora in the National Parks or protected area is apervasive and constant challenge. In Musanze District, Rwanda, protecting the volcanic National Parkfrom human activity has been a challenge. In an attempt to avert the situation, a Tourism RevenueSharing (TRS) program was established in order to enhance community attitude towards theconservation wildlife among other goals. This study was based on specific objectives of assessing; themain tourism revenue sharing benefits available to the beneficiaries, the level of community attitudetowards Volcanoes National Park Conservation, find out the influence of tourism revenue sharing oncommunity attitude towards Volcanoes National Park Conservation and, to find out the mainchallenges affecting the community attitude towards conservation.

The sample size of the study was 319 respondents who are beneficiaries of the TRS Programand are neighboring the Volcanoes National Park. The study adopted a descriptive correlation cross-sectional research design. A Semi-structured questionnaire as a main tool supplemented by KeyInformant Interview Guide was used to collect the data. Multi regression analysis was used todetermine the influence of community attitude on the conservation of the Volcanoes National Park.

Keywords: Tourism, Conservation, Fauna, Flora, Revenue Sharing, Community Attitude.

INTRODUCTIONTourism is the world’s largest industry

and one of the fastest growing industriesworldwide (United Nations Conference on Tradeand Development, 2007). Tourism represents US$ 4218 billion of GDP or 10.4% of the worldtotal, with travel and tourism making aparticularly significant contribution tointernational trade, at over 12% of total exportearnings (United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, 2005).

Tourism revenue sharing can affectpositively community attitudes towardsconservation of national parks. It may influenceattitudes, values and norms, and engender supportfor conservation of protected areas offset human-wildlife conflict which impedes local support fornational parks, and understanding people’sbeliefs and attitudes towards protected areas is akey factor in developing successful managementplans to conserve those areas over the long-term


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offset wildlife costs and improve local attitudestowards conservation, (Roe and Elliott,2004;Vatn, 2009; Muradian, 2010; andAllendorf,2006;Hulme & Murphree, 2002;Western, 2001).

Tourism in Africa, has previouslycontributed greatly to national economies, but hasprovided limited benefits to the local populations.Today most governments are working towardsensuring that it will not only contribute tonational economic growth but also to thedevelopment of rural populations (Mehta, 2005).

Consequently, according to Adams(2003), mutually supportive relationshipsbetween communities and nearby protected areasare critical to the long-term success ofconservation efforts. He adds that, in sub-SaharanAfrica, many protected areas were first createdduring colonial times as hunting grounds or parksfor European elites, with little or no regard for theneeds or desires of local communities. Today,many of these areas harbor long-standingconflicts over land tenure and resource use. Theseconflicts may create tensions between localcommunities, protected area staff, andconservation goals (Lilieholm & Romney, 2000).

During colonial times, like most Africancountries, Rwanda adopted the model of strictexclusionary protected areas, a practice whichwas carried on even after independence. In recenttimes, the increasing pressures on protected areasfrom local communities, and the apparentimpossibilities of addressing them using onlytraditional law enforcement practices has beenrecognized globally.

According to ORTPN (2004), therationale behind Revenue Sharing was thatcommunities around national parks can supportpark management despite the fact that theyexperience problems from national parks (cropraiding, social transformation). They should,therefore, get direct benefits from the nationalparks, providing an enabling environment forgood community relationships with nationalparks. Hulme and Murphree (2001) reported thatfunds obtained from revenue sharing were used

in constructing schools, health clinics, watertanks and road construction.

The Volcanoes National Park (VNP) isworld famous as the home of a globally-important population of the endangered Mountaingorilla, as well as numerous other plant andanimal species that are endemic to the AlbertineRift region. The whole of the Virunga Massifforest has a total of 86 known species ofmammals, 34 of them being big mammals, 18species endemic to the western Rift Valley, 6species are endangered and 18 have been listedon IUCN Red List (Plumptre et al., 2003).Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) areonly found in the Virunga Massif and BwindiImpenetrable National Park of Uganda. MountainGorillas are endemic sub-species considered to bein "critical danger" by IUCN. The worldpopulation of mountain gorillas in 2004 wasestimated at around 700 animals, 380 of whichwere in Virunga Massif (ORTPN, 2004). VirungaMassif comprises a total of 878 known species ofplants, 81 of them being trees, 124 endemicplants of the Rift Valley, and 5 listed on theUICN list (Plumptre et al. 2003). ConcerningPNV specifically, a recent study drew up a list of301species of herbaceous plants, 40 species ofliana, and 36 species of woody plants (Plumptreet al. 2003).

In recognition of the park’s importance,VNP was added to the International Network ofBiosphere Reserves under the UNESCO Man andBiosphere Program in 1983. Despite itsexceptional biodiversity values, the park issubject to a variety of serious and growinganthropogenic pressures, largely related to itbeing situated in one of the most denselypopulated parts of Rwanda. In relation to theinitial size of the forest, between 1958 and 1979VNP lost approximately 55 percent of its naturalhabitat, mainly as a result of the demand for landfor growing pyrethrum (Sabuhoro, 2006).

Andrew and Masozera (2010) contendthat “two of the biggest challenges facingRwanda today are reducing poverty, especiallyamong rural households, and protecting the


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ecosystems, which provide essential services thatsupport activities such as subsistence agriculture,collection of safe drinking water, and harvestingof forest products.”According to these authors,over the past 40 years, Rwanda has suffered veryserious losses to its natural areas. Sinceindependence in 1962, the total area withinprotected areas (PAs) has halved: from 4,115sq.km to 2,073 sq.km; for example, theVolcanoes National Park (VNP) has lost nearlyhalf of its habitat since the end of colonial period(310 sq. km to 160 sq.km).

According to Rwanda DevelopmentBoard RDB report (2010), poaching and otherillegal activities including bamboo cutting, snaressetting and medicinal plants collection, areamong the major problems in wildlifeconservation and management in VolcanoesNational Park ecosystem. Since its creation it hasencountered illegal activities. Before 2004, manyhouses around the park were built using bamboo,and there has been the market for bush meat. In2008, some types of illegal activities have beenfound in Volcanoes National Park as it haspersisted for a long time. For instance 1800snares were found in Volcanoes National Park.The main source of the illegal activities is thehuman presence around the park. In 2010, 1889snares were found and destroyed by Park staff.427 Poachers tracks were found, 25 poacherswere arrested in the Volcanoes National Park and70 poacher’s camps were found in VNP.

In 2011, 1194 snares were found in thePark. Despite the existing situation, in Rwandalittle is known about revenue sharing and itsimpact on community attitude towards VolcanoesNational Park Conservation by way of research(Spenceley (2010), Kagarama Bizoza andKayigamba (2011), hence suggesting a researchto be carried in order to examine the impact ofTourism Revenue Sharing on attitude of thecommunity towards Conservation of VolcanoesNational Park in Musanze District.

METHODSamples

The sample respondents (N = 319) wasdrown from local community members usingproportionate allocation sampling formula byKothari (2004). In addition other target groupswere interviewed as the Key Informants. Theyincluded 4 Sectors’ Executive Secretary wherethe study was conducted, 2 Local ConservationNGO’s Leaders, 3 Volcanoes National ParkWardens, 4 Guards and 2 Guides which makes atotal of 15 Key Informants.

The Four sectors were selectedpurposively. This is because they were borderingthe Volcanoes National Park and also thebeneficiaries of Tourism Revenue Sharing. Thesectors are Kinigi, Nyange, Shingiro andGataraga. Every household was represented byone mature person found at home at the time ofdata collection.

Instruments

A summary of the respondent’s responsewas measured by the questionnaire according toKhotari (2004). The instruments with 5-pointLikert scale of strongly agree (SA) to stronglydisagree (SDA). The scale measured responseswith Cronbanch’s Alpha of 0.930 obtained by useof SPSS Computer software which was greaterthan 0.7.Procedures

The researcher obtained permission fromrelevant authorities. The instrument wasadministered to the respondents by the researcherand four research assistants. Data on tourismrevenue sharing and community attitude towardpark conservation was gathered. Other groupsinterviewed were representatives of communitysocial and economic groups. The researchercollected and reviewed written sources aboutVolcanoes National Park and involved herself inparticipatory observation during local meetings,regional workshops, as well as some touristexperiences such as gorilla tracking.

Data was analyzed using frequencies,percentages, and means were used to answer the


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objective 1, 2, 3 and 5. Objective four wasanalyzed using multi regression analysis togenerate Regression coefficients - beta weights[b] and R2

, was used to determine the influence of

tourism revenue sharing on community attitudetowards conservation of Volcanoes NationalPark.

RESULTTable 1: Assessment of Direct Tourism Revenue Sharing Benefits

Items Rated µ SD Pooledµ

Interpretation

Provision of Employment

Increase of Hotel 4.36 0.68

4.40 High

Opportunities of Employ 4.46 0.63Increase of Lodges 4.33 0.68Employment in Lodges 4.48 0.58Guiding activities 4.53 0.53Employment in Guiding 4.27 0.62

Funding Associations

Establishment ofassociations

4.36 0.52

4.41 HighFunding associations 4.34 0.61Training 4.54 0.51

Legend 2: 1.00-1.80: Very Low 1.81-2.61: Low 2.62-3.42: Moderate 3.43-4.23: High 4.24-5.00:Very High

Provision of EmploymentThe results indicated that the beneficiaries

strongly agreed (pooled mean = 4.40), that therehad been provision of employment as a result ofhotel facilities. Further analysis using AppendixTable 1 reveals that all measurements ofprovision employment opportunities as a result ofdirect benefits was high with more than 90% ofrespondents with a mean score above 4.0. Forinstance the study revealed that overwhelmingmajority of respondents (92.6%) with (M = 4.36,SD = 0.68), agreed and strongly disagreed thatthere has been an increase in number of hotels inthe neighbouring volcanoes. Overwhelmingmajority (95.2 %) agreed and strongly agreed`that the hotels had increased opportunities foremployment as attendants, waiters and cooks.

In the interview with Chief Park Warden,he revealed that a number of direct and indirect

benefits need to be highlighted. Since the tourismrevenue sharing scheme was initiated in 2005, avariety of different projects were implemented.The construction of Mountain gorilla view Hotel,the Gorilla Nest hotel are benefited to localcommunity and that 80% of its staff are fromsectors neighbouring the Park . He added that theconstruction of high-end Sabyinyo SilverbackLodge which is fully owned by the communities.This was supported by (Spenceley et al., 2009)and (Makambo, 2009) in their literature whoascertained that the Sabyinyo Silverback Lodge islocated at periphery of the Volcanoes NationalPark allows people who live close to theVolcanoes National Park to benefit from tourismin three main ways: equity in a tourism business,employment at the lodge, the supply of goods andservices, and dividends from profits.


17

The joint venture plans to use funds fromthe lodge to finance social infrastructure in thearea, including roads during the interview, thePark Chief warden revealed that, at least 3,000households are members of the communityassociation and benefit through the signedagreement that the managing company pays US$50 bed night fees and 7% of the monthly netbenefits to community association. Aninterviewee from Kinigi sector revealed thatVolcanoes Lodge is a traditional building thatprovides a regular employment to ourcommunities in providing local material andmanpower.

Funding AssociationsAs it can be seen in Table 6, the results

indicate that the beneficiaries strongly agreed(pooled mean = 4.10), that there had beenprovision of employment as a result of thefunding associations. Appendix Table 2 showsthat majority (90%) with mean above 4.0. Forinstance almost all respondents (99.0%) with (M= 4.36, SD = 0.52) agreed and strongly agreedthat community association e.g. mushroomgrowers groups, bee keeping groups had beenestablished in neighbouring park. A very bigmajority (92.5 %) of respondents agreed thatincome generated from the park activities such as

gorilla trekking, golden monkey trekking,volcanoes climbing, is used to fund theassociation activities.

As per RDB report (2010), 10 communityassociations have been supported directly throughthe revenue sharing scheme. However, a numberof other projects were implemented such as beekeeping and basket weaving. A focus has alsobeen on training for income generating activities.

Accordingly, some of the cooperativemembers have been able to build their ownhouses from the income generated from thecooperatives. Likewise, young people have beenorganized into porters clubs, and they have beencarrying tourists’ luggage for a fee of 5000RWFper head. This income, according to thebeneficiaries interviewed, makes these youngpeople not go to the park for illegal activities.Getting people into cooperatives not only has itimpacted on the beneficiaries economically, butthis has also increased social cohesion among themembers of the cooperatives since they havelearnt to work together to a common goal.

Indirect Tourism Revenue Sharing BenefitsRegarding the indirect benefits, the study

focused on the provision of school and watertanks to the community through the TRSprogram. Study findings are covered in Table 7.

Table 2: Assessment of Indirect Tourism Revenue Sharing Benefits

Items Rated µ SD Pooledµ

Interpretation

Provision of Schools

4.58 Very HighBuilding of classes 4.47 0.52Children Schooling 4.55 0.54School's distance (school-home) 4.51 0.61

Provision of Water Tanks

Water tanks 4.04 0.94

3.98 ModerateWater's distance from which wateris fetched

4.13 0.82

Fetching water from the park 3.78 1.35


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Legend 2: 1.00-1.80: Very Low 1.81-2.61: Low 2.62-3.42: Moderate 3.43-4.23: High 4.24-5.00:Very High

Provision of Schools

The results in Table 7, indicated that thebeneficiaries strongly agreed (pooled mean =4.58), that there had been provision ofeducational facilities as result of provision ofSchools. Appendix Table 3 shows that majority(90%) with mean above 4.0. For instance almostall respondents (98.7%) with mean (4.47, SD =0.52) agreed that provision of schools in thestudy area had contributed to the education ofchildren. A very big majority (98 %) ofrespondents agreed and strongly agreed that dueto availability of schools, the average distance tothe schools had reduced.

The additional information can be tracedfrom (RDB, 2010) which emphasizes that theprogram had, at the period of review, alreadyprovided support to the education sectoramounting to 228,602,037RWF and at least 56classrooms with an average of 65 pupils perrotation (morning and afternoon) were built forthe communities around Volcanoes NationalPark. Schools built targeted children whose mainactivities were undertaken within the parks, forexample, fetching water and firewood.

Provision of Water Tanks

According to Table 7, the beneficiariesstrongly agreed (pooled mean = 3.98 SD =) thatthere had been provision of water tanks.Appendix Table 3 shows that majority (87%)with (M=4.04, SD=0.94) reported that there hascontribution of availability of water to thecommunity due to the provision of water tanks.above 4.0. For instance almost all respondents(80.0%) with mean (4.04, SD = 0.94) agreed andstrongly agreed that the community had beenprovided with water tanks. As result, 87.4% ofthe respondents agreed and strongly agreed thatprovision of water tanks had reduced the distancewithin which they fetch water.

As revealed by (UWIZEYE 2010), 32water tanks were constructed after 2005 with25,000 litre tanks. RDB (2010) support to waterinfrastructure amounted to 31,927,000 RWFduring the last five years in the three districts ofMusanze.

Community Attitude towards National ParkConservation in Musanze DistrictThe third objective of the study was to

assess the level of community attitude towardsconservation of fauna and flora in National Park.This objective was analyzed using the mean andstandard deviation of which the study findingsare summarized in Table 8.


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Table 3: Assessment of the Level of Community Attitude towards National Park Conservation inMusanze District

Items µ SD Pooledµ

Interpretation

FaunaPoaching 4.02 1.02

4.30 Very HighSetting snares 4.28 .97Selling gorillas ‘body parts& Ivory 4.52 2.40Trapping of gorillas' infants 4.36 .81

FloraBeekeeping & collecting honey 4.17 1.09

4.31 Very HighCollecting medicinal plants 4.47 3.33Bamboo cutting 4.29 .89

Grand Mean 4.30 1.49 Very HighLegend 2: 1.00-1.80: Very Low 1.81-2.61: Low 2.62-3.42: Moderate 3.43-4.23: High 4.24-5.00:

Very HighSources: Primary Data

Attitude towards Fauna Conservation

The results in Table 8, indicate that thelevel of community attitude towards FaunaConservation in the study area was very high(pooled mean = 4.30). Appendix Table 4,indicates that very many (over 80%) with (M =4.02, SD = 1.02) respondents agreed and stronglyagreed that they no longer hunt animals such asbuffaloes, antelopes and elephants for meat. Ahigh standard deviation (SD= 1.02) however,suggests that there was high varied responses onthis matter. Similar trend of high standarddeviation (SD = 2.40) in appendix Table 4, isnoted with responses about whether thebeneficiaries no longer sell gorillas body part andelephants. It also implies that there very highvaried response.

During discussions, some communitymembers revealed that buffaloes found outsidethe park should be killed and eaten bycommunities in compensation of their crops. Thisstudy was also supported by (Borner, Mendoza &Vosti, (2007); Skonhoft, (2007) who revealedthat if the local people bear the actual cost ofconservation without obtaining significantbenefits from it, they will develop negativeattitudes towards wildlife conservation

Attitude towards Flora ConservationAs can be noted in Table 8, the results

indicated that the level of community attitudetowards flora Conservation in the study area wasvery high (pooled mean = 4.31). Appendix Table5, indicates that very many (over 80%) with (M =4.29, SD = 0.82) respondents agreed and stronglyagreed that they no longer cut bamboo within thepark. A high standard deviation (SD = 0.82)however, suggests that there was high variedresponse on this matter. Similar trend of highstandard deviation (SD = 1.10) in appendix Table5, is noted with responses about whether thebeneficiaries no longer practice the beekeepingwithin the park. A vivid example is withresponses about whether they were still collectingthe medicinal plants within the park. The highstandard deviation (SD= 3.33) in appendix Table5, clearly suggests that, there was no generalconsensus of the matter. Further analysis overthis response revealed that almost 40%respondents agreed that they no longer collectmedicinal plants within the park; more than halfstrongly agreed so.

Most of the people had seen the benefitsfrom the park; hence feel responsible forconserving it. Since the community is waiting for


20

something in terms of Tourism Revenue Sharing,there is always the feeling of responsibility toconserve the park. Attitude has changed towardsconservation. Farmers are building walls toprotect animals from encroaching on their farms;they do not just sit and watch to wait forcompensation from RDB. (Interview with RDBOfficials)In the interview with the park warden in chargeof the park protection, he revealed that “formerly,guards were enemies of the community and viceversa. But today the people around the park aredoing even more than the guards to protect thepark”.

Tourism Revenue Sharing and CommunityAttitude towards National Park Conservation

in Musanze District

The fourth objective was to establish theinfluence between Tourism Revenue Sharing onthe community attitude towards conservation offauna and flora in the study area. To achieve thisobjective multiple regression was used andresults are presented in Table 9.

Table 4: Contribution of the TRS on Community Attitude towards National Park Conservation

Predictor Variables UnstandardizedCoefficients

StandardizedCoefficients

TP-

value

Interpretation

BStd.Error Beta

Direct benefits .001 .025 .003 .046 .964 Non significant

Indirect benefits .040 .018 .124 2.160 .032 Significant

Attitude towards Flora

Direct benefits .092 .038 .138 2.439 .015 Significant

Indirect benefits .063 .027 .131 2.312 .021 Significant

R2 =0.043 Adjust R2 =0.037 Significant at 0.05 level of significance

Tourism Revenue Sharing and CommunityAttitude towards Fauna

Results in Table 9 show that indirectbenefits significantly influence the communityattitude towards National Park conservation inrespect to fauna (B = 0.124, P = 0.032). However,direct benefits did not show a significantinfluence (B = 0.003, P = 0.964) of communityattitude towards fauna. Results suggest that12.4% variation in community attitude (fauna) isexplained by indirect benefits.

It implies that benefits such as provisionof education and water facilities to thecommunity under the TRS program is aneffective approach in positively shaping the

Community attitude National Parkconservation in respect to fauna

Results suggest that 12.4% variation incommunity attitude (fauna) is explained byindirect benefits. It implies that benefits such asprovision of education and water facilities to thecommunity under the TRS program is aneffective approach in positively shaping thecommunity attitude National Park conservation.

Possibly the issues of human-animalconflict is responsible for the communityattitudes. The findings suggest that poaching,snares setting, and illegal animal trafficking fromthe Forest National Park, are prominent activities


21

and highly practiced the community to thedetriment of the Fauna. Due to this selfishapproach, the community attitude towardsNational Park Conservation in respect of theFauna is not significant. The results are supportedby the RDB report 2010 who ascertained that in2008, some illegal activities types have beenfound in Volcanoes National Park as it has beenthe same case for a long time ago, 1800 snareswere found in Volcanoes National Park.

Tourism Revenue Sharing and CommunityAttitude towards Flora

Results in Table 9 unlike with Fauna, boththe direct and indirect benefits have significantinfluence on the community attitude towardsNational Park conservation. B= 0.138, P = 0.015;B = 0.131, P = 0.021) for direct and indirectbenefits respectively. Results suggest that 13.8%variation in community attitude towards flora isexplained by direct benefits, while 13.1% changeis accountable for the indirect benefits underTourism Revenue Sharing program. This impliesthat both indirect benefits (education, water) anddirect benefits (employment, funding association)are effective approaches in making thecommunity understand the importance ofconserving the flora.

The findings suggest that collecting honey(bee keeping), medicinal plants, bamboo cuttingfrom the Volcanoes National Park, is highlyvalued by the community, hence the positiveattitude towards the Flora.

Hypothesis TestingThe hypothesis - there is no significant

influence of revenue sharing program oncommunity attitude towards National ParkConservation in Musanze District.

As reflected in the Table 9, with Fauna,direct benefits (t=0.046, P-value=0,964), indirectbenefits (t=2.160, P-value = 0.032); the nullhypothesis was rejected in respect to indirectbenefit, since P-value is less than 0.05 level ofsignificance. Hence it can be concluded indirectbenefits significantly influence the communityattitude towards fauna.

Other factors affecting the CommunityAttitude towards Conservation of the

Volcanoes National Park in Musanze DistrictObjective 5 was to find out the other

factors affecting the community towards nationalpark conservation using open endedquestionnaire. Summary of the findings arecovered in the Table 10.


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Table 5: Challenges Affecting the Community Attitude towards Conservation of the VolcanoesNational Park in Musanze District

Factors Frequency Percentage RankCrop Raiding 250 23.4 1

Lack of Compensation for Cropsdamaged

186 17.4 2

Income Poverty 153 14.3 3

Victims of Bodily injury and Death 138 12.9 4

Lack of Awareness on the Park 126 11.8 5

Cultivable Land Shortage 117 10.9 6

Lack of Fencing 98 9.2 7

Total 1068 100Sources: Primary Data

Crop Raiding

Crop raiding ranked highest amongfactors affecting the community attitude. Therespondents reported Crop raiding (23.4%) to bea burden to farmers living adjacent to PNV,where the economic damage from crop raidingexceeds the potential benefits from the parktourism revenues and related benefits toindividuals and communities neighboring thepark.

Victims to Bodily Injury and Death

The findings in Table 10, show that 138(44.8%) reported victims of bodily injury anddeath as a challenge. Human-wildlife conflict canalso lead to loss of human life and result insustaining long-term injuries. Communitiesreported cases of human death and injuries. Suchtragedies can scare people and intensify negativeattitudes towards wildlife.

Insufficient Cultivable Land

The findings in Table 10, show that 117(38%) reported insufficient land as a challenge tothe Park conservation. Land - The historicalcontext of land scarcity is more acutely evidentaround the PNV. The mean population density ofthe 12 sectors around the park is 590 people perkm2 - ranging from 314 people per km2 in KinigiSector, the central zone, up to an astonishing1,028 people per km2 in Gahunga Sector, in theeastern zone. The mean own reported landholding was 0.55ha, with park-adjacenthouseholds having mean holdings of 0.42ha andnon-adjacent households a mean of 0.67ha. Glenn(2010) respondents’ ratings of the quantity andquality of land in their village portray aworsening situation in terms of land availabilityand land quality if current trends continue.

Income PovertyThe findings in Table 10, show that 153

(49, 7%) reported income poverty as a challenge.Around VNP, a good number of wealth indicatorsshow low standards of living for the localpopulation. These indicators include the qualityof land, cattle, manpower, the possibility ofsending children to school, crop production (if a


23

farmer is able to feed himself and sell), thequality of houses, means of transport, andownership of assets such as a radio.

Suggestions to Promote Good Relationshipbetween the People Neighboring the Park and

the Volcanoes National Park

The study is in relation to objective 5further sought suggestions from respondents howto promote good relationship between the peopleneighbouring the Park and the VolcanoesNational Park using open ended questionnaire.The summary of the study results is shown inTable 11.

Table 6: Suggestions to promote good relationship between the people neighboring the Park and theVolcanoes National Park

Suggestions Frequency Percentage RankCompensation fund for community cropraiding

298 27.5 1

Fencing the Park 246 22.7 2

Promoting income generating activitiesto reduce Poverty

178 16.4 3

Increase awareness on the park insensitizing community about itsconservation

161 14.9 4

Sensitization on Cultural beliefs inrelation to wildlife

109 10.0 5

Promoting community visits to thenational pack

92 8.5 6

Total 1084 100Source: Primary data

The study findings in Table 11, indicatethat compensation fund for community crop wasthe leading suggestion 298 (27.5%), followed byfencing the park 246 (22.7%) the next one waspromoting income generating activities 178(16.4%) followed by increase awareness on thepark in sensitizing community about itsconservation 161 (14.9) next was sensitization oncultural believes in relation to wildlife 10.0% andlastly promoting community visits to the NationalPark 92 (8.5%).Local government problem animal-controlprocedures should be established and supportedthrough training and reviewing exercises.

Fencing is used in an effort to keepanimals away from farmers’ fields and thusprevent crop raiding. Most fencing is constructedfrom local materials and is of a simple design. Asa result fences are not very effective in manycases, many animals can get through it or over it(e.g. primates) whilst others will simply destroy it(e.g. elephants). This enhances the socialwellbeing of the local people and it helps them tobe aware of opportunities around the park.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The study was to find out the influence ofTourism Revenue sharing Program on


24

Community Attitude towards National ParkConservation in Musanze District. Findings onthe demographic characteristics revealed thatrespondents from Gataraga dominated the study114 (37.0%), female dominated 164 (53.2%),those who were in the age bracket of 36-40dominated the study, those who were marrieddominated the study 201 (65.3%), those who hadprimary level dominated the study 135 (43.8%),those who cultivate dominated the study112(36.4%), and lastly, those who have amonthly income of 20.000-30.000 dominated thestudy.

The results indicated that the tourismrevenue sharing benefits available to thebeneficiaries were assessed high at a mean(u=4.4) and standard deviation of (s=0.7) whichis a very high mean and very high standarddeviation which indicates a mean and standarddeviations that fall in the very high scale. Thisimplies that the availability of tourism revenuesharing to the beneficiary is high.

The results indicated that the level ofcommunity attitude towards National ParkConservation in Musanze District at a mean(u=4.3) and standard deviation of (s=1.5) whichindicates a mean and standard deviations that fallin the very high scale. This implies that thecommunity attitude towards National ParkConservation is positive.

Area for Further Research

1. Whereas local communities cause loss towildlife and vice versa, this study found that theconflicts between communities and wildlife, asimilar research study may be conducted on thehuman – animals’ conflict and how it influencesattitude towards National Park conservation.2. Community conservation in national park, asocio-economic research should be carried outacross the communities neighboring the parks, tocome up with clear welfare/poverty profiles andspecific needs, so as to be able to ascertain whatpercentage of RS fund that should be increased

for communities in each of the three nationalparks.

REFERENCES

Adams, W.M. & Infield, M. (2003) Who is on theGorilla’s Payroll? Claims on TouristRevenue from a Ugandan National Park.World Development 31: 177–190

Adams, W.A. (2003). Nature and the ColonialMind. In Decolonizing Nature:Strategies for Conservation in thePostcolonial Era. W.A. Adams and M.Mulligan, eds. London: Earthscan.

Allendorf, T.D. (2006 October 27). Residents’Attitudes towards Three Protected Areasin Southwestern Nepal. BiodiversityConservation (2007) 16:2087–2102,Springer Science Business Media.

Hulme, D., & Murphree, M. (2001). AfricanWildlife and Livelihoods: The Promiseand Performance of CommunityConservation. Oxford, U.K : JamesCurrey Ltd.

Johannesen, A. B. & Skonhoft, A. (2005).Tourism, poaching and wildlifeconservation: what can integrateconservation and development projectsaccomplish? Resource and EnergyEconomics, vol.27, 208-226

Makambo, W. (2009). Sabyinyo SilverbackLodge: A community partnership forconservation, “International GorillaConservation Program, presentation fromRDB-TC tourism forum.

Mehta, H and Katee, C. (2005). Virunga MassifSustainable Tourism Development Plan,ICCN, ORTPN, UWA, IGCP, Kigali-Rwanda

ORTPN. (2005). Strategic plan 2005-2008ORTPN, Kigali-Rwanda, pp 26- 178.RDB. (2010). Volcanoes National Park,

Annual Operational report, Musanze, pp 48


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Plumptre, A. (2003). The Socio-economic Statusof People Living near Protected Areas inthe Central Albertine Rift, pp 198

Roe, D. and J. Elliott. 2004. Poverty reductionand biodiversity conservation: Rebuildingthe bridges. Oryx 38(2): 137-139.

Sabuhoro, E. (2006). Ecotourism as a potentialconservation incentive for localCommunities around Rwanda’s Parc

National des Volcans. Un published MScdissertation. University of Kent atCanterbury UK

Spenceley, A. (2008). Responsible tourism inSouthern Africa.


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SCHOOL CULTURE AND SCHOOL CLIMATE ON PUPILS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCEIN K.C.P.E NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATEPRIMARY SCHOOLS IN KAKAMEGA

NORTH DISTRICT - KENYA

H. A. Oyando Stephen*Paul Katamba, PhD**

I. Kakule Kisunzu, PhD***Joshua Musasizi, MA****

*MA (Education Management) Student, School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University, Uganda**Senior Lecturer & Dean, Graduate School of Education, Bugema University.Email:

[email protected]***Senior Lecturer & Dean, School of Education Bugema University.Email:[email protected]

****Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University.Email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to establish the relationship between school culture andschool climate and the academic performance of pupils in public and private primary schools inKakamega North District Kenya. Specifically the study wanted: To find out the prevalent attitudes heldby pupils and teachers in the district about their schools in relation to school culture and schoolclimate; To determine the trend of the primary schools’ performance index in K.C.P.E. nationalexaminations for 5 years; To establish if there was any difference in performance index betweenprivate and public primary schools in the national examinations and To determine if there was anyeffect of “school culture” and “school climate” on the pupils’ academic performance .

The study was designed in a comparative Paradigm using a descriptive and CorrelationResearch design. Data were collected from 34 head teachers, 136 teachers and 392 pupils usingquestionnaires and interview guide as the main data collection instruments. Also data on nationalK.C.P.E results for 5 consecutive years was obtained which was used in comparing pupils'performance in the two categories of schools. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics,summary mean statistics and lastly using Pearson Correlation in correlating school culture and schoolclimate with pupils' academic performance in private and public primary schools in Kakamega NorthDistrict.

The study revealed that there was no significant difference in the academic performance ofpupils in the public and private primary schools. Though there were divergent attitudes and varyingschool culture and school climate with pupils in private primary schools, performing better and aboveaverage in national examinations than their public schools counterparts. However, the study showedthat there was a significant relationship between school culture and school climate on pupils’academic performance in national examinations.

Keywords: Attitudes, Pupil, Teachers, School culture, School climate


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INTRODUCTION

Education has been an important aspect thatsociety has imposed on its constituents formallyand informally. In the formal sector, the schooltakes the responsibility of developing anindividual in all the spheres of humandevelopment. Since education is perceived as ameans of transforming society, it is in the interestof every society that all the potential futureleaders and the entire society achieve theobjectives of education. .

Global education policies andprogrammes are pressured on the third world anddeveloping countries because of the globalconcern on the effects of globalization. In thewake of the technological era, sustainableeducation system and the quality of educationunderpin the survival of the future generation inthis twenty first century and beyond. However,global educational policies and programmes alikehave brought forth significant challenges in manyeducation systems around the globe, though theseeducation policies in the twenty first century arethe key to global security, sustainability andsurvival (Olsen, 2006).

Throughout the world, societies haveeducated their children either in public or privateschools basing on various reasons. The choicebetween a private and a public school is one ofthe main decisions that families and individualshave to make in the world today. The Parents andstudents consider many factors in making thesechoices such as tuition cost, discipline, racial mixand the religious and moral values of the school.However, Sifuna (2003), notes that the firstconcern is the effectiveness of the school inproducing academic achievements. CristianBellei (2006), in his research - The Private-PublicSchool Controversy: The Case of Chile presentedto the Harvard Graduate School of Education,noted that private schools scored higher thanpublic schools, and that this difference wasstatistically significant. Paul Bennett (2011), alsonoted that students who attend private schoolstend to perform “significantly better” on

international achievement tests, and that a newAugust 2011 report, commissioned by theOrganization of Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD), confirmed this whilepainting a more complicated picture, factoring ina socio-economic analysis of the results.

In the August 2011 study reported in PISA inFocus, private school students at 14-years-of-agewere compared with the much larger publicschool cohort using results from the 2009Program of International Standards andAssessment (PISA). Based upon straight results,private school students in 36 OECD countries,including Canada, scored 30 points higher inPISA reading scores, essentially equivalent tothree-quarters of a year’s worth of formalschooling. Christopher Lubienski and SarahTheule Lubienski, (2006) investigated academicachievement in Charter, Private and PublicSchools. This was in their project funded througha National Assessment of Educational ProgressSecondary Analysis Grant (#R902B05017) fromthe National Center for Education Statistics,Institute of Education Sciences University ofIllinois. They noted that private schools scoredhigher than non charter public schools, as wouldbe expected.

African states on the other hand arestruggling with their social-cultural, economicand political constraints towards realizing theirdreams to achieve quality sustainable educationsystems that will produce graduates who willcompete favorably on the global market. Africanregional protocols have laid much emphasis onthe economic survival and political stability at theexpense of a key factor in international cohesionand national development- education. In herstudy on the Parents’ Preference for PrivateSecondary Schools in Nigeria presented in theFaculty of Education, University of Ado-Ekiti,Ekiti State, Nigeria, Florence Aduke Adebayo(2009), noted a high and positive level ofacademic performance for private schools ascompared to public schools.

In another study, James AyodeleOluwatayo (2012), conducted a comparative


28

study of pupils’ performance in quantitativeaptitude test in public and private primaryschools and noted that pupils in private primaryschools have better quantitative aptitude thantheir counterparts in the public schools.Moreover, she noted that pupils in privateprimary schools in both urban and rural areasperformed significantly better than theircounterparts in the public schools. CatherineOchenge (2008), studying academic performancebetween private and public schools in KitaleMunicipality – Kenya, noted that the tests ofsignificance showed disparity in academicperformance of both boys and girls in privateschools from those of the public. This showedthat private schools do better than public schoolseven at lower levels.

Education for all policy, as coined by theinternational community, has not only providedthe framework for education survival, but alsowith it has come the challenges that pose a threatto the very objectives for which it was tailored toachieve. Since the introduction of the UniversalPrimary Education (U.P.E) in Kenya in 2003,there has been an upsurge and explosion inpopulation of primary schools pupils. Theschools were overwhelmed by the numbers sincethe classrooms were not added or expanded (Too,2005). Many primary schools are understaffed asa result of the U.P.E. This therefore affects theirperformance (Too, 2005). This situation has hada significant effect on the delivery of education inKenyan primary schools. According to Boy(2006), over enrolment has caused poorperformance in public primary schools in Kenya.

The Ministry of Education Science andTechnology (MOEST) in Kenya still maintains itssupervisory role through what is referred to asdirectors and districts quality assurance andstandards officers (DQASOs). However, astuteobservations, articles and repeated educationalresearch studies indicate that there is an on-goingdecline of supervision in schools throughout theglobe today (Bentley, 2005). According toOkumbe, general supervision denotes suchactivities as writing and revision of curricular,

preparation of schemes of work, lesson plans,marking students pending work, preparation ofunits and materials of instruction (Okumbe, 2007p 176).

He further contends that instructionalsupervision is concerned with teachers teachingand students learning in the classroom. Thedecline in supervision trend in schools leaves thehead teachers, the teachers and the entire schoolcommunity to generate a “culture” in theirschools uniquely different from each other andthereby each school pursues its own perceivedphilosophy that supports pupil’s optimization ofthe learning opportunities and learningexperiences. Culture in this respect is in referenceto the way things are normally done in a learninginstitution which includes the school’s obviouselements of schedules, curriculum, rituals, andpolicies as well as the social interactions thatoccur within those structures that give a school itsunique look, feel and identity. As a result, whenyou enter in any school you get a feel that isuniquely different from one school to anotherwhat in this research is being termed as “schoolclimate”.

A recent report on the National (KenyaCertificate of Primary Education - K.C.P.E)2011 examination results, (Daily NationNewspaper Thursday 29th December 2011) -indicated that Kakamega North district wasranked among the last districts in KakamegaCounty which was ranked position ten out of theforty seven counties in the Republic of Kenya.Interestingly still, the report showed that privateschools performed comparatively better thanpublic schools. For instance, on ranking schoolsaccording to performance, the first twentypositions nationally were taken by privateschools. On the pupils’ scores, the private schoolsdominated the top slots. For instance, top tencandidates nationally had two out of fourteencoming from public schools while twelve fromprivate schools. Worse still less than ten of thetop fifty candidates came from public schools.

Global education policies acknowledgethe co-existence of both the private and public


29

sector in educating society. However, thediscrepancy in the quality of education asindicated by the national examinations grades invarious states calls for a serious concern. It wasfrom this imbalance of performance that theresearcher wished to ascertain the causes of thissharp difference in performance among schoolsand particularly between public and privateschools.

The office of the District Education Office(D.E.O) in Kakamega North Districtacknowledges that despite all the efforts by thegovernment of Kenya in providing instructionalmaterials commensurately to schools, little hasbeen documented on the assessment of the causeof this persistent massive failure of pupils innational K.C.P.E exams in the district. The officeof the D.E.O. further noted that much had beendone to alleviate the situation through zonal basedseminars which are always mounted to impartnew skills in the teachers but the results havenever been satisfactory. A massive transfer ofboth the head teachers and the assistant teachersstill never bore fruits. Since education is the keyto unlock the development potential of anysociety, efforts towards attaining qualitysustainable education outcomes shouldrelentlessly be sought within and without thelearning institutions. In the researcher’s view, theproblem could be emanating from the schoolculture and school climate –components of aschool environment – for private schools in thedistrict are always ranked top in any exam thatschools sit for jointly.

With reference to this, in the Voice OfAmerica (V.O.A), special English Educationreport (2011), the USA president Barak Obamawas quoted saying: if Americans want to win thefuture, they have to win the race to educate theirchildren. In reference to president Obama’sassertive statement, the word race simply meansor implies the on-going serious competitionwhereby countries are competing for topeducational success throughout the globe(Nzabommpa, 2011). In the same vain KakamegaNorth District has to embrace a culture in its

schools that is not only educating their childrenbut also providing quality education andcompeting for top education success throughoutthe nation.

Methodology

Sample

Respondents of the study were 136 out of 34schools. According to Newman, (2000), samplesize selection of 30% of the population the 110schools give a sample of 34 schools.Proportionate distribution of the sample size gave4 private schools and 30 public schools. Basingon the average number of teachers per schoolbeing 12, the sample size per school was at least4 teachers giving 136. The pupils’ number wasdetermined by sampling the class eight pupilsusing the Newman’s (2000), sample selectionformula of 30% of the population. The table 6below shows prototype selection criterion.

The researcher used the purposive samplingand proportionate stratified random sampling tocome up with 4 private schools and 30 publicschools. Within each class systematic randomsampling was used to draw a sample from pupils.Teachers were drawn by simple random samplingthrough the technique of lottery and thepurposive sampling technique was used on onehead teachers.

The questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions was the main tool for datacollection. The open ended provided informationon the performance of pupils in national exams.Likert scale questions asked to find out therespondents’ opinions or attitudes to a givensituation or quality. This was used to gatherqualitative data on the school culture and schoolclimate. Data was analyzed using descriptivestatistics (mean), percentages, inferentialstatistics tool of t-test to analyze the difference inperformance between private and public primaryschools, and Correlation analysis was used todetermine the effect of school culture and schoolclimate on pupils’ academic performance.


30

Table 6: Sample Size Selection Criterion TableSCHOOL No.of

schoolsSampleSizeby ratiox

Av.no.of tchrs/sch

SampleSize y

Totaltchs

Smplexy

Std8 ppAv.

Samplesize30% 0fpp

Tt ppsSample

TotalRespondents

PUBLIC 99 30 12 4 120 40 12 360 480PRIVATE 11 4 12 4 16 25 8 32 48TOTAL 110 34 136 392 528

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Relationship between “School Culture”and “School Climate” and the Pupils’

Academic PerformanceThe forth objective of this study was to determinethe effect of “school culture” and “school

climate” on the pupils’ academic performance innational K.C.P.E examinations. To achieve thisobjective Pearson Correlation was used at asignificance level of 0.001 of which the resultsare presented in table 18.

Table 18: Effect of “School Culture” and “School Climate” on the Pupils’ Academic PerformancePrivateschools

Public schools

R .781** .521**

P-values .000 .000

N 48 480

**Significant at 0.001 level.

The result of the analysis showed that there was asignificant relationship between school cultureand school climate on pupils academicperformance in private primary schools with rho(48) = .781, p =.000) and public primary schoolsrho (480) = .521, p =.000).

However, school culture and climate waspositively correlated to academic performance.The r2 is 0.609961 for private schools while r2 forpublic primary schools was 0.271441 indicatingthat school culture and climate contributed 61.0%

to academic performance in private schools whileit only contributed 27.14% in public primaryschools.

The study finding is supported byPeterson and Deal (2002), who strongly statedthat “Without a strong, positive culture, schoolsflounder and die”. It further agrees with those of,Etsey et al. (2004), in their study of some privateand public schools in Ghana which revealed thatacademic performance is better in private schoolsdue to more effective supervision of work. Some


31

teachers in public schools leave the classroom atwill without attending to their pupils becausethere is insufficient supervision by circuitsupervisors. This lack of supervision gives theteachers ample room to do as they please.

Testing Hypothesis

The correlation coefficient alpha was computed totest the hypothesis thus: There is no significantrelationship between perceived attitudes of both

teachers and pupils on “School Culture” and“School Climate” and Pupils’ AcademicPerformance in National Examinations. Since theP-values in table 18 were found to be lower thanthe significance level (0.000<0.001), the NullHypothesis was rejected and the alternativeaccepted. There is no significant relationshipbetween perceived attitudes of both teachers andpupils on “School Culture” and “School Climate”and Pupils’ Academic Performance in NationalExaminations

Table 19: Finding out the significance difference between the performance of pupils in private andpublic schools

School Pupils’(Means)

Computed t-value Critical t-value Interpretation

PrivatePublic

3.66 0.567 2.655 No significant3.12 difference

Therefore, since there was almost equalperformance in both private and public schools,and thus no significant difference between theperformances of these pupils, this implies that thestandard of education in the district is very lowand that the results in private schools in thedistrict is not consistent with the cited literaturewhere private schools are scoring significantlyhigher than their public counter parts. The resultssuggest that what is being achieved is as a resultof other factors far from the teachers’contributions. It also implies that the synergies ofboth the private and public teachers are notsuccessful in the use of high leverage strategiesgrounded in evidence -informed and innovativeprofessional practices to maximize the pupils’academic outcomes.


In summary, the result on thedemographic characteristics revealed thatmajority were female 289 (54.73%), majority 392(74.24%) were aged between 10-20 years, andmajority 231 (43.75%) respondents had stayed inthose schools between 1-5 years. The resultsindicated that, the extent of school culture in

selected private schools was good in private andaverage in the public schools. The scale indicatedthat the extent of school climate was good inprivate schools and was poor in public schools.From the document analysis, it was found outthat the general trend of performance for theschools has been declining for the last five years.

The results indicate that private schoolsare scoring higher in national examinations ascompared to public primary schools in thedistrict. It also showed that the private primaryschools in Kakamega North district maintain atradition of scoring more than 60% in theNational examinations as compared to Publicprimary schools which score lower with a lot ofmark fluctuations yearly. The findings in table 19show that the grand mean of pupils’ performancefor private schools was 3.66 whereas publicsecondary schools had 3.12. Using the formula;when t-critical > computed t-value the NullHypotheses is accepted; thus, the NullHypothesis stating that; “There is no significantdifference between performance of students inpublic and private schools was accepted.

The result of the analysis showed thatthere was a significant relationship betweenschool culture and school climate on academic


32

performance in private primary schools rho (48)= .781, p =.000) and public primary schools rho(480) = .521, p =.000). Since the P-value wasfound to be lower than the significance level(0.000<0.001), the Null Hypothesis was rejectedand the alternative accepted.

Basing on the findings of the study, thefollowing conclusions can be made. There is asignificant relationship between school cultureand school climate and pupils’ academicperformance in national examinations. It was alsofound that, despite the poor performance ofpupils in national examinations, private schoolscontinued to score slightly above average ascompared to their counter parts in public schoolsthat scored below average. Finally school cultureand school climate had an effect on the academicperformance of primary school children innational examinations contributing 61.0% inprivate schools while only 27.14% influence wasrealized in the public schools.

Suggestions for Further ResearchThe following are suggestions for furtherresearch based on the findings of the study1. There is need for a similar study to be

conducted in urban setting to allow forgeneralization of research findings.

2. There is need to establish if social class of theparent of pupils is a factor to academicperformance in private schools.

REFERENCES

Andreas Kythreotis, Petros Pashiardis, andLeonidas Kyriakides. (2010). "Theinfluence of school leadership stylesand culture on students' achievementin Cyprus primary schools", Journalof Educational Administration, Vol.48 Iss: 2, p.218 – 240

Boy J. (2006). Free Primary Education and itsEffects on Student Performance inBungoma

Cais – Snapshot. (2011). Private Schools vs.Public Schools: Comparing StudentPerformance on International Tests,Journal Retrieved on 24th June 2012.

Cristian Bellei. (2005 ). The Private-PublicSchool Controversy: The Case ofChile Harvard Graduate School ofEducation.df journal retrieved on 24th

June 2012 at 11:53 a:m.David J. Dewit, Leslie Akst, Kathy Braun,

Jennifer Jelley, Lorrie Lefebvre,Christine Mckee,Barbara J. Rye, andMartin Shain. (2002). Sense of SchoolMembership: A Mediating MechanismLinking Student Perceptions of SchoolCulture with Academic andBehavioural Functioning (BaselineData Report of the School CultureProject). Centre for Addiction &Mental Health.

Florence Aduke Adebayo. (2009). Parents’Preference for Private SecondarySchools in Nigeria .Journal Faculty ofEducation, University of Ado-Ekiti,State, Nigeria Retrieved on 24th June2012.

Lubianski e.I. (2005). The education worksprivate vs public schools: Somesurprises in District. An unpublishedresearch thesis, Moi University.

Paul W. Bennett. (2011). Private Schools vs.Public Schools: Why Do PrivateSchool Students AchieveBetter Results? Retrieved fromhttp://www.pisa.oecd.org/dataoecd/6/43/48482894.pdf on 24th June 2012.

Sifuna D.N. (2003). Free Primary Education:Every child in school. MOEST,Nairobi.

Too, J .K (2005). Quality of free primaryEducation in Kenya, The Educator,School of Education Moi University,Moi University Press, Eldoret.


33

SMALL-SCALE ENTREPRENEURS’ SUCCESS IN KAMPALA CAPITAL AUTHORITY,UGANDA

Kibuuka Muhammad*Kiweewa Emmanuel **

Sylvia Nakate ***Stephen S. Kizza****

*College of Higher Degree and Research Kampala International University UgandaEmail:[email protected]

**Department of Business & Management KIU Dar es salaam College TanzaniaEmail:[email protected]

***School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University, KampalaEmail:[email protected]

****School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University, KampalaEmail:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The study established the extent to which 386 purposively selected small-scale entrepreneurs inKampala are successful in their ventures, using descriptive comparative and cross sectional surveydesigns. Using a self made questionnaire data was collected to answer three questions; 1) profile ofSSEs; 2) level of success; and 3) differences in levels of success. Data analysis using frequencies,means, t-test and ANOVA, revealed that more than 56% of SSEs in Kampala are men, majority aregraduates, below 30 years, 63% are sole proprietorships, 50% employ less than 5 workers and 67%have been in business for less than five years. There was a moderate level of success internally (mean= 3.06) and externally (mean = 3.27). Success differed significantly according to; gender (male >female), education level (graduates > non graduates), age (50 and above > below50), business form(joint ventures > sole proprietorship ventures) and years in business (5years or above > less than5years). It was concluded that SSEs are less successful internally and more successful externally. Maleentrepreneurs are more likely to succeed than females. Entrepreneurs who are educated, preferably upto a graduate level are more likely to succeed than those who are not. Younger entrepreneurs have lesschances of success than old ones. Entrepreneurs with joint ventures are more likely to succeed thansole proprietorships. The more years one manages a venture the more chances of success and viceversa. It was recommended that there is need to promote education of SSEs on formation of jointventures; entrepreneurial skills be made mandatory in institutions’ curricula. Avenues to increaseSSEs revenue and profits should be undertaken, e.g. forming strong associations, looking for biggermarkets, reducing taxes and license fees.

Key Words: Success, small-scale entrepreneur, Venture, Enterprise, Business, Entrepreneur


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INTRODUCTION

In all countries entrepreneurs are catalystsfor economic growth through innovation and jobcreation (Kelly et al, 2011). They are thereforecritical to the development and well-being ofsociety. Therefore understanding their success iscritical for proper policy guidelines. In Ugandalocal entrepreneurs have not been performingwell since colonial days, as most enterprises werein hands of foreigners. After independence, a fewUgandans in Kampala started small-scaleenterprises (SSE) for profit (Musiime, 2007),leaving medium and large-scale enterprises toAsians. Musiime (2007) noted that Ugandansmall-scale entrepreneurs (SSEs) lacked skills inbusiness know-how, bookkeeping, and raisingcapital, which limited their success. This becamemore vivid in 1972, when Asians were expelled,local entrepreneurs who took or opened up shopsin Kampala hardly survived for a year and thecountry was dragged into business crisis(Musiime, 2007). Of recent, the Government hasencouraged entrepreneurs by reducing interestrates, taxes on imported capital goods andallocation of gazetted areas for SSEs (Bbumba,2009).

Many theories explain factors affectingsuccess of entrepreneurs; for exampleenvironmental and individual schools of thoughtby Hanns & Freeman, 1977 (in Revander &Racculla, 2001). The Environmental schoolasserts that, entrepreneurial performances thatlead to success are affected by external factors,while the Individual school focuses onpersonality traits shared among successfulentrepreneurs such as social skills, motivation,need for achievement, need for independence,responsibility, determination and power.

This study was conducted in KampalaDistrict, the abode of most SSEs, in welding,metal works, sole shops, schools, restaurants andother professional firms. Although Uganda rankshigh on entrepreneurial index in the world(Namatovu et al, 2010), mortality rate of newSSE is very high (Lois & Annette, 2005).

Ishengoma & Kappel (2008) noted that most SSEin Uganda die in their first two years, majorityemploy less than 5 workers and contribute lessthan 20% to GDP. According to Ssempebwa,78% of SSEs in Kampala are constrained and sohave limited chances of success (MoFPED,2008). While this problem is well documented,few researchers (e.g. Mayanja, 2001;Tushabomwe-Kazooba, 2006) have bothered toexamine the extent to which these firms aresuccessful at a micro level. This necessitated astudy to cover this gap by examining the; i)profile of SSEs; ii) level of success of SSEs; andiii) establish if there are significant differences inlevel of success according to demographiccharacteristics of SSEs in Kampala.

ConceptualizationIn order to establish the extent to which smallscale entrepreneurs in Kampala are successful,the study involved a conceptualization andoperationalisation of the term entrepreneurialsuccess by dissecting it into constructs includingentrepreneur, small-scale enterprise andentrepreneurial success and obtained views, ideasand opinions from experts and scholars in thefield of entrepreneurship

EntrepreneurAn entrepreneur is a person who

initiates, organise and re-organise resources andundertake risks of establishing a new venture(Hisrich, 2000). To Bygrave (2004) anentrepreneur as a person who perceives anopportunity and creates an organisation to pursueit. The University of Pretoria defines anentrepreneur as a person, who sees a marketopportunity, gathers resources, creates and growsa business venture to satisfy these needs,undertakes venture risks, and is rewarded withprofit if it succeeds (Kunene, 2008).

Small-scale Entrepreneur/ EnterpriseA small-scale entrepreneur is defined as

an individual who initiates, owns and runs a SSE.A SSE is defined differently basing on many


35

factors. Richard & Donald (1992), defined a SSEas; “one independently owned and operated, andnot dominant in its field of operation” (p.56).Broom et al (1983) identified the criteria used tomeasure the size of a venture being small orlarge, as; number of employees, sales volume,assets size, insurance in force and volume ofdeposits, but this study concentrated on the firstthree measures.Entrepreneurial Success

Entrepreneurial success is defined as thelevel and extent to which the entrepreneur’sventure meets owner’s objectives and society’sexpectations (Cohen, 1993). According to Emeric(1998) entrepreneurial success construct involveseconomic success and entrepreneur’s satisfaction.Regarding the later, some SSEs take themselvesas successful because their ventures support acertain life style, even though they earn a smallerincome than when they were employees. Niemanet al (2003) defined successful entrepreneurs ashaving a business longer than two years, havingmore than five but less than 30 workers, making aprofit and increase in assets.

To Cohen (1993) success dimensions aregrouped into personal and environmental.Personal success includes experience,satisfaction, adaptability and exposure.Environmental success includes relationshipswith others (e.g. customers, subordinates andfriends). This study considered personal successas internal and environmental success as external.Internal success involved personal benefits likeincreased profits, sales, personal satisfaction,expansion, etc, while external success involvedbenefits to society where the business is locatedand include increased job opportunities, output,improved quality, relations, trained people,increased assets, etc.

The conceptualisations above indicate thatentrepreneurial success is measured using variousdimensions such as personal satisfaction andsatisfaction of expectations of the society. Many

researchers have identified various indicators ofventure success whether personal or societal;Newton (2001) considered increasedproductivity, competitiveness, market share,profit and opening branches; Bosma et al (2000)considered increased trained people, satisfactionand long term survival. To Emeric (1998) successcan be measured subjectively using perceptionsof entrepreneurs and objectively using economicperformance such as efficiency, growth, profit,size, liquidity and market share. This study usedperceptions to measure their success.

METHODOLOGY

The study followed an ex-post facto,descriptive comparative and cross-sectionalsurvey design. It was ex-post facto since theresearcher had no control over variables andsought to report what existed (Cooper &Schindler, 2008); descriptive comparative surveysince the researcher described and comparedlevels of success of a big sample of SSEs, usingdemographics such as gender, age, education andworkers.

The target population of this study was11003 SSEs from five divisions of Kampala(Uganda business register, 2008), from twobusiness fields (5280 services firms; schools,health and 5723 non professional firms; retail andwhole sale shop).

As indicated in table 1, stratified andpurposive sampling were used to select 386owners of professional and non professionalventures. The researcher set up the followingcriteria; a) From each division, 77 were selected.b) Out of the 77 from each division, aproportionate sample size for professional andnon professional firm owners was selected asindicated in Table1. c) For professional owners,the entrepreneur had a primary, secondary schoolor a health services business. d) For nonprofessional firms, the entrepreneur selected hadto own retail or a whole sale shop or a restaurant.


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Table 1: Sample Size DistributionNo. Division Population Sample

Professional

NonProfessional

Total Professional

Unprofessional

Total

1 Central 616 1585 2201 25 53 782 Rubaga 814 1386 2200 30 47 773 Makindye 1584 616 2200 53 24 774 Nakawa 1364 836 2200 43 34 775 Kawempe 902 1298 2200 38 39 77Total 5280 5723 11003 189 197 386

Source: Computed from Uganda Business Register 2008 data

A researcher made questionnaire was usedconsisted of eight bio data questions and 28 fivepoints Likert scaled items on success, dividedinto two; 10 items on personal success and 18items on external success, where 1 = very low orno increase at all; 2=low; 3=moderate; 4=highincrease; 5=very high increase.

Construct validity was used to ensurecontent validity using factor analysis, results ofwhich showed that the internal questions had avariance of 58.447% while for external success itwas 61.129, hence items were valid in explaining

the constructs in instrument. Reliability of datacollected was tested using Cronbach’s coefficientalpha, results of which showed a high degree ofreliability (overall Cronbach’s alphas 0.914).

Frequency counts and percentages wereused to analyse data on profile of SSEs. Meanswere computed to measure the level of SSEssuccess, which reflected strengths andweaknesses.For interpretation of means, the followingnumerical values and descriptions were used:

Mean Range Description/ Response Interpretation4.21-5.00 Very high increase Very successful3.41-4.20 high increase Successful2.61-3.40 Moderate Fairly successful1.81-2.60 Low increase Unsuccessful1.00-1.80 Very low or no increase at all Very unsuccessful

At bivariate level, the Student’s two independentsamples t-test and Fisher’s One Way ANOVAwere used to establish whether success differedsignificantly according to demographiccharacteristics of SSEs at 0.05 level ofsignificance.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

Data were analysed as they relate to the studyobjectives and results presented in the followingfour tables.


37

Respondents’ ProfileTable 4: Profile of Small Scale Entrepreneurs in Kampala

Major Category Sub-category Frequency PercentSex Male 196 56

Female 154 44

Education level Primary 3 1

Secondary 73 21

College certificate 77 22

Diploma 90 26

Degree 108 31

Age Group Below 30 years 164 47

30 - 49 years 161 46

50 and above 25 7

Business Form Sole proprietorship 220 63

Partnership 80 23

Limited company 50 14

Business SectorBusiness Services (e.g. Schools &health) 137 39

communication (telephones &computers) 38 11

Foods and drinks (restaurant) 38 11

Stationary and printing art and designs 32 9

Other forms 105 30

Number of WorkersEmployed

Below 5 167 49

5 - 9 workers 36 10

10 -14 workers 43 12

15 -19 workers 29 8

20 and above 75 21

Years in Business Below 5years 235 67

5 - 9 years 84 24

10 and above 32 9

Source; Primary data, May 2011

Table 4 indicated that; most SSEs were male196(56%), compared to females 154(44%). Thiscoincided with Lois & Annette (2005) whoshowed that female entrepreneurs in Ugandacontribute over 45%. Concerning education

level, most SSEs in Kampala were graduates108(31%), consistent with MoFPED (2008)showing that 60% of the small and mediumenterprises in Uganda are started by educatedpeople, basically graduates. In respect to age,


38

SSEs below 30 years were majority 164 (47%)consistent with Lois & Annette (2005) that mostSSEs in Uganda are in the age bracket of 30s orbelow. For business form, sole proprietorshipsdominated others (220, 63%), which is inconformity with Lois & Annette (2005) whoshowed that over 90% of the SSEs in Uganda aresole proprietorships. In terms of business sector,most SSEs are in services 39(39%), implying thatUganda’s economy is becoming service based.

For employees, most SSEs employed <5workers 167(49%). For years spent in business,

235(67%) spent less than five years, implying alow level of business survival. The MoFPED(2008) indicated that on a cumulative basis, 37%of the small and medium enterprises in Ugandaare less than five years old.

Level of Success among SSEs in KampalaKampala SSEs rated the extent to which theyhave been successful in their ventures on eachitem indicated in table 5.

Table 5: Level of Success

The means in Table 5 demonstrated that SSEs in Kampala rated their level of personal success as fair on all the three measures. Personal success was highest on improved life conditions (mean=3.30) and lowest on business expansion (mean=2.71). The overall mean (3.06) confirmed that entrepreneurs perceived

themselves as fairly successful. This imply thatwhere as SSEs earn relatively high profits, theyput them on improving their life (e.g. buyinggood food and home utilities like TVs, radios,building good houses and taking children to goodschools) than expanding their ventures.

For external success, the means in Table 5revealed that entrepreneurs rated themselves asfairly successful on four items and successful ontwo. Their external success was highest onimproved quality (mean=3.70) and lowest on jobcreation (mean=2.92). This implies that SSEs arepoor at creating jobs and good at maintainingquality. On the overall, SSEs rated themselves asfairly successful (overall mean=3.27).

Significant Differences in the Level of SuccessAccording to SSEs’ Demographic

Characteristics

To establish whether success differedsignificantly according to demographiccharacteristics, the researcher hypothesized thatsuccess does not significantly differ according todemographic characteristics. To test this nullhypothesis, the computed mean indices in Tables5 were compared with demographiccharacteristics of SSEs, results are indicated intable 6.

Differences in Levels of Success between Maleand Female Entrepreneurs

Internal Success Mean Interpretation1 Profitability 3.18 Fairly successful2 Business Expansion 2.71 Fairly successful3 Improved Life 3.30 Fairly successfulAverage mean 3.06 Fairly successfulExternal Success1 Increased Job Creation 2.92 Fairly successful2 Increased Output 3.09 Fairly successful3 Improved Public Relations 3.04 Fairly successful4 Business Assets 3.26 Fairly successful5 Improved Quality 3.70 Successful6 Increased Trained People 3.62 SuccessfulAverage mean 3.27 Fairly successfulOverall average mean 3.17 Fairly successful


39

The underlying assumption here was thatthe levels of success do not differ significantlybetween male and female entrepreneurs inKampala. The students’ two independent samples

t-test was used to test this hypothesis, areindicated in table 6A.

Table 6A: Difference in the Level of Success between Male and Female SSEs

Measures of Success Sex Mean t- value Sig. Interpretation Decision on Ho

A. Internal/Personal Success1. Profitability Male 3.32 4.162 0.000 Significant

differenceRejected

Female 3.01

2. Expansion Male 2.85 3.297 0.001 Significantdifference

Rejected

Female 2.51

3. Improved Life Male 3.45 4.314 0.000 Significantdifference

Rejected

Female 3.10

Overall Internal Success Male 3.214.604 0.000

Significantdifference

Rejected

Female 2.88

B. External Success1. Increased Job Creation Male 3.04 3.702 0.000 Significant

differenceRejected

Female 2.75

2. Increased Output Male 3.19 3.172 0.002 Significantdifference

Rejected

Female 2.94

3. Improved Relations Male 3.14 2.935 0.004 Significantdifference

Rejected

Female 2.92

4. Increased Assets Male 3.36 2.994 0.003 Significantdifference

Rejected

Female 3.12

5. Improved Quality Male 3.74 1.119 0.264 Significantdifference

Rejected

Female 3.64

6. Increased Trained People Male 3.82 4.860 0.000 Significantdifference

Rejected

Female 3.38

Overall External Success Male 3.383.820 0.000


Rejected

Female 3.15

Results in Table 6A indicated that internalsuccess differed significantly between male andfemale SSEs (all sigs. < 0.05). As a result the nullhypotheses for all three components of internalsuccess were rejected and a conclusion made thatlevels of internal success differ significantlybetween male and female SSEs in Kampala.

Results indicated that male entrepreneurs weremore successful than females.

Table 6A also indicated that externalsuccess significantly differed for all componentsexcept one; improved quality (F=1.119, sig.=0.264). Basing on these results the nullhypothesis was rejected and a conclusion madethat external success significantly differed, with


40

male entrepreneurs more successful than females.This may be due to big differences between menand women in most communities of Uganda. Forexample, in education men have for a long timesurpassed women, indicating that women skillsare inadequate compared to men, explaining whymen are more successful than women. This issupported by Mujtabah & Kaif (2011) in India,Tajaddini et al (2011) in Iran and so on. Theother reason is the traditional inferiority complexin women. Few women put in the required effortand many believe that wonderful gains inbusiness are achieved by men (Tajaddini et al,2011). From the theoretical assertions of Delmar,personal characteristics such as gender impact

significantly on venture success (Leavander &Racculla, 2001). Such characteristics accordingto Delmar are due to societal perceptions of theroles and strength of men and women, whichpropel men to exert more effort on business andother life endeavors.

Differences in Success among Entrepreneursof Different Education Levels

The underlying assumption here was that successdoes not differ significantly among entrepreneursof different education levels. Fisher’s ANOVAwas used to test it, as indicated in table 6B.

Table 6B: Difference in the Level of Success According to Profile Characteristics

Variablescompared

CategoriesMean F Sig. Interpretation Decision on Ho

Success VsEducation Level

Secondary 2.91

10.64 0.000


Rejected

College certificate 3.15

Diploma 3.11

Degree 3.39

Success Vs Age Below 30 years 3.06 6.34 0.002 Significantdifference

Rejected

30 - 49 years 3.25

50 and above 3.40

Success VsBusiness Form

Sole proprietorship 3.05 13.37 0.000 Significantdifference

Rejected

Partnership 3.30

Limited company 3.47

Success VsYears Spent inBusiness

Below 5years 3.00

17.41 0.000Significantdifference

Rejected

5 - 9 years 3.37

10 and above 3.47

Results in Table 6B indicated that the level ofsuccess differ significantly according toeducation level (F = 10.635, sig. = 0.000). In allcases, entrepreneurs who are more educatedscored highly on the levels of success’ implyingthat the more educated an entrepreneur is, themore chances of success and vice versa. This is inline with the environmental theoretical assertionsthat certain factors outside one’s personality,

influence entrepreneurial success (Drucker,2005). Kunene’s findings also showed thatgraduate entrepreneurs in South Africa weremore successful in their ventures compared tonone graduates, although the difference reducesbeyond first or second degree. Barreira (2004)confirmed that individual qualities such as adegree from a reputable university are apreliquisite for success.


41

Results indicated that successsignificantly differed among entrepreneurs ofdifferent age groups (F=6.337, sig. =0.002),where the mean success for older entrepreneursexceeded that of young entrepreneurs. Thesefindings are in line with those of Mujtabah &Kaif (2011) in India and Kumar & Jain (2010) inAfghanistan. However, Kunene (2008) found thatalthough the level of success for olderentrepreneurs was slightly higher than that of theyoung, the difference was not statisticallysignificant. This study found that the higher theage, the higher the level of success and viceversa, contrary to the findings of Kunene (2008)that at a very high age, success levels are lower,agreeing with Rwigema & Venter (2004) that at acertain maximum age of 80, success levels arelower because.

Table 6B indicated that success differssignificantly according to business form(F=13.368, sig. = 0.000), suggesting thatpartnership and limited company ventures aremore likely to succeed than sole proprietorships.These findings agree with Kunene (2008), wherethere were more sole proprietorship entrepreneurswho were less successful and more joint ventureentrepreneurs who were more successful.

Results in table 6B indicate that successdiffered significantly according to number ofyears spent in business (F=17.413, sig. = 0.000),suggesting that the more years one spends inbusiness, the more chances of success and viceversa. This implies that it takes time for novice toachieve objectives. The findings agree with thoseof Kunene (2008), Barreira (2004) and Fielden etal (2000). All collaborate that the more years onemanages a business, the more experience oneacquires and the more chances of success.

Conclusions

It was observed that the level of externalsuccess among SSEs in Kampala is generallyhigh, on aspects like job creation, quality andnumber of trained people. Most SSEs in Kampalaare graduates, which is good to hear because such

people are easy and good to deal with whenspreading news ideas, especially thoseconcerning business development.

Kampala SSEs are least successful onmost internal dimensions such as expansion(opening up another branch and increasingassets), business profitability and improved life.On external success, they are weak in trainingworkers, maintaining adequate stock, publicrelations (e.g. instilling confidence in employeesand customers and attending social functions).

The level of internal success differedsignificantly between male and femaleentrepreneurs in Kampala. Men were more likelyto succeed in a business than women. The levelof external success significantly differed betweenmale and female entrepreneurs. Maleentrepreneurs in Kampala were more successfulcompared to female entrepreneurs.

The level of success differed significantlyamong entrepreneurs of different educationallevels, with graduates exhibiting higher successlevels compared to those at lower educationallevels. However the extent of business expansionand quality improvement did not significantlydiffer according to education level, althoughgraduate entrepreneurs are still at advantage.Therefore entrepreneurs who are educated,preferably up to a graduate level are more likelyto succeed in business both internally andexternally.

Generally, the level of successsignificantly differed according to age, where bySSEs who are higher in age more likely tosucceed are compared to those of low age.However, levels of business expansion, improvedrelations, increased assets and quality did notincrease with increase in ones age.

The level of success significantly differedamong SSEs of different business forms. Theretended to be more success with joint venturescompared to sole proprietorships. Howeverquality improvement did not differ amongentrepreneurs of different business forms.

The level of success differed significantlyaccording to number of years spent. The more


42

years an entrepreneur manages a venture themore chances of success and vice versa.

Recommendations

From the findings and conclusionsreached in this study, the followingrecommendations are made.a) There is need by the government andwomen organisations to promote more womenentrepreneurs in Kampala, in order to promotegender equality in business and economicgrowth.b) There is need for the curriculumdevelopers to promote entrepreneurial skills inuniversities and other training institutions. Thisstudy found more graduate entrepreneurs andDiploma holders; therefore introducingentrepreneurial skills in training courses will goa long way in boosting performance of theseentrepreneurs.c) The attention of organisations andauthorities responsible for promotingentrepreneurs in Uganda and Kampala inparticular should be put on young entrepreneurssince they are the majority in Kampala.d) There is need by the entrepreneurshiporganisations to educate SSEs in Kampala onformation of joint ventures since most of themare still running sole proprietorships, which aremore prone to risks and can hardly get assistancefrom organisations and loans from financialinstitutions.e) Small-scale entrepreneurs need to putmuch more effort on how to open up branchesbut must also be careful of when to do it to avoidruining the mother branch and assets acquisitionin their businesses as this helps in consolidatingthe business and increasing their wealth, otherthan keeping liquid cash, which can lose valueand can easily be spent on less important andunplanned things. In all the efforts to open upanother branch, the entrepreneur mustconsolidate the first branch or look for partnersin the second branch. Kampala SSEs also needto look for avenues of increasing their revenue

and profits. They can do this by forming strongassociations through which they can collectivelybargain for higher prices, look for biggermarkets and advocate for reduced taxes amongother things. The government also needs to helpSSEs increase their revenue and profits, throughreducing taxes and license fees.

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and Environmental Factors to Success.Unpublished PhD thesis, Case WesternReserve University.

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Kelley, D., Bosma, N. & Amorós, J.E. (2011).Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. 2010Global.

Kumar, D.M. & Jain, V. (2010). Survival Skillsof Business Management Graduates: AStudy With Reference to Retail andBanking. Far East Journal of Psychologyand Business. Vol. 1 No 1, December2010.

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PhD thesis in Entrepreneurship,University of Pretoria, South Africa.

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Presentation, Stockholm School ofEconomics, 19th January.

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Ministry of Finance, Planning and EconomicDevelopment (2008). Enhancing theCompetitiveness of Micro, Small andmedium Enterprises in Uganda.Discussion Paper No. 15, KampalaUganda.

Mujtaba, B.G., Kaifi, B.A. (2011). Managementskills of Afghan respondents: acomparison of technical, human andconceptual differences based on gender.Journal of International Business andCultural Studies.

Musiime, D. (2007). Building an EntrepreneurialDrive in Ugandan Youth through

Education and Community Support.Centre for International PrivateEnterprise, www.cipe.org.

Namatovu, R., Balunywa, W., Kyejjusa, S. &Dawa, S. (2010). GEM Uganda 2010Executive Report. Kampala: MakerereUniversity Business School.

Newton, K. (2001). Management skills for smallbusiness. A report submitted to smallbusiness policy branch, Industry Canada,March, 30th, 2001.

Nieman, G.H., Hough, J. & Nieuwenhuizen, C.(2003). Entrepreneurship, South

African Perspective. Pretoria. VanSchaik Publishers.

Rwigema, H. & Venter, R. (2004). Advancedentrepreneurship. Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford.

Tajaddini, R., Bahaudin, G.M, Mahzad, B.(2011). Management Skills of Iranians: aComparison of Technical, Human andConceptual Differences based onGender, Age and Longevity inManagement Ranks. Journal ofLeadership Studies, 4 (1): 36-46. DOI:10.1002/jls.20153. Accessed on 20th


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Study from Bushenyi and MbararaTowns. African Studies Quarterly,Volume 8, Issue 4, Summer 2006.


45

HOME ENVIRONMENT AND PUPILS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SELECTEDGOVERNMENT PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN LWANDA SUB COUNTY,

RAKAI DISTRICT, UGANDA

Babirye Fredah*I. Kisunzu Kakule, PhD**Joshua Musasizi, MA***

Lukwago Moses, MA/ED****

*MA (Education Management) Student, School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University, Kampala,Uganda

**Senior Lecturer & Dean, School of Education Bugema University. Email:[email protected]***Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University.Email:[email protected]

****Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University.Email:

Abstract

The study examined the relationship between home environment and pupils’ academicperformance in Lwanda Sub County in Rakai District. The study was prompted by the poor pupilperformance during Primary Leaving Examination (PLE). The study specifically sought to determinethe demographic profile of the respondents, home environment characteristics that affect pupilperformance and the level of pupil academic performance in Lwanda Sub County. Using a crosssectional survey design, data was collected from 104 pupils using a closed ended questionnaire andinterviews with 62 parents and 15 teachers. The results revealed that the home environments in the subcounty are characterized by low levels of parental guidance, intellectuality and work habits that fosterimproved academic performance. The study found that pupil academic performance in the sub countywas low. Home environment and pupils’ academic performance were found to be positivelysignificantly related (r = 0.231, P > 0.05). The study concluded that home environment is a significantdeterminant of pupil academic performance in Lwanda Sub County.

Keywards: Pupils, Home Environment, Academic Performance

INTRODUCTIONThe environment is the most powerful

informal learning situation in which the family,more especially parents, acts as educators. Thefamily is a place in which the whole range ofhuman experiences take place (Taylor, 2004).Bloom (2004), observes that it is what parents doin the home that counts for the learningdevelopment of the pupil. It therefore goeswithout saying that lack of achievement pressure,parental guidance, intellectuality and work habits

that stimulate academic achievement in the homewill reduce the home's effectiveness as a learningenvironment (Mdanda, 2007).

Studies in the United States of Americahave demonstrated that home environment isstrongly associated with the pupil’s cognitivedevelopment (Bradley, 2005). This holds truebecause Scarr and Weinberg (2006), examinedtest performance of black American pupils ofeducationally average pupils who were adoptedby educationally advantaged white families.


46

Researchers found that the adopted blackAmerican pupils scored as highly on intellectualQuotients (IQ) tests as did white pupils. Theyattributed this finding to the added homestimulation provided by the white homes.

Ogbu (2011), has analyzed the school-work performance of poor black pupils in SouthAfrica. His findings indicate that their lowerperformance is an adaptation maintained by twoprocesses. The first is that blacks occupy socialand occupational positions that do not requirehigh educational qualifications. Secondly, thatjob shortages and other hindrances generatedoubts about the value of education.

Studies conducted in the three EastAfrican countries of Kenya, Tanzania andUganda indicate that poor home environmentscharacterized by poverty, low levels of parentaleducation, unstable relationships and familystructures impact on pupil academic performance(Achombo, 2010; Gesinde, 2010, Haraka, 2007).

In Uganda, studies have discovered thathome environments that are marked by parentalnegligence, lawlessness, weak family structures,deprivation may adversely affect the pupils’academic progress at school (Achombo, 2010). InRakai district, the home environmentcharacterized by poverty, low levels of parentaleducation, limited parental involvement in pupileducation in public schools, and preference ofhousework for pupils especially girl children hashad an effect on pupil performance (RakaiDistrict Education Office, 2012).

Globally, cases of deteriorating academicperformance in the developed world have beenexplained by various authors. Willis (1992),found that poor academic performance of manyAmerican pupils is because they do not investmuch time and effort in their school work. Forexample the 1990 assessment by Oswaled,Schmitt, Kim, Ramsay and Cillespie of Michiganstate university indicated 71% of the 12th gradersstudied more than one hour a day and 25% didnot study at all. Coleman also studied the case ofacademic deficit in public schools in large citiesin the same year and found out that poor

academic performance is due to lack ofpersistence, resourcefulness; World Bank studyreport 1986).

In the developing world, while millions ofpupils are entering school for the first time, toofew seem to be learning. In Indonesia, despite thefact that the country achieved Universal PrimaryEducation in the late 1980’s pupil performance inpublic primary schools is still poor (Suryadarma,Suryahadi, Sumarto & Rogers, 2010). In India,50% of pupils enrolled in Standard II to V ingovernment primary schools could not solve two-digit subtraction (Pratham, ASER 2006).

Studies conducted in the Sub SaharanAfrican countries do not indicate that pupils areexpected to be able to read fluently by the end ofthree years in school, grade-level testing indicatesthat even by Grade 6, many pupils still cannotread nor do basic Mathematics. For example; inZambia, only 25% of Grade 6 pupilsdemonstrated minimum literacy (Nkamba &Kanyika 1998). In Nigeria, 40% of Grade 4pupils were unable to copy a single word orpunctuation mark correctly from a five-linepassage (Education for All, 2000). In Malawi,only 22% of Grade 6 pupils demonstratedminimum literacy (Ellis, Kutengule, & Nyasulu,2003). In Ghana, Grade 6 performance on a verysimple multiple-choice reading test was as low aswhat one would expect from random guessing(Glewwe, 1999).

In Uganda, the government also has takenup an obligation to afford every citizen equalopportunity to attain the highest educationstandards possible (Uganda constitution 1995).The government emphasizes the need toguarantee quality education for all so that everycitizen can participate in the selection and pursuitof the best path for sustainable development oftheir community and the country at large.However, current educational data shows that thesurge in primary school enrolment has not beenmatched by performance (Oluka & Opolot-Okurut, 2008). Such poor educational outcomesnot only highlight the internal inefficiencies inUganda’s education system, but also cast doubts


47

on her ability to accumulate the requisite humancapital for sustainable economic development.

In Rakai District, despite the notableimprovement in enrolment since the onset of UPE,the district has obtained very poor results at theannual national Primary Leaving Examinations(PLE) for a larger part of the last ten years (TheDaily Monitor January 25th 2013). The district ishost to majority of the worst performing schools inthe country, according to results released for thelast five years. An analysis of the results by theDaily Monitor (January 25th 2013) indicated thatRakai District, had the highest number of theworst performing schools in the 2012 PrimaryLeaving Examinations with only 8% of the pupilspassing in division one.

In Lwanda Sub County analysis of theexamination results for PLE of the UgandaNational Examinations Board (UNEB) showsthat academic achievement at the end of theprimary education cycle in Lwanda Sub CountyUganda is alarming Rakai District EducationOffice, 2012). The causes of a high failure rate iscomplex and too wide to be covered in this study.It was necessary for the writer of this research to

confine herself to home environment, to find outwhether it contributes to the appalling pupilacademic performance in Lwanda or not. This isbecause the home environments of pupils in thesub county characterized by poverty, low levelsof parental education, limited parentalinvolvement in pupil education in public schools,and preference for housework for pupilsespecially girl pupils seem to have an effect onpupils’ academic performance and yet no studyhas been conducted to determine the effect ofhome environment on pupil performance.

METHOD

Sample

The study was conducted in three out ofthe four primary schools in Lwanda Sub Countyin Rakai District. The study population wascomposed of 376 people, who include; 218 P.7pupils in the three schools, 3 Head Teachers, 26P.7 class teachers, and 129 parents of P.7 pupilsin the three schools.

Table 7: Population of P.7 Pupils in Kabingo, Kiwenda and Butiti Primary Schools.Schools Population of P.7 PupilsKabingo 72

Kiwenda 80Butiti 66

Total 218

Source: District Education Officer Rakai District (2013) and Head Teachers’ Offices of Kabingo,Kiwenda and Butiti Primary Schools.


48

Table 8: Population of Head Teachers, Teachers and Parents in the schools in Lwanda Sub CountySchools Kabingo Kiwenda Butiti TotalHeadTeachers

1 1 1 3

P7 Teachers 8 8 10 26Parents of P.7 Pupils

42 50 37 129

Grand Total 51 59 48 158Source: District Education Officer Rakai District (2013) and Head Teachers’ Offices of Kabingo,

Kiwenda and Butiti Primary Schools.

The sample size comprised of 181 respondents ofwhom 104 were P.7 pupils, 2 were HeadTeachers, 13 were P.7 Class Teachers and 62

were Parents. The sample size was arrived atusing the predetermined sample size table byKrejicie and Morgan (1970) as cited Amin(2005).

Table 9: Sample sizeRespondents Population Sample sizePupils 218 104Head Teachers 3 2

P.7 Class Teachers 26 13Parents 129 62

Total 376 181

Techniques

A structured questionnaire was used to collectquantitative data from the pupils for easy tappingof data that can be correlated, (Amin, 2005). Therespondents’ opinions on the items on thequestionnaire were enlisted on a 4 point Likertscale of strongly agree, agree, disagree andstrongly disagree for home environment and verygood, good, poor and very poor for pupils’academic performance.

An unstructured interview guide was usedfor collecting in depth information from the keyhead teachers, teachers and parents as suggestedby Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) and Kakoza(1999).

Simple random sampling technique wasused to select the schools. The names of the fourschools were put in a rota out of which threeschools were selected randomly. Clustersampling was used and the three schools formed

three clusters from which the respondents wereselected. Out of each cluster, a list of primary 7pupils was obtained from the Head Teachers’offices and the names of the pupils were put in arota, selected using simple random samplingprocedure. The researcher purposively selectedthe parents of the pupils in the study, the headteachers and teachers.

The study adopted a cross sectionalsurvey design to make generalizable inferencesabout the influence of home environment onpupils’ academic performance over a crosssection of pupils at a given point in time assuggested by Oso and Onen (2008), Amin(2005), and Mugenda and Mugenda (1999). Asimple correlation design was adopted todetermine the influence of home environment onpupils’ academic performance as suggested byAmin (2005).

Quantitative approach was adopted toestablish the effect of one variable on another,


49

since it allows for collecting numeric data onobservable individual behavior of samples, thensubjecting these data to statistical analysis (Amin,2005). Also, a qualitative approach was alsoadopted to capture data that may be left out fromusing the quantitative approach.

Objective one was analyzed usingfrequency counts and percentages to determinethe demographic characteristics of therespondents. Objective four was analyzed usingthe Pearson correlation techniques to determinethe linear relationship between homeenvironment and pupils’ academic performance.


Demographic Characteristics of the Pupils

In this sub section, the pupils’demographic characteristics in terms of schoolattended, age, gender and length of stay at theschool are indicated.

Table 10: Demographic Characteristics of the PupilsCharacteristics Category Frequency PercentageSchool of the respondents Kabingo 38 36.5%

Kiwenda 51 49.0%

Butiti 15 14.4%Age 10-15 years 97 93.3%

16-17 years 7 6.7%

Gender Male 32 30.8%Female 72 69.2%

Length of stay at school 1 year 16 15.4

2 years 24 23.13 years 16 15.44 years 16 15.45 years 9 8.76 years 9 8.77 years 14 13.5

N = 104

School of the PupilsAccording to the results in table 5, more

than 51 (49.0%) of the respondents were fromKiwenda Primary School, 38 (36.5%) were fromKabingo Primary School and 15 (14.4%) werefrom Butiti Primary School.Age of the Pupils

The majority 97 (93.3%) of therespondents in the pupils’ category were between10 and 15 years of age and only 7 (6.7%) were

between 16 and 17 years of age. The resultsindicate that the majority of primary seven pupilsin Lwanda are between 10 and 15 years of age.Pupils in that age category are still in their earlyyears of intellectual development and theytherefore need a conducive environment to helpthem succeed in their studies (Sylva et al, 2009).Gender of the Pupils

The majority 72 (69.2%) of therespondents were female and 32 (30.8%) were


50

male. The results suggest that in Lwanda SubCounty, most of the primary seven pupils arefemale. This was confirmed by the records in thehead teachers’ offices which showed that in thethree schools, there were more girls than boys.This could be attributed to the fact that boys inthe sub county are dropping out of school to dobusiness, and casual work while the girls stay inschool and complete the primary school cycle.

Length of Stay at SchoolThe biggest proportion 24 (23.1%) of the

respondents had stayed at school for 2 years, 16

(15.4%), another 16 (15.4%) had been at schoolfor 4 years and other 16 pupils (1.4%) were at theschool for 3 years. 24 (23.1%) of the pupils hadstayed at the school for 2 years, 16 (15.4%) ofthem had stayed for 1, (16 15.4%) for 3yrs andother 16(15.4%) had stayed for 4 years.

Demographic Characteristics of the Parents

The parents’ demographic characteristics arepresented in table 6 below:

Table 11: Demographic Characteristics of the ParentsCharacteristics Category Frequency PercentageAge 18 - 24 10 16.0%

25 - 35 20 32.3%

36 - 40 12 19.4%Above 40 20 32.3%


Marital Status Married 30 48.4%Single 15 24.2%

Divorced/separated 5 8.1%Widowed 12 19.4%

Education Level None 5 8.1%

Primary 35 56.5%Secondary 10 16.1%

Tertiary 12 19.3%Occupation Farmer 20 32.3%

Pastoralist 16 25.8%Business 10 16.1%

Salaried Employment 6 9.7%Unemployed 10 16.1%

N = 62

Age of the ParentsThe biggest proportion 20 (32.3%) of the

respondents were between 25 and 35 age group,followed by those between 36 and 40 years ofage, and by another 20 (32.3%) who were above40 years of age and 10 (16.0%) were between 18and 24 years of age. The results indicate that the

biggest percentage 52 (84%) of the parents aremature enough and should be capable of beingresponsible parents to provide a conducive studyhome environment for their pupils to succeed intheir studies.


51

Gender of the ParentsAn almost equal proportion of the

respondents 32 (51.6%) and 30 (48.4%) weremales and females respectively. This indicatesthat in Lwanda, both fathers and mothers of thepupils are interested in their pupils’ academicperformance. In situations where both parents areinterested in a pupil’s studies, the pupil is morelikely to perform well at school (Mdanda, 2007).

Parents’ Marital StatusAccording to table 6, most 30 (48.4%) of

the respondents in the parents’ category weremarried, followed by 15 (24.2%) who weresingle, 12 (19.4%) were widowed while only 5(8.1%) were divorced/separated. The resultsindicate that most (48.4%) of the parents ofprimary seven pupils are married. Pupils frommore stable families where both parents areliving together are more likely to perform betterat school than their counterparts whose parentsare unmarried (Mdanda, 2007).

Parents’ Education LevelThe results in table 6 above indicate that

more than half 35 (56.5%) of the respondents inthe parents category were educated only up toprimary school level. The results indicate that

most of the parents of primary seven pupils inLwanda Sub County are not adequately educated.According to Nabbumba (1988), parents’ level ofeducation influences pupils ’ performance in thesense that educated parents value education andthey tend to encourage their own pupils to valueand actively engage in receiving education.

Parents’ OccupationThe results further revealed that the

biggest proportion 20 (32.3%) of the respondentsin the parents category were peasant farmers,followed by 16 (25.8%) who were pastoralists.Those in business were 10 (16.1%), theunemployed were 10 (16.1%), while those insalaried employment were 6 (9.7%). The resultssuggest that most 32.3% of the parents of theprimary seven pupils are peasant farmers. Sincepeasant farmers are likely to be resourceconstrained, they may not be in position toprovide their pupils with all the resources andmaterial to enable them succeed in their studies.

Demographic Characteristics of the teachersTable 7 presents the teachers’ demographiccharacteristics in terms of position, gender,education level, and length of service.


52

Table 12: Demographic Characteristics of the teachersCharacteristics Category Frequency PercentagePosition Head Teacher 2 13.3%

Teacher 13 86.7%


Age 18 - 24 5 33.3%25 - 35 6 40.0%36 - 40 2 13.3%

Above 40 2 13.3%Education Level Secondary 2 13.3%

Certificate 10 66.7%Diploma 2 6.7%

Bachelor’s Degree 1 13.3%Length of service Less than 1 Year 2 13.3%

1 - 5 Years 3 20%6 - 10 Years 5 33.3%

More than 10 years 5 33.3%N = 15

Teachers’ PositionA total of 13 (86.7%) of the respondents

were teachers while 2 (13.3%) were headteachers.

Teachers’ GenderMore than half 8 (53.3%) of the

respondents to the teachers’ interviews werefemale while only 7 (46.7%) were male. Thisindicates that in the sampled schools, most(53.3%) of the teachers are female. Studies havefound that schools which have female teachersare likely to record high levels of academicachievement by girl pupils. This is because thefemale teachers serve as role models for the girlpupils (Namyalo, 2013).

Teachers’ AgeThe biggest proportion 10 (66.7%) of the

respondents to the teachers’ interview was above25 years of age. Teachers’ age has been found tobe a significant determinant of pupils’ academicperformance. Namyalo (2013), concluded that

pupils who are taught by more mature teachersare likely to pass because mature teachers enlistthe confidence and respect of the pupils.

Teachers’ Education LevelThe majority 10 (66.7%) of the

respondents were educated up to certificate level.This means that most of the primary seven classteachers in Lwanda Sub County are educated upto certificate level. This could be attributed to thefact that the minimum qualification for teachingin primary school is a certificate in primaryschool education. Thus it can be deduced that themajority of teachers in Lwanda meet theminimum requirements for teaching in primaryschools, though they can do better with moreeducation.

Teachers’ Length of ServiceAccording to table 7, the biggest

proportion10 (66.7%) of the respondents in theteachers category had worked in the schools formore than 5 years. This means that the majority


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of the primary seven pupils in Lwanda haveadequate teaching experience which is likely toimpact positively on pupils’ academicperformance since experienced teachers arebelieved to be good teachers.

Relationship between Home Environment andPupils’ Academic Performance in Primary

SchoolsThe fourth objective of the study was to

establish the relationship between home

environment and pupils’ academic performancein Lwanda Sub County. The objective wasanalyzed by using Pearson Correlation andregression analysis in order to establish therelationship between home environment andpupils’ academic performance in Lwanda SubCounty and the extent to which homeenvironment explains the variation in pupils’academic performance.

Table 13: Relationship between Home Environment and Pupils’ Academic Performance in PrimarySchools

Pearson Correlation .231*

Sig. (2-tailed) .018Coefficient of

Determination (r2 )5%

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Source: Primary DataResults in table 14 indicate that there is a

low significant positive relationship betweenhome environment and pupils’ academicperformance at r = 0.231 which implies that thelow home environment home environmentexplains the low pupil academic performance inLwanda Sub County. The fact that P = 0.018 islower than the significant value of 0.05. Thehypothesis which stated that there is nosignificant relationship between homeenvironment and pupils’ academic performanceis rejected and the researcher accepts thealternative hypothesis which states that there is asignificant relationship between homeenvironment and pupils’ academic performance.

The above results go hand in hand withthe views of Bloom (2004), Mdanda (2007),Scarr and Weinberg (2006), Ogbu (2011)Achombo (2010); Gesinde (2010) and Haraka(2007), who found out that home environment isa significant determinant of pupils’ academicperformance. The findings of this study thereforereinforce the need to improve the homeenvironment if improved pupil performance is to

be attained. The results in table 14 above furtherindicate that the overall variance in pupils’academic performance explained by homeenvironment is 5% obtained after multiplying r2 =0.05 by 100. This means that the remaining 95%of the variation in pupils’ academic performanceis explained by other factors other than the homeenvironment.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The study found that the majority ofprimary seven pupils are between 10 and 15years; the biggest proportion of these pupils arefemale and had stayed at the school for a periodof 2 years. The study reveals that the biggestproportion 20 (32.3%) of the parents wasbetween 25 and 35 years of age. An almost equalproportion of the parents to the primary sevenpupils were 32 (51.6%) and 30 (48.4%) weremales and females respectively. Most 30 (48.4%)of the parents were married.

The biggest proportion 35 (56.5%) of therespondents in the parents category wereeducated up to primary school level and most of


54

20 (32.3%) of them were peasants. Most 7(46.7%) of the primary seven class teachers inLwanda were female, they were above 25 yearsof age, were educated up to certificate level andhad worked at the schools for more than 5 years.

The study further found out that thepupils’ academic performance in Lwanda SubCounty is generally poor (mean = 2.0288, S.D =93950). The results suggest that pupils’ academicperformance in the English Language is poor(mean = 2.0288, SD = .93950). The pupils scoredpoorly in mathematics (mean = 1.9327, S.D =.78803). They also scored very poorly in theSocial Studies (mean = 1.5192, SD = .78803),poor (mean = 1.4519, SD = .79903) in basicscience. Home environment and pupils’ academicperformance were found to be significantlypositively related (P > 0.05).

Results in this study indicate that there isa significant positive relationship between homeenvironment and pupils’ academic performance.This suggests that an improvement in the homeenvironment characteristics leads to acorresponding improvement in pupils’ academicperformance. This therefore implies that inLwanda Sub County, better pupils’ academicperformance is attained when there are betterhome environments and decreases when there are

poor home environments. This is in line withHunt’s Constructivist theory which postulatesthat the pupils’ home has an impact on pupils’academic performance.

Testing Hypothesis

The null hypothesis which stated thatthere is no significant relationship between homeenvironment and pupils’ academic performancewas rejected. The alternative hypothesis whichstates that there is relationship between homeenvironment and pupils’ performance wasaccepted. Thus it can be deduced that homeenvironment is a significant determinant of pupilperformance in Lwanda.

Areas for further ResearchThe study focused on home environment

characteristics in a rural setting. However, thesefindings should be generalized cautiously tohome environments in urban settings due to theuniqueness of home environments in the urbansettings that are characterized by highintellectuality, and work habits that may fosterpupils’ academic performance. Replication of thisstudy to home environments in the urban settingsis suggested for cross validation purposes.

REFERENCES

Achombo, C. (2010). Factors affecting theperformance of primary school pupils inPaidha town council. Unpublished

Master’s thesis, Makerere University, KampalaUganda. Amin M. E. (2005). Socialscience research: Conception,methodology & analysis; Kampala:Makerere University.

Bradley, R. (2005). Social-cognitive developmentand toys. Topics in Early ChildhoodSpecial Education, 5, 11-15.

De Frajer (2010) Parents' effort key to child'seducational performance. RetrievedApril 20th 2013 .

Ellis, F, Kutengule, M & Nyasulu, A (2003).Livelihoods and Rural PovertyReduction in Malawi, WorldDevelopment. London: Elsevier Ltd.

Glewwe, Paul. 1999. The Economics of schoolquality investments in developingcountries: An empirical study of Ghana.London: Oxford University.

Glewwe, P. and Kremer, M. 2005. “Schools,Teachers, and Education Outcomes inDeveloping Countries.” Working PaperNo. 122, Center for InternationalDevelopment, Harvard University,Cambridge, Mass. (September).


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Kellaghan, T. (2007). Relationships betweenhome-environment and scholasticbehaviour of a disadvantagedpopulation. Journal ofEducationalPsychology, 69 (6), 754-760.

Kurdek, L.A. & Sinclair, R.J. (2008). Relation ofeighth graders' family structure, gender,and family environment with academicperformance and school behaviour.Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(6), 791-827.

Mutinyu, S (2009). Social economic factorsaffecting pupil performance ingovernment aided primary school inMbale district. Unpublisheddissertation, Makerere UniversityKampala, Uganda.

Muola, J.M (2010). A study of the relationshipbetween academic achievementmotivation and home environmentamong standard eight pupils.Educational Research and Reviews 5(5), 213-217.

Nabbumba, R. (1994). Socio-economic factorsaffecting pupil’s academic Performancein Mukono district, Uganda.Unpublished masters’ thesis, MakerereUniversity,

Nkamba, Manasseh and Kanyika, Joe. 1998. “TheQuality of Primary Education: SomePolicy Suggestions based on a Survey ofSchools—Zambia, An Interim Report.”SACMEQ Policy Research Report No.5. Paris: UNESCO.

Ogbu, J.W. (2011). Origins of human ompetence:A cultural ecological perspective.

Oluka, S & Opolot-Okurut, C (2008).Performance in primary education in theTeso region: An exploratory study.Retrieved April 20th from Owen, V.(209). Exploring Beliefs about AcademicPerformance Achievement. The UgandaEducation Journal Vol.2, 57, NewVision.

Prewitz, T (2009). Home environment factorsaffecting pupils academic performancein selected schools in the NyanzaProvince in Kenya. UnpublishedMaster’s thesis

Scar, J. & Weinberg, F. (2003). The effects ofenvironment on learning. ChildDevelopment, 65 (5), 684-698.

Taylor, C.A. (2004). Non-formal education as astrategy for the alleviation ofinadequacies in the home-environment.South African Journal of Education, 4(3). 138-142.

World Bank. 2006. From Schooling Access toLearning Outcomes: An UnfinishedAgenda. An Evaluation of World BankSupport to Primary Education.Independent Evaluation Group.


56

SCHOOL FACILITIES AND STUDENTS ACADEMICPERFORMANCE IN PUBLIC SECONDARY

SCHOOLS IN BUMBULI,LUSHOTO DISTRICT,

TANGA-TANZANIA

D. Abraham Mcharo*Paul Katamba, PhD**

I. Kisunzu Kakule, PhD***Stephen S. Kizza, MA****

*MA (Education Management) Student, School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University, Uganda**Senior Lecturer & Dean, Graduate School , Bugema University. Email:

***Senior Lecturer & Dean, School of Education Bugema University. Email:[email protected]****Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University. Email:[email protected]

Abstract

This study attempted to establish the relationship between school facilities in public secondaryschools and students’ academic performance in Bumbuli, Lushoto District.

During the study, status of school classroom, laboratory, library, toilets, water and sanitationand the level of students’ academic performance from the National examination’s result done from2009-2011 was assessed. A descriptive correlation, cross-sectional research design using both thequantitative and qualitative approaches was employed. Census sampling techniques; were all the ten(10) Head Teachers of schools of the Public Secondary Schools serving as the main respondents werepurposively identified. Key informants were thirty (30) Student Prefects in the same schools. Datacollection was done by structured Interviewed, Focus Group discussion, documentary review andObservation. Qualitative data were subjected to content analysis, while quantitative data wereanalyzed by use of descriptive statistics and inferential stastics.

Keywords: School, Facilities, Students, Public Secondary School, Academic Performance

INTRODUCTIONAll over the World, heads of school

institutions are facing challenges in ensuring highstandard of academic performance in the schools(UNESCO 2011). Inadequate governmentfunding to build or renovate facilities is a greatchallenge in America due to the fact that 50percent of schools were built approximately 35–45 years ago (Thompson & Wood, 2005).[President Obama (USA) in his Address toCongress in 2009, called this issue to theattention of the country when he spoke about a

school he visited in South Carolina in which “thepaint peels off the walls.” When visiting theschool in 2007, Obama said, “When a child goesto a school which is crumbling, is it any wonderthat she/he gets a sense of her/his education is notimportant” (Obama, 2009).]

In Western Europe recent studies(Earthman & Alexander, 2010) have earlierpointed out that typical school facilities layoutsvary between places in ways that are related tounderstandings on philosophies of education aswell as to material resources, these writersdescribed in a great detail that, the school size,


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classroom, laboratory, library, latrines, and watersupply, if not developed prohibit the learningactivities of the students.

In Nigeria, Farombi (2008) in his study onSchool facility and student achievement, he citedexamples of schools without ceiling on their roof,their roofing sheets not in place, windows anddoors removed among others.

In Tanzania, according to Ministry ofEducation and Vocational Training (2012) thetotal number of enrolments in public secondaryschool students increased from 89,454 in year2007 to 1,690,240 in February, 2011 increase ofabout 5.3% (BEST, 2011). This expansion ofsecondary schools’ enrollment from centralgovernment to District and ward levels was notcollaborated with adequate school facilitycapacities. As the enrolments rose a demand tobuild new schools and to expand the old schoolsto cater for new enrolled number of students.

Only in 2011 about 3,485 (increases of71%) new public secondary schools wasconstructed out of 1,370 existed before, to makethe total of 4,855 (MoEVT, 2012).As evidence in the Annual meeting 2011,reported by the District Secondary EducationOfficer (DSEO), in Lushoto district, indicatedthat, from 2010-2011 the performance of publicsecondary schools in National examination ofsenior four in Bumbuli Division, has notimproved well in subjects and general result areasand is still extremely poor in District overallterms. In the 2010 -2011 period only a very smallproportion of students (0.3% - 1.8%) achievedthe highest level of Division I in the Senior 4examination, while more than 60% received thelow mark of Division 4 or failure (MoEVT, 2010;NECTA, 2011).

In the study area Bumbuli Division,Lushoto District over 75% of school facilities

have collapsed or leaking roofs, cracking walls,pot-holed floors, and no windows or lighting andothers have never been built new classrooms(BUMBULI - Yesterday Today Tomorrow, 2010).

The study therefore, sought to establish ifthere is relationship between school facilities andstudent academic performance in publicsecondary schools in Bumbuli Division,Tanga-Tanzania.

METHOD

Sample

The respondents of the study were 40from 10 public secondary schools according toMorgan, 1970; Enon, 1998; Kothari, 2003; andAmin, 2005. Purposive sampling was used toselect both the head of schools as the mainrespondents, and student’s prefects as the keyinformants to determine the sample size ofrespondents as per Morgan, 1970.

The Interview Guide was used to studythe relationship between school facilities andstudent academic performance in publicsecondary schools. Answers were determined bya given scale of administering information usingthe rating of Five Likert Scale with 1.00-1.84very low to 3.43-4.22 high according to Amin,2005and Mughendi, 2003.

Observation Method was used record theobservational information of the real situationobserved simultaneous with the occurrence of thephenomenon observed (Guilford, 2004), andFocus Group Discussion and Document ReviewsGuide were used to collect data.The statistical tools used in this study were thefrequency, percentage, means, standarddeviations, and Correlation Coefficient (r) to testthe relationship between school facilities andstudent academic performance.


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Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 4: Respondents Characteristics of the studyItem Frequency Percent

Sex/Gender Male 8 80.0Female 2 20.0

Age 28-35 5 50.040-45 2 20.0

Above 45 3 30.0Level ofEducation

Bachelor 2 20.0Diploma 8 80.0

WorkExperience

Below 3 years 3 30.03-5years 4 40.05-7 years 2 20.07-9 years 1 10.0

N=10

SexStudy findings of respondents indicated

that the majority of the respondents were males, 8(80.8%) while, females were 2 (20%). Thisimplied that more respondent’s head of schools inthe study were males and that was to say thecognitive ability and academic performance tofemale among many other reasons have also beencontributed by the culture of a particular society.Findings are supported by Shrake (2004) andRhee (2004).

AgeAs regards to age the respondents

between 28-35 years were 5(50%), age rangingfrom 40-45 years were 2 (20%), age above 45years were 3 (30%), and there was norespondents from age below 28 and that of 35 -40. This information implies that, the group wasof 28 - 35 years (50%) of respondents was morethan the other respondents in position as the headof schools.

Level of EducationIt was found out that 8 respondent’s

(80%) of the total respondents were Diploma

holders followed by 2 (20%) degree holders,none were masters’ holders. This implied thatmost of the respondents in public secondaryschools had Diploma in Education.

Working ExperienceAs regards to the findings the working

experience of 3-5 years were 4(40%), below 3years were 3 (30%), 5-7 years were 2 (20%), andonly 1(10%) who was 7- 9 years of workingexperience in office. This indicated that, thegroup of 3-5 years was more than the others inposition as the head of schools.


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Status of School Facilities

Table 5: Assessment of school facilities in public secondary schools in the study areaItems Description Freq. Perc.(%) Mean SdSize of classroom(size = cm2)

800/400 6 60.0 2.4 0.52900/500 4 40.0

Ratio of studentsSpace in classroom

1:100 above 3 30.01:85-100 4 40.01:45-85 3 30.0 2.0 0.82

Laboratory

Laboratory tables

1: 00 (Nolaboratory

6 60.0

1: below 10 3 30.0

1: 10-25 1 10.0 1.5 0.71Ratio of studentsLaboratory roomTable per 25 students

1:45 and above 6 60.01:35-45 2 20.01:25-35 2 20.0 1.6 0.84

Size of the library

Ratio of books

Type of Toilets

1:800/400 below 7 70.01:800/400 1 10.01:900/500 2 20.0 1.5 0.851:15 2 20.01:10 6 60.0 3.0 0.671:5 2 20.0Burnt bricks / soilmixture

6 60.0 3.4 0.52

Burnt bricks/cement mortal

4 40.0

Ratio of students 1:45 and above 3 30.01:45 5 50.0 1.9 0.741:30 2 20.0

N = 10

Legend 1

Measurement Mean Scale InterpretationVery High Mean 4.23 - 5.00 Very AdequateHigh Mean 3.43 - 4.22 AdequateModerate Mean 2.61 - 3.41 Somehow AdequateLow Mean 1.81 - 2.60 Fair AdequateVery Low Mean 1.00 - 1.80 Very Inadequate

ClassroomWith regard to classroom, findings

indicated that the size of classroom space that canpermit learning activities to students academic

performance show that all buildings were builtbelow the standard measurement (900/600cm/sq)as suggested by the SAPE on school classroom


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facilities in public secondary schools in Bumbuli,Lushoto District, with regard to legend 1.

Despite the size of the classroom findingson the ratio of students per classroom space thatcan permit learning activities, to attainment ofstudent academic performance as ratio of eachclassroom per number of students implies thatstudents are overpopulated in each room to about85-100 (40%) followed with the uneven highnumber of 100 and above (30%) that is veryunacceptable.

With regard to Table 5, findings on theratio of students per classroom space that canpermit learning activities to attainment of studentacademic performance as ratio to each classroomper number of students implies that students.Respondents rated the size of classroom as lowmean (µ = 2.40; sd = 0.52) showing a weakpositive relationship and low mean with highstandard deviation on ratio of students perclassroom space (μ = 2.00; sd = 0.82)

The observational study in Appendix VII,findings showed that there was the moderatemean (µ = 2.64; sd = 0.73) and standard deviationof which showed the significant relationshipbetween the uses of classrooms to the students’users on academic performance. As recentresearch has proven a relationship exists onclassroom building facilities, says, the removingand/or reducing classrooms environmentalbarriers would enhance academic achievement.Edward (2007) contends that “students’perception of their classroom physicalenvironment provides a gauge to measure whatthe students perceive about the quality of theeducation provided to them. It informed thatovercrowding and heavy teacher workloadscreated stressful working conditions for teachersand led to higher teacher absenteeism. Crowdedclassroom conditions not only makes it difficultfor students to concentrate on their lessons, butinevitably limit the amount of time teachers canspend on innovative teaching methods such ascooperative learning and group work or, indeedon teaching anything beyond the barest minimumof required material.

LaboratoryTable 5 findings indicated that 6 (60%)

public secondary schools from the study don’thave complete laboratory rooms, 3 (30%) haslaboratories but it was the classroom and it’s notreaching the adequate standard and it is only oneschool (10%) at least is doing somewhat adequatefrom them to afford to purchase sciencelaboratory tables that is available. The findingshows that, there was very low mean of (µ =1.55; sd = 0.71) and standard deviation onnumber of laboratory equipment purchasedcompared to the students ratio so as to beinequitable for the improvements of the studentsskills and knowledge in science subjects and theiracademic performance at which is with regard tolegend 1. This can further be confirmed from thestandard deviation of which was high to thestandard deviation scale. This is to show thatthere were strong relationship from the laboratoryfacilities and academic achievement in the studyarea as the standard deviation deviated from themean.

The findings that informed the ratio ofstudents at a time in laboratory room per eachsession that is equitable on improving skills andknowledge in science subjects to studentacademic performance in a ratio of one table to25 students as suggested by SAPE, Table 5shows that 6 (60%) public secondary schoolsthey didn’t purchase tables, 2 (20%) the ratio wasone table to 45 and above students, and other2(20%) was 25 - 45. None of these publicsecondary schools reached the SAPEmeasurement for the overall standards. Thefinding shows that, there was very low mean of(µ = 1.6; sd = 0.84) shows that number of thestudents ratio at a time in laboratory room pereach session was not able to improve their skillsand knowledge in science subjects and academicperformance and with regard to legend 1.

Also, Appendix VIII of observationalchecklist findings from the observational methoddone it indicated that there is low quality oflaboratory or completely not. This can be


61

supported by the mean (µ = 1.52; sd = 0.81)which is very low and high standard deviation ofwith regard to table 8 and legend 1. Odulaja(2008) argued the saying that “seeing isbelieving” as the effect of using laboratories inteaching and learning of science and otherscience related disciplines, students tend tounderstand and recall what they see than whatthey hear or were told and if not obviously thestudents performance should be poor in sciencesubjects. According to Hallak (2000), laboratoryfacilities form one of the potent factors thatcontribute to academic achievement in the schoolsystem.

LibraryStudy findings indicated with Table 5 that

carry the information on the size of library spacethat can facilitate leaning activities and contributeto students attainment of academic performancewas that 7(70%) with the size of below800/400cm/sq in public secondary schools fromthe study renovated either store rooms or staffrooms as library, congratulates, other 3(30%)built the new library although none of these threemet the adequate size of 900/600 or above asapproved standard by NSCR and SAPE. Thefinding shows that there was (µ = 1.50; sd = 0.85)a low mean and high standard deviation thedeviation from the mean with regard to legend 1that was used. The study showed that there wasthe relationship between the sizes of library onacademic performance.

With regards to the ratio of books pernumber of student users’ (SBR) as suggested byThe Ministry of Education and VocationalTraining (MoEVT, 2009) to 1:1, the findingsshowed some improvements done by governmentto grant funds on purchases text books to publicsecondary schools from the study to about8(80%) with the ratio of 1:10 - 15 students andother 2 (20%) with 1:5 students, well done. Allschools were yet to reach a standard of 1:1 ratio.

Appendix VIII observational functionsindicated that the status of library buildings to theschool’s academic provision was very low to

mean (µ = 1.63; sd = 0.78) and high standarddeviation of this also implied that the studentacademic development is just fragmented asstudent ratio books was too high. With all theabove mentioned facts, it is sad to know thatmany public secondary schools in the study areaoperate without libraries as supported byShodimu (2008) where total absence of anorganized school library would continue to spelldooms for secondary school students, Fuller(2006) a school library is an instructionalresource which may significantly influencestudents’ achievement, Popoola (2009) librarycorrelates with academic achievement and thoseschools with well equipped library normallymaintain high academic performance, and Fuller(2006) that collection of books kept for reading inthe library is related to performance.

ToiletsWith regards to Table 5, findings revealed

that 6(60%) toilets building structures were builtof burnt bricks with soil mortal joints, 4(40%)were built with burnt bricks with cement mortaljoints. No school that used sand bricks with soilmortal joints, burnt bricks with soil mixture bylime mortal joints, or cement bricks (blocks) withcement mortal joints. Respondents rated theavailability and quality of toilets at (µ = 3.40, sd= 0.52) which showed the weak positiverelationship of standard deviations on theavailability of toilet buildings on studentsacademic performance with the regard of scaleused in the study. The observational checklistfindings was strongly observed with the existinglow mean (µ = 2.20; sd = 0. 99) and standarddeviation of and very high deviation from themean.

Water Supply and SanitationThe Focus Group discussion method was

used to elicit data to answer the questions; one,how has water supply and sanitation contributedthe good performance in science subjects andacademic achievement of students, and two, whatis the relationship between the school water


62

supply and sanitation facilities on academicperformance of students.

Appendix IX shows qualitative findingson the contribution and relationship of watersupply and sanitation on student academicperformance as collected and coded from thestudents’ prefect respondents. Respondents whoagreed that, the water supply and sanitationcontribute the good performance in sciencesubjects and academic achievement of studentswere 5(17%) and those who did not agree were25(83%). This means that the majority ofFocused Group Discussion of students’respondents disagrees.

In the same regard, student respondentsalso disagrees if there were any relationshipbetween the school water supply and sanitationfacilities on academic performance of theirschool to 28(93%) and the remains 2(7%) were toagree.

However, as The School HealthProgramme in Tanzania (MoH, 2011) reportedthat in Bumbuli Division, Lushoto District, thesubject of water and sanitation for publicsecondary schools was a great challenge to thestudent academic performance, which wasdifferent with the respondents.

Level of Student Academic Performance

Table 6: The student academic performance from 2009-2011.Year Grade point

AverageFrequency Percent Mean SD

Form 4 result-2009 0-20 5 50.021-40 3 30.0 1.70 0.8241-60 2 20.0 .

Form 4 result-2010 0-20 5 50.021-40 4 40.0 1.60 0.7041-60 1 10.0

Form 4 result-2011 0-20 4 40.021-40 5 50.0 1.70 0.6841-60 1 10.0 .

N=10

Legend 2

Scale Interpretation4.23 - 5.00 Very High Performance3.43 - 4.22 High Performance2.61 - 3.41 Moderate Performance1.81 - 2.60 Low Performance1.00 - 1.80 Very Low Performance

The findings indicated that, the level ofstudents’ academic performance in 2009 wasvery poor that 6(60%) schools performed fair atlevel of grade four and 2(20%) schools

performed is very poor in grade zero. The findingshows that no school scored division I and II inthe year 2009. When this performance converted


63

at pooled mean (µ = 1.70; sd = 0.82) was verylow as regarded to legend 2.

Table 6 findings recorded in 2010 showedthat 9(90%) schools failure as they attained gradefour and zero as fair and very poor results, only1(10%) school got grade three in the NationalExamination results. Findings indicated a verylow mean (µ = 1.60; sd = 0.7)) in schoolperformance in 2010 showing that there is lowlevel of the student academic performance.

Further, the findings in Table 6 indicatedthat in 2011 although changes of number wasseen from the previous year, real performancewas still very poor because 9(90%) schools alsoobtained grade four and grade zero, likewise1(10%) school was somehow in grade three. Inpooled results, there is also (µ = 1.70; sd = 0.67)a very low mean in 2011 on level of student’sacademic performance with regard to legend 2that was used to the study.

The relationship between School facilities and Student Academic Performance

Table 7: Relationship between the School facilities and student academic performance in thestudy area, BumbuliItem DescriptionSchool Facilities Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) .876

Sig. (2-tailed) .001Coefficient of Determination (r2) 77%

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) N = 10

Table 7 shows the findings on therelationship between school facilities and studentacademic performance of the public secondaryschools in Bumbuli, Lushoto District, Tanga -Tanzania. The findings indicated that there is astrong positive linear relationship between schoolfacilities and student academic performance inthe study area at a Correlation Coefficient =0.876; implying that the improvement in schoolfacilities result in improved academicperformance of the students. The finding issupported by the study of Akande (2005),learning can occur through one’s interaction withone’s environment that is size of classroom,sitting position and arrangement, availability oftables, chairs, and chalkboards. Ajayi andOgunyemi (2000) when facilities are provided tomeet relative needs of a school system, studentswill not only have access to the referencematerials mentioned by the teacher, butindividual students will also learn at their ownpaces.

Regarding the extent to which thisrelationship exists, the r2 was calculated as(0.876)2 = 0.77× 100 = 77%. This implied that a77% variation in academic performance of thestudents is explained by the variation in theschool facilities. It also implied that other factorsaccounting for 23% may be due to few teachers’deployed to public secondary schools, poorsalaries, poor motivational practices to bothteachers and students, computer lab, politiciansinterrupting the head of schools (that not in thisstudy) had little impact on variation in studentachievement once student background of schoolfacilities variables had been taken into account.

The findings is supported by Gladson(2010) supportive facilities on learning andteaching in school can significantly shape thegood grades of student academic success. Hallak(2000), facilities form one of the potent factorsthat contribute to academic achievement in theschool system. They include the schoolbuildings, classroom, libraries, laboratories,


64

furniture, apparatus and other instructionalmaterials.

Testing Hypothesis of the Study

The hypothesis of the study was saying“There is no significant relationship betweenschool facilities and student academicperformance”. The findings showed that there is arelationship between school facilities and studentacademic performance with p-value (0.001) lessthan level of significant of (0.05). This impliesthat school facilities are causal to the studentacademic performance in public secondaryschools in Bumbuli, Lushoto District, Tanga-Tanzania.


The findings on demographiccharacteristics of respondents revealed that

majority of the respondents were males, 8(80.8%) while; females were 2 (20%) implyingmore males. On age status the group was of 28-35 years respondents were 5 (50%) in position asthe head of schools. As regards to the workexperience 3-5 years were 4(40%), years ofexperience were more than the other respondentsas the head of schools.

The finding further revealed that there is avery low level of student academic performanceas shown in Table 6 which is very high meanwith regard to the scale used in the study. Also,findings revealed that there is a very high positiverelationship between school facilities andstudents academic performance in a correlationcoefficient of r = 0.876 showed in Table 7.

It was concluded that there is a highpositive relationship between school facilities andstudent academic performance in the study area.

REFERENCE

Ajayi, A.O & J.A. Ogunyemi (2000). PersonnelPerformance and Capacity Building.Ibadan Press, Nigeria.

Akande, O.M. (2005). Hints on TeachingPractice and General Principles ofEducation. Lagos Associates; USA.

Amin, M. E. (2005). Social Science research:conception, methodology and analysis.Makerere University Press, KampalaUganda.

BEST, (2011). Basic Education Statistics inTanzania; National Data, DSM, Tanzania

Earthman, G. I. (2002). Student achievement andbehavior and school building condition;The Journal of School BusinessManagement, Los Angeles, USA.

Enon, J.C. (1998). Education research: statisticsand measurements; Department ofDistance Education Makerere University,Uganda.

Farombi, J.G. (2008). Resource Concentration,Utilization and Management as Correlatesof Students ‘Learning outcomes: A studyin School Quality in Oyo State; Universityof Ibadan, Nigeria.

Gladson, G. (2010). The effect of schoolresources on student achievement; Reviewof Educational Research, Columbia, USA

Guilford, D. C. (2004). School size and schooldisorder; Liverpool, Center for SocialOrganization of Schools, LiverpoolUniversity, UK

Hallack, J. (2000). Investing in the Future:Setting Educational Priorities in theDeveloping World; Pergonion Press,Paris.

Kothari, C.R (2003). Research Methodology,Methods and techniques (2nd Ed) WishwaPrakashan, India


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MOEVT (2012). Progress Report of PER CWG1: Growth and Reduction of IncomePoverty Against the PerformanceAssessment Framework (PAF) for GBSAnnual Review; DSM

MoH (2011). Review and Assessment of theHealth and Productivity Benefits of GreenSchools: An Interim Report from Lushoto,Tanzania

Morgan W. D. (1970). Determining Sample sizefor Research Activities; Texas A. & M.University

Odulaja, G. (2008). Teachers Attitude TowardsBiology Practical with ParticularReference to School certificate Biology

practical Examinations. A case study ofLagos. B.Sc Project Report, University ofLagos.

Popoola, T. A. (2009). An Investigation betweenInstructional Resources and AcademicPerformance; University of Ilorin.

Shodimu, G.O. (2008). Resource Availability,Utilization and Productivity in Public andPrivate Secondary Schools in Lagos State;University of Lagos, Nigeria

Thompson and Wood (2005). Achievementeffects of substantial reductions in classsize;In School and classroomorganization, USA


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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE USE OF MODERN FAMILY METHODS AMONGMARRIED WOMEN OF REPRODUCTIVE AGE IN ARUA MUNICIPALITY, UGANDA

Chandiga Bondo (MPH)*Ndungutse David (Prof)**

Vuzi Peter, PhD***S. Stephen Kizza MA****

*MA (MPH) Student, School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University, Uganda**Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University

***Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema Univeersity****Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema Univeersity. Email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The study was to determine factors that influence uptake of contraceptives by married womenof reproductive ages (18-45) in Arua municipality. Descriptive cross-sectional research design usingboth quantitative and qualitative approaches was employed. Random systematic sampling design wasused to obtain 342 respondents. Data was collected using a face to face structured questionnaires andkey informant interview; which was analysed using binary logistic regression. Study findings revealedthat, there were major considerations by the respondents while deciding on which Family Planning touse. Competence of Service Provider as assessed by the FP client (OR = 6.56, p = 0.00,), religiousaffiliation (OR = 3.81, p = 0.000,), privacy and confidentiality provided (OR = 2.87, p = 0.02),educational levels (OR=2.23, p = 0.01) and cost associated with the method (OR=2.71, p = 0.00) aresignificant predictors of the choice of the modern Family Planning method by the respondents in thestudy area.

INTRODUCTION

Worldwide, contraceptive prevalence, thepercentage of women using contraception amongwomen of reproductive age who are married or ina consensual union was estimated to havereached 62.9% in 2007 (UN report 2009).However, this global average contraceptiveprevalence masks important disparities acrossand within developmental groups, major areasand regions. Many countries still have very lowcontraceptive prevalence.Contraceptive use could prevent one third ofmaternal deaths by allowing women to delaymotherhood, space birth, avoid unintendedpregnancies, abortion and terminate childbearing

when they reached their desired family size (Carlet al., 2008). According to the World HealthOrganization (2012), satisfying the unmet needfor family planning alone could cut the number ofmaternal deaths by almost a third. However, tosave an estimated 215 million women who wouldprefer to delay or avoid pregnancy continue tolack access and effective contraception (WHO,2012). Thus, along with providing skilledmaternal care, offering family planning is crucialto averting maternal deaths.

Contraceptive prevalence has variedconsiderably among African countries.According to UN report 2009, in Africa, half ofall countries had prevalence levels below 20 percent, a few had fairly high levels of contraceptive


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use, including Cape Verde, Egypt, Morocco,South Africa and Zimbabwe, whosecontraceptive prevalence ranged from 50 %-60%; Algeria and Tunisia with levels ranging from60 % to 70 %; and Mauritius with 75 %.According to UNFPA (2003), Bogart (2008) ascited by Cleland, Ndugwa and Zulu, (2010), thegrowth rates and fertility are falling much moreslowly in the sub-Saharan African countriesbecause contraption use is still poor in thesecountries as opposed to developed countries. Thisuncontrolled population growth will hinder theattainment of development and health goals inSub-Saharan Africa. Fertility will only decline ifthe population at large adopts effective methodsof contraception.

Although many United Nations membercountries, particularly those in the developedworld, have strong family planning programs,this is not the case in sub-Saharan Africa, wheredespite a rise in contraceptive prevalence, manywomen continue to have unmet need forcontraception (UNFPA, 2012; Cleland et al.,2006). The resultant high fertility is associatedwith high levels of maternal mortality, especiallyamong the poorest communities in Sub-SaharanAfrica.Within the East African community, thecontraceptive prevalence of modern familyplanning methods was highest in Kenya (39.8%)and lowest in Burundi (7.5%) as of UN report(2011). In Uganda, the maternal mortality ratiowas estimated 3 to be much higher than theworldwide average in 2011, at 438 per 100,000births while globally it was 287 per 100,000(UBOS and ICF International, 2012). Anestimated one-third of women who give birth indeveloping countries are below age 20, whichexposes them to greater risk of illness and deathrelated to maternal causes. Most of these deathscould be avoided if sexually productive womenused contraceptives (WHO, 2010).

Initial family planning initiatives inUganda have been concentrated on addressing thecountry’s rapid population growth. In the 2000the country’s population was growing at a rate of

2.72 percent annually, in 2005 3.31% and now3.58 % in 2012 (CIA, 2012) and the total fertilityrate (TFR) was recorded at 6.7 and 6.2 childrenper woman in 2006 and 2011 respectively(UDHS 2006, 2011). Since this demographicsituation has been viewed as one of the majorcauses of the country’s poverty and sloweconomic development, most family planningprograms in this Country are focused on fertilityreduction. To attain this program objective,contraceptive use has to be aggressivelypromoted.

According to regional statistics on CPR,West Nile has performed poorly in the UDHSreports of 2006 and 2011. In 2006, the centralregion had CPR of 24.6, Kampala at 33.5, Eastcentral 15.4, Eastern 15.3, North 7.3, West Nile9.0, Western 12.6 and South West had 17.3%.Whereas in UDHS (2011) report Central 30.7,Kampala 40.2,East Central 27.5, Eastern 23.4,North 7.4, West Nile 13.6 and South West25.1%. Such a big difference calls for a study.

In the West Nile region, the population ispredominantly rural. It is estimated at 855,055inhabitants. The district of Arua has a highgrowth rate of 3.98% (UBOS 2002). Thepopulation is predominantly peasantry with lowsocio-economic and 4 health status. The humandevelopment and poverty indices in the northernregion of Uganda including in the West Niledistrict of Arua are poor. This could explain thelow contraceptive prevalence in the district (AruaDistrict Planning Office 2002).

The government of Uganda with supportfrom development partners has put in placesvarious strategies and policies to facilitate the useof family planning services. Free contraceptivesare being provided at government institutions atall levels and partners such as USAID provideoutreach services at very low cost. Suchinterventions are meant to reduce the highfertility rates, increase contraceptive prevalencerate (CPR) and reduce the unmet family planningneeds. However, despite these interventions andthe availability of the family planning services,


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family planning services related outcomes inArua Municipality are poor.In the West Nile region, Population growth ratehas remained high at 3.98% as is a high totalfertility rate (TFR) of 6.7 children per woman,and unmet need for family planning has over theyears grown up to 41% (UDHS 2011).Contraceptive prevalence in West Nile was only13.6 % as compared to 25.0% at national level(UDHS 2011). This demographic situation hasbeen viewed as one of the major causes of thecountry’s poverty, slow economic developmentand high mortality rates.

The existing situation could be explainedby factors which influence the uptake of familyplanning services. However, there is availablestudy finding to rely on. Hence, the study soughtto establish the predictors of the choice of familyplanning method in Arua Municipality. The studycovered a period of about two months. Data wascollected and analysis done between the monthsof June and July 2013.

Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) byAjzen and Fishbein (1980) guided the study.According to the theory, beliefs, attitudes,intentions and behaviour form a causal chain, sothat beliefs lead to attitudes, and attitudes in turnlead to intentions and so behaviour. Factorsrelated to demography, access, community,health providers, were considered as predictors ofchoice of Family Planning.

METHODOLOGY

The study employed descriptivecorrelation cross sectional research design usingboth quantitative and qualitative researchapproaches. The study population was 10,355married women of reproductive age (18-45)residing in Arua Municipality, according to AruaMunicipality (AMC) five year development planReport (2012-2016). The target population was

drawn from 2,898 married women ofreproductive age (18-45) living in AruaMunicipality. The sample size of the study was338 women respondents derived from use ofKrejcie and Morgan (1970) statistical Table.Simple random sampling to identify the 04 wardsfrom the two divisions was used. The wardschosen were Awindir and Mvara in Arua hillDivision, Pangisha and Kenya in Olli Division. Ineach of selected wards, 02 cells were selectedusing random sampling. The cells are Nsambiaand Academy in Awindir Ward. Congo andZambia zone in Mvara ward. Ojulua and Barukuin Pangisha ward. Jacinto and Ozua cells inKenya ward. The required numbers ofrespondents from the households wereestablished, based on the cells using Kothari(2004) proportionate sample allocation formula.A sampling frame of households with marriedwomen by cell was constructed for purpose ofsystematic sampling.

During the study a validated questionnairewhich had been piloted was used asrecommended by [(Amin (2005), Kothari (2003),Enon (1998)]. The required numbers ofrespondents by each cell were selected usingrandom systematic sampling technique. Prior todata collection permission from AruaMunicipality Authority was obtained andindividual respondent consent. In householdswhere a man was married to more than one wifeand all qualified to be respondents, the researcherfurther sampled only one respondent.

The raw data obtained in the study usingquestionnaire were sorted, edited, coded andentered in computer. By use of StatisticalPackages for Social Sciences (SPSS) version16.0, that was analysed binary logistic regressionto derive the logistic regression coefficient (B)and odds ratios. The hypothesis was tested atlevel of significance level (p = 0.05).

RESULTS AND DISCUSION A logistic regression analysis was conducted topredict take-up of modern or Traditional familyplanning method among women of reproductive


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ages (18-45) in Arua Municipality, based on arange of predictors. Study findings aresummarized in Table 1

Predictors of Modern Family PlanningChoice

Sig Exp(B 95.0% C.I.for EXP(B)

Lower UpperConstant 0.00 0.21Age (Base 18-30, and 30+) 0.27 1.45 0.75 2.81Education ( formal and No formal ) 0.01** 2.23 1.20 4.13Average income (<100,000/= and > 100,000/=) 0.10 1.66 0.90 3.05Religion (Christian Vs Muslims) 0.00** 3.80 1.85 7.83Biasness ( yes Vs No) 0.60 0.82 0.39 1.74Competence (yes Vs no) 0.00** 6.56 3.09 13.93Privacy and confidentiality ( Yes Vs No) 0.02** 2.87 1.16 7.08Cultural beliefs (yes Vs no) 0.13 0.58 0.29 1.17Distance to unit (<3km Vs > 3Kms) 0.08 2.32 0.90 5.94Cost of the Method 0.00** 2.71 1.61 4.58**Prediction significant at 0.05 level of significance

According to results in logistic regressioncoefficient (B) in Table 1, education, religiousaffiliation, competence of health worker, privacyand confidentiality provided by health worker toclients during family planning services and,associated cost of the Modern Family planningare significant in predicting the choice of theFamily Planning method (P < 0.05). The rest ofthe variables did not reveal significantcontribution (P> 0.05). It implies that the clients’decisions are influenced significantly by thementioned variables which are statisticallysignificant.

Education of the ClientResults in Table1 ( OR =2.23, p = 0.01,

95% CI = 1.20 to 4.13) imply that, the likelihoodof taking up Modern Family Planning methodwhile the client is educated in the study areaincreases by 2.23 times than uneducated. Thisfinding is consistent with several previous studies(Ibnouf, 2007; Nidiaye, 2003). These found outthat compared to women with no education,literate women had greater odds of utilizingfamily planning service. This is also consistentwith the study done in Mayan by Bertrand et al.

(2000), who found that education affects thedistribution of authority within households,whereby women may increase their authoritywithin the household which in turn affect fertilityand use of family planning services. Caldwell andCaldwell (2003), argues that educated womentend to marry later, have fewer children and usecontraception than uneducated women.

Religious Affiliation of the ClientAccording to results in Table 1,

(OR=3.81, p = 0.00, 95% CI=1.85 to7.83),indicate the likelihood of taking up ModernFamily Planning method while the client is aChristian in the study area increases about 4times than being a Muslim. The findings are incontrast with the previous studies by Olaitan(2011),who opined Catholics have restrictions oncontraception based on the belief that it is God’swill to bring children into the world. Accordingto him, Catholics believers or observers mightchoose to avoid modern methods of familyplanning, such as birth control pill, IUD andcondoms in an effort to live their lives accordingto the teachings of their religion. On the otherhand, Rasheed (2010) said that the Qur’an


70

actually states the limitation of children, which ishaving not more than four children with a statedage of marriage. According to these literature, wewould have expected that been a Muslim wouldincreases the chances of using modern familyplanning than a Christian.

Competence of Service ProviderResults in Table 1, (OR=6.56, p = 0.00,

95% CI = 3.08-13.94) indicate that, the likelihoodof taking up Modern Family Planning methodwhile the competence of service Provider asassessed by the client is high or favourable in thestudy area goes up 6.56 times. It implies that,once the clients believe that the service provideris competent enough; then their chances of takingup modern family planning would increasealmost 7 times. Earlier studies by Driwale, (2010)are consistent with the current study findings. Inhis study, Driwale, (2010), stated that whenservice provider correctly administer proceduressuch as insertion of IUD without fidgeting,provide quality counselling, many client wouldconsider them competent and are likely tomaintain the family planning services.

Privacy and Confidentiality of ServiceProvider

As can be seen in Table 1 (OR=2.87, p =0.02, 95% CI=1.16-7.07), the likelihood of takingup Modern Family Planning method amongrespondents in the study area improves about 3times when the privacy and confidentialityprovided by service Provider as assessed by theclient is high or favourable. This implies that ifclients are provided with adequate privacy,information is kept confidential then thelikelihood of them using modern family planningwould improve about 3 times. Finding areconsistent with previous studies of Pettiford(2012),who reported that clients’ privacy is a keyfactor in increasing uptake of contraceptives, thatthe odds of using modern family planningmethods increases with the level of privacyprovided. He says clients would feel morecomfortable if providers respected their privacy

during counselling sessions, examinations, andprocedures and keep confidentiality. Accordingto (Olaitan 2011), women would not like to beexposed while been provided with services andmost would prefer fellow women to examinethem in order to maintain privacy.

Cost of the MethodResults in Table 1, (OR =2.23, p = 0.01,

95% CI = 1.20 - 4.13) indicate that, the likelihoodof taking up Modern Family Planning methodwhile the methods are provided at cost increases3 times high as assessed by the client in the studyarea. The finding is consistent with previousstudy of Olaitan (2009). He found out that thosewomen in urban areas preferred going forreproductive service where cost is incurred. Heexplained that women in urban areas considerthat free services are not free because you have tospend lots of time before getting the requiredservices. But if somebody paid for the service shewould spend less time. However, findingscontrast findings by Namazzi (2013), in herstudy, she found out that if services are providedat a cost many would not take them, for instance,found out that unofficial fees in the public sector,and limited quantity of information providedduring care affects delivery of reproductivehealth services in Uganda.

It can be concluded that, among thesignificant predictors, competence of familyplanning service providers is most influential inthe choice of the method and cost of the methodis the least influential factor.

The other factors such as age (p = 0.269),average income of client (p = 1.659), biasness ofservice providers (p = 0.602), cultural beliefs ofthe respondents (p = 0.129) and distance to thenearest health unit providing reproductive healthservices (p = 0.079) are not major predictors oftake of modern family planning methods.


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Recommendations

1. There is need to train health workers inhandling reproductive health services inorder to improve their competence.

2. Government should ensure thatreproductive health services by providedat zero cost in rural areas, althoughelement of providing services with costsharing should be maintained at the urbansettings.

3. There is need to involve religious leadersand community leaders in issuesconcerning reproductive health services.

4. Religion plays a key role in the lives ofbelievers and has a significantrelationship with uptake of familyplanning services in Arua Municipal.

5. There is need to develop mechanisms thatensure that clients are provided withadequate privacy and confidentialitywhile providing reproductive healthservices.

6. Affirmative action need to be taken inorder to ensure more women acquirecertain level of education, for examplecompulsory female education, extra freepoints to higher levels of education.

REFERENCES

Amin, E. (2005). Social Science Research:Conception, Methodology and Analysis.Kampala: Makerere University Printery

Bongaarts,J. and Bruce,J.(2008) "The Causes ofUnmet Need for Contraception and theSocial Content of Services," Studies inFamily Planning

Ibnouf AH, Van den Borne HW, Maarse JA.(2007), Utilization of Family PlanningServices by Married Sudanese Women ofReproductive Age

Kothari, C. R. (2009). Research Methodology:Methods and Techniques. India, NewDelhi: New Age Publications India.

Krejce, R.V., and Morgan, D.W. (1970)Determining Sample Size for Researchactivities: Educational and Psychologicalmeasurement

Namazzi G.(2013), Missed Opportunities ForModern FP Services Among Women 74

Olaitan OL (2011). Factors Influencing theChoice of Family Planning AmongCouples in Southwest Nigeria

Olaitan OL (2009). Sexual Behaviour ofUniversity Students in South WestNigeria

Pettiford, B (2012), Client Confidentiality andPrivacy.

Rasheed, A.A., (2010). Islamic Family Planning

UBOS and ICF International Inc (2012), UgandaDemographic and Health Survey 2011Kampala, Uganda: Uganda Bureau ofStatistics (UBOS) and Calverton,Maryland: ICF International Inc.

UDHS 2006 reportUDHS 2011 reportUNFPA (2012) Reproductive Health, Ensuring

that Every Pregnancy is wantedhttp://www.unfpa.org/rh/planning.htm:Accessed on 14 January, 2013.

United Nations (2012) Millennium DevelopmentGoal 5: Improving Maternal Health.http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/maternal.shtml Accessed 11 November 2012.

UNFPA (2003) State of world population, NewYork

WHO 2012 MDG 5: Improve maternal health 76


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SUBSTANCE ABUSE AND DELINQUENCY AMONG YOUTHS OF WALUKUBADIVISION, JINJA MUNICIPALITY, UGANDA

P. Ddumba Matovu, (MA)*Julius Enon, PhD**

Kizito Wamala, MA***S. Stephen Kizza, MA****

*MA (Counseling Psychology) Student, School of Graduate Studies, Bugema University, Uganda**Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University

***Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University.****Lecturer, Graduate School Bugema University. Email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the relationship between substance abuse and delinquency among theyouths of Walukuba Division. A descriptive correlational cross-sectional research design using bothquantitative and qualitative research approaches was employed, targeting 322 youths as sample sizefrom Central, Church, and School parishes of Walukuba East Sub-Division. A structuredquestionnaire as a main instrument for data collection which was partly adapted from WHOstandardized questionnaire [Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST)] was used and,supplemented with Key Informant Interview Guide. Multiregression analysis using Statistical packagefor Social Sciences (SPSS) software was used to determine the influence of Substance abuse ondelinquency among youths in Walukuba Division, Jinja District.

Study findings reveal that apart from Cocaine, there is a significant influence of all thesubstance abuse on delinquency among youths [Alcohol abuse: (b = 0.146 (14.6%), p = 0.005)], [Marijuana abuse: b = 0.179 (17.9%), p = 0.003)], [Cociane abuse: b = 0.094 (9.4%), p = 0.078), p <0.05], [Khat Abuse: b = 0.305 (30.5), p = 0.000)].

INTRODUCTION

The historical perspective andanthropological evidence show that humans havebeen using psychoactive substances for manymillennia. For example, 13000 years ago, betelnut is believed to have been chewed in Timor andin Thailand in about 10700 years ago. Similarly,the Aborigines and Native Americans used pituriand Nicotiana (both nicotine) and tobaccorespectively, long before their contact withEurope. Ethiopians are believed to have usedKhat. In the Andes, coca was being used 7000years ago and in Ecuador 5000 years ago

The World Health Organization (WHO)defines substance abuse as partnered harmful orhazardous use of psychoactive substances,including alcohol and other illicit drugs. ASubstance is any natural or synthesized productthat has psychoactive effects to a person. Theindulgence with the abuse of psychoactivesubstances like Depressants (Downers),Stimulants (Uppers), Hallucinogens(Psychedelics), and sedatives leading to effectsthat are detrimental to the individual's physicaland mental health, and indubitable harmful toothers. Psychoactive substance abuse can lead todependence syndrome - a cluster of behavioral,cognitive, and physiological phenomena that


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develop after repeated substance use and thattypically include a strong desire to take thesubstance of abuse.

Currently, the world is not only burdenedby the overgrowing rate of delinquency, but alsoshouldering the fetter of substance, trade, abuseand their consequences. For example, theNational Institute on Drugs (2011) reports thatthe global burden of disease attributable toalcohol and illicit substance abuse amounts to5.4% of the total burden of disease and dailymarijuana consumption in USA increased amongstudents in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades from 2009to 2010. This escalated the estimates of the totaloverall costs of substance abuse in the UnitedStates, including lost productivity, health andcrime-related costs, to exceed $600 billionannually. According to Diagnostic and StatisticalManual of mental disorders 5th ed (2013) hereafter DSM-V, alcohol use disorder is commondisorder where in US 12 months prevalence ofalcohol use disorder is estimated to be 8.5%among adults age 18 and above.

According to the Global Health Risksreport (2009) by WHO, substance abuse is amongthe top 20 risk factors for social problems, deathand disability worldwide. WHO estimates about76.3 million people struggle with alcohol usedisorders contributing to 1.8 million deaths peryear. In Canada, LSD, and PCP are all illicitsubstances and the federal Controlled Drugs andSubstances Act prohibits and sets penalties forproducing, possessing, importing, exporting, andtrafficking them, unless authorized by virtue ofspecific regulations. According to a studyconducted in Pakistan by Indian medicalassociation in 2000, there is a higher occurrenceof abuse of alcohol, tranquillizers andpsychedelics among medical students, anddependence rates are 5% for medical students and3% for doctors.

According to Sydelle (2011), there is anescalation of substance abuse in Africa especiallyamong the youth in Nigeria. Unfortunately,comprehensive statistics on substance abuse(alcohol and drugs) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)

seems to be limited. For example, unrecordedalcohol consumption is estimated to be about halfthe amount consumed in Africa and in EastAfrica, more than 90% of substances abused areunrecorded. This is due in part because in manyAfrican countries alcohol, marijuana, Khat,Cocaine and other substances are produced at thelocal level in villages and homes (NationalAcademy of Sciences 2010).

Generation of young people faced with achronic shortage of jobs, many of whom haveturned to routine Marijuana abuse as a way topass the time and deal with the stresses of life inwhat is still one of the poorest countries in theworld. Apart from alcohol and tobacco, cannabisremains the main drug of abuse in Egypt, as it iselsewhere in Africa. According to a research ondrug and substance abuse among Egyptianworkers by the National Consultant, Ministry ofHealth, Egypt also revealed that out of a sampleof 5108 workers, 12.8% use either cannabis aloneor cannabis and opium and this affected workperformance in different ways while havingmoral consequences in their social life.

Substance abuse has been described as aproblem especially among marginal unemployedyouths in Uganda. The EFDR Expert Forum onDemand Reduction (2002) reported highprevalence of substance abuse and misbehavior inplaces like Kampala, Arua, Mbale, Entebbe,Jinja, Mbarara and most urban centers. Cannabisis mostly abused by street and school youths atall level, impinging conduct of most abusers whoare reported over involvement in sexualmisconduct, theft thus being irresponsible. Oftenyouths utter obscene words and frequently havebeen involved in cases like rap and defilement(EFDR 2002). Cocaine abuse is prevalent amonghigh income groups and Somali refugees. Urbanyouths abuse Khat yet alcohol abuse is crosscutting.

Substance abuse not only affects theabuser but also the society (Healthkey andLameman, 2012). The 2010 report on substanceabuse in Jinja Municipality by Set them FreeInternational a local NGO shows that a number of


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young men and women in Uganda are under theinfluence of substance abuse a situation thatseems cause immorality and spoiling theambitious lives of young people (Set them FreeWhereas available data indicate growingsubstance abuse and trafficking in Uganda from2,034 reported cases in 2009 to currentlyuncertain but unacceptably high incidence ofnarcotics drug trafficking (Uganda Annual PoliceCrime Report, 2009), it is not conclusive aboutthe effect of substance abuse to directly impacton delinquency among the youths of WalukubaDivision.

Walukuba Division is experiencing aproblem of youths conduct characterized by theft,obscene language, sexual misconduct and theabuse of substances has been said to make youthirresponsible. The in-charge of the police stationreported 30% cases of theft with youthinvolvement. Findings by Numbeo (2013) revealthat in Walukuba the risks of being mugged,robbed or thieves breaking into homes haveincreased up to 50% in the past three years.

According to Slam Aid Project (SAP2010), Walukuba experiences growing number ofurban youths migrants many depending onbrewing and selling local brew which not onlycourse land pressure but unhealthy environments,early exposure to sex, illiteracy, drug abuse,crime and prostitution that we see today.Whereas available data indicated growingsubstance abuse in Uganda, little is known aboutthe relationship between substance abuse anddelinquency among the youths yet it is uncertainover the causes of substance abuse in Walukuba.It was against this background that a study toestablish the influence substance abuse ondelinquency among the youths of WalukubaDivision Jinja Municipality was undertaken.

The study was guided by the SocialLearning Theory Albert Bandura (1977) statedthat behavior/morality is learned in a socialcontext through the process of modeling andobservational learning. According to the theory,individuals’ behaviors are determined by the

environment and characteristics of the person. Inother words, a person’s behavior, environment,and personal qualities all reciprocally influenceeach other.

METHODOLOGY

The study used descriptive correlationcross sectional research design using bothquantitative and qualitative research approaches.The targeted population of the youths inWalukuba was 1952 upon which the appropriatesample size of 322 youths was considered usingthe Morgan and Krejcie (1970). Conveniencesampling was used to select the respondentswhile purposive was use to identify the 15 keyinformants who were local leaders, parents/guardians and Police Officers. Key informantsprovided in-depth information about the problemof substance abuse in light of the delinquencyamong youths in the study area.

During the study a validated questionnairewhich had been piloted was used asrecommended by [(Amin ()2005, Kothari (2003),Enon (1998)]. The questionnaire was adaptedfrom WHO standardized questionnaire - theAlcohol, Smoking and Substance InvolvementScreening Test (ASSIST). It was supplementedwith the Interview guide targeting the localleaders’ police officers as key informants. Datafrom the field was cleaned, coded and entered inthe computer. It was analyzed by the use of SPSScomputer software. Multiregression analysisusing SPSS computer software was used toanalyze the influence of substance abuse ondelinquency among the respondents.

RESULTS

Study findings using the multiregressionrevealed the influence substance abuse ondelinquency among the respondents as illustratedin Table 1


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Table 14: Influence of Substance abuse on Delinquency among RespondentsPredictor Variable Unstandardized

CoefficientsStandardizedCoefficients

Sig.

B Std. Error Beta(Constant) 25.514 2.938 0.000Alcohol abuse 2.945 1.029 0.146 0.005Marijuana abuse 4.734 1.568 0.179 0.003Cacaine abuse 3.302 1.869 0.094 0.078Khat abuse 7.579 1.483 0.305 0.000

N = 300Significance at 0.05 level of significance R2= 0.255Adjusted R2=0.245

Study findings in Table 1 based onstandardized coefficients (beta) reveal that apartfrom Cocaine abuse, there is a significantinfluence of substance abuse on delinquencyamong the respondents [Alcohol abuse: (b =0.146 (14.6%), p = 0.005)], [ Marijuana abuse: b= 0.179 (17.9%), p = 0.003)], [Cociane abuse: b= 0.094 (9.4%), p = 0.078) p < 0.005 ], [KhatAbuse: b = 0.305 (30.5), p = 0.000)].

Study findings imply that, Khat abusesignificantly contributes most (30.5%) yet abuseof Alcohol contributes least (14.9%) todelinquency among the respondents. However,there is no statistical evidence (b = 0.094, p =0.078, p < 0.005) that cocaine abuse contributessignificantly to delinquency among therespondents when factors in the model are heldconstant.

The high contribution of Khat abuse toyouth delinquency is likely to be due to itsstimulant that keeps the youths highly activeincreasing delinquent conducts. The findings aresupported by the study in Somalia by Sagal(2013) where he realized that Khat has beenknown to cause induced psychosis which imposesmany direct and indirect costs on the centralnervous system having significance todelinquency in the society at large. Theeuphoriant substance found in Khat renders theyouths very active hence vulnerable tomisconduct. The Khat abusers may feel at libertyto act out whatever they think of irrespectivewhether bad or good. Results from key informantindicated that it happens with redundant youths in

the study area. This is supported by studyfindings where 184 (61.3%) of the respondentswere unemployed. A study by Mesfin, Hassen,Ghimjha and Teshome (2000) in Ethiopia on the‘Knowledge of “drug” use and associated factorsas perceived by health professionals’ concur withthe current study findings. The Mesfin etal.,(2000) showed that Khat abuse is most commonwith the unemployed members of the community.

However the current study findingscontradicts study findings on Drugs in WesternPacific Societies by Strathern (2000) where heargued that while Khat does create effects andinterpersonal relations of a special kind, they donot effectively change social relations anddelinquency among youths.

General findings of the study supportearlier findings by Oladipo (2009) who attributeddelinquency in youths not only due to substanceabuse but also the social environment wherechildren grow amidst unfairness, vulgarity,cheating, corruption, lying, deviant behavior,sexual immorality and other tension thatembodies language of youngsters.

ConclusionDelinquency among youths in Walukuba

was found to be moderate but significantlyaffected by substance abuse especially the abuseof Khat and Marijuana. The researcher concludedthat substance abuse moderately contributes todelinquency among youths of Walukuba DivisionJinja Municipality.


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REFERENCES

Amin, M. E. (2005). Social Science research:conception, methodology and analysis.Makerere University Press, Kampala

Uganda.Enon, J. C. (1998). Educational research:

statistics and measurements; Departmentof Distance Education MakerereUniversity, Uganda.

Global Health Risks Report (2009). World HealthOrganization, Geneva.

Healthkey B.L. (2012).Retrieved fromhttp://www.chicagotribune.com/sns-health- addiction-families on 24thFebruary 2013

Kothari, C. R (2003). Research Methodology,Methods and techniques (2nd Ed)Wishwa Prakashan, India.

Mesfin K, Hassen T, Ghimjha F, Teshome(2000): Knowledge of “drug” use andassociated factors as perceived by health

professionals, farmers, the youth and lawenforcement agencies inEthiopia.13(2):141-150.

National Academy of Sciences (2010). Mental,Neurological, and Substance UseDisorders in Sub-Saharan Africa.

National Institute on Drugs (2011).Drug Facts:Understanding Drug Abuse andAddiction. Retrieved from

http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfactson 30th May 2013

Numbeo (2013) Crime in Jinja, Uganda.Retrieved fromhttp://www.numbeo.com/crime/city_result. on 14th April 2013

Oladipo S.E (2009). Moral Education of theChild: Who is Responsibility?

Partnership for a Drug-Free America (2008)Retrieved fromhttp://www.treatmentsolutions.com on14th April 2013

Sagal O (2013) Somali’s call for UK governmentto ban the herbal stimulant khat fallson deaf ears. Horseed Meadia. Retrievedfrom http://horseedmedia.net on 2nd

December 2012.Strathern M. (2000). Relations without

Substance. Drugs in Western PacificSocieties: Relations of Substance,11(1990) 231-246. University Press ofAmerica.

Sydelle J. (2011).The Effects of Drug AbuseAmong Youths on the NigerianSociety.Discover the expert in you.Retrieved from http://www.ehow.comon 08 November 2012.

The National Institute of Drug and Alcohol(2012) household surveys.


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About Bugema University-School of Graduatestudies

Mission Statement for the UniversityTo offer excellent and distinctive holisticChristian education to prepare our studentsthrough training, research and scholarship forproductive levels of useful services to God andthe society with uncompromising in terrify,honesty and loyalty.

Vision of the School of Graduate studiesA self-sustaining School of Graduate studiesproducing skilled manpower for diversedevelopment

Mission Statement of the School of GraduatestudiesA seventh-day Adventist institution on higherlearning providing holistic and sustainableeducation through imparting quality skills tograduate students and community members forexcellence in service.

ObjectivesGuided and propelled by the general objective ofbackstopping Bugema University in undertakingefforts to make more meaningful contribution tothe realization of the goals of nationaldevelopment through human resourcedevelopment, the Bugema University-School ofGraduate studies trains its efforts and resourcestowards the achievement of the following specificobjectives:

1. To develop graduate students' ability toundertake research or scholarly work inbusiness administration, developmentstudies, counselling psychology,education management, public health, andinternational business.

2. To develop highly trained humanresources imbued with universal valuesand professionalism, work and discipline.

3. To offer programs that are responsive tothe needs of the learners and of theircommunities through holistic education.

4. To institutionalize a system of continuingeducation to sustain professional growthand promote long life learning.

5. To establish an education networkthrough collaborative arrangements,institutional linkages and otherappropriate mechanisms to enhance thedelivery of education programs and togenerate awareness of and support toBugema University-School of Graduatestudies program.

6. To foster a culture of performanceexcellence, accountability andstewardship consonant with BugemaUniversity’s values, objectives,institutional identity and culture.

Goal of the School of Graduate studiesImprove access to post graduate studies amongSDA scholars

Values of the School of Graduate studies1. Commitment2. Self reliance3. Team spirit4. Professionalism and Competence5. Transparency6. Equity and fairness

Courses offered by Bugema University-Schoolof Graduate studies ( only offered at KampalaCampus & Arua Center on Weekend)

1. Masters of Business Administration(MBA) Finance & Accounting Human Resource Management Entreprenuership and Strategic

Management Procurement & Logistic Project Management Marketing

2. Masters of Science in CounsellingPsychology

3. Masters of Art in Development Studies


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4. Masters of Art in EducationalManagement

5. Masters in Public Health

6. Post Graduate Diploma in PublicAdministration and Management

7. Post Graduate Diploma in Education8. Post Graduate Diploma in Information

Technology

4 vol. case of volcanoes national park, musanze district ... · [email protected] abstract the...

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