3903204 protein sorting

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Prokaryotic protein targeting (secretion)

The chaperone protein SecB binds to the nascent polypeptide chain to

prevent premature foldingwhich would make transport across the

plasma membrane impossible. SecE and SecY are transmembrane

components which form a pore in the membrane through which the still

unfolded polypeptide is threaded. The translocation process is energy-

dependent (ATP) and is driven by SecA. Once the protein has passed

through the pore, the signal sequence is cleaved off by an extracellular,

membrane-boundprotease.

Eukaryotic Protein Targeting


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Targeting in eukaryotes is necessarily more complex

due to the multitude of internal compartments:

nucleus

mitochondria peroxisomes

chloroplasts

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Golgi

lysosomes

secretory granules

The signals involved are also calledsortingsignals.

They are regions on the targeted protein with

certain amino acid sequences.

These signals interact with specific receptors,either on the target organelle or a carrier

protein.

There are two basic forms of targeting pathways:

post-translationaltargeting:

o nucleus

o mitochondria

o chloroplasts


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o peroxisomes

co-translationaltargeting (secretory pathway):

o ER

o Golgi

o lysosomes

o plasma membrane

o secreted proteins


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In the absence of targeting signals, a protein will remain

in the cytoplasm:

translational machinery

metabolic enzymes

cytoskeletal proteins

many signal transduction proteins

Nuclear targeting:

Unusual since 2-way traffic:

o in: proteins, DNA

DNA & RNA polymerases

transcriptions factors

histones etc.

o out: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

Proteins are not transported through the nuclear membrane but rather

through a complex pore called the nuclear pore:

o comprised of about 100 different proteins

o proteins smaller than 20 kDa move by diffusion

o

proteins larger than 20 kDa move by selective transport (nuclearlocalization signal)

cluster of 4-8 positively charged amino acids (example:

PKKKRLV)

signal sequence binds to receptor on the pore called

importin

Mitochondrial targeting:

not well understood

usually by post-translational targeting


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Lysosomal targeting:

Lysosomes are organelles that store enzymes which rapidly degradeother proteins and nucleic acids.

A famous target sequence is "KDEL"

Initial targeting via secretory pathway

Final targeting occurs in the Golgi

The secretory pathway

ER targeting (secretory pathway)

co-translational insertion of protein into or through ER membrane via attached

ribosomes (rough ER):o signal sequence of 16-30 amino acids at N-terminus (hydrophobic)

o emergingsignal sequence of nascent protein on free ribosome binds to

signal recognition particle (SRP) -- translation is arrested.

SRPs consist of 6 proteins and one RNA molecule (7S RNA).

The SRP-signal sequence-mRNA-ribosome complex docks withreceptoron ER membrane.

o signal sequence crosses ER membrane.

o translation continues with polypeptide chain being pulled into the ER

lumen.
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While in the ER, many proteins undergo the first stages ofglycosylation. Most proteinsthen migrate inside vesicles from the ER and enter the cis face of the Golgi where further

processingand finalsortingoccurs:
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The Golgi Complex

The Golgi is responsible for furtherprocessingand finalsortingof proteins. Oneexample is the formation ofprimary andsecondary lysosomes:

Primary lysosomes bud from the trans face of the Golgi and subsequently

o undergo exocytosis (A)


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o fuse with vesicles to digest their contents (B & C)

o rupture, causing autolysis (D)

Overview of Trafficking


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In order to keep a cell working it needs to remove:

incorrectly synthesized proteins (with errors in amino acid sequence)

damaged proteins (i.e. oxidative damage)

cell-cycle specific proteins other signaling proteins which are no longer necessary

One mechanism of protein degradation is via

lysosomes. Lysosomes are acidic vesicles that

contain about 50 different enzymes involved indegradation:

proteases (cathepsins): cleave peptide bonds

phosphatases: remove covalently bound phosphates

nucleases: cleave DNA/RNA

lipases: cleave lipid molecules

carbohydrate-cleaving enzymes: remove covalently bound sugars from

glycoproteins

Lysosomes often secrete their contents into the extracellular medium via

exocytosis.

Lysosomes can also target damaged organelles in a process called

autophagy.

Sometimes, lysosomes are triggered to rupture inside a cell, resulting in

autolysis, also calledapoptosis orprogrammed cell death.

Another major mechanism is via ubiquitin labelingof

surplus proteins:

Ubiquitin (a small 76-residue protein) is attached to the protein:

o First, an activating enzyme attaches itself to the carboxy terminus

of free ubiquitin in an ATP-dependent process.


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o Then, the activated ubiquitin is transferred onto a second enzyme

which at the same time recognizes damaged proteins.

o The activated ubiquitin is then covalently linked to lysine residues

on the surface of the damaged protein.

These ubiquitin-taggedproteins are now recognized by specificproteases in the cytosol which in turn cleave and degrade the tagged

protein.

These proteases are combined in a very large protein complex called the

proteasome.

The proteasome (20S) is comprised of 28 subunits and has a molecular

weight of 700 kDa:

SUMMARY:

Protein Targeting and Sorting

Synthesis of all polypeptides encoded by nuclear genes begins in the cytosol.

The large and small ribosomal subunits associate with each other and with the 5 prime

end of an mRNA molecule, forming a functional ribosome that starts making thepolypeptide.

When the polypeptide is about 30 amino acids long, it enters one of two alternative

pathways.

1) In cotranslational import, if the newly forming polypeptideis destined for any of thecompartments of the endomembrane system, it becomes associated with the ER

membrane and is transferred across the membrane into the lumen (cisternal space) of theER as synthesis continues.

The completed polypeptide then either remains in the ER or is transported via various

vesicles and the Golgi complex to another final destination.

Integral membrane proteins are inserted into the ER membrane as they are made, ratherthan into the lumen.

2) If the polypeptide is destined for the cytosol or for import into the nucleus,

mitochondria, chloroplasts, or peroxisomes, its synthesis continues in the cytosol.

When the polypeptide is complete, it is released from the ribosome and either remains inthe cytosol or is transported into the appropriate organelle by posttranslational import.

Polypeptide uptake by the nucleus occurs via the nuclear pores, using a mechanism

different from that involved in posttranslational uptake by other organelles.

In cotranslational import, proteins to be targeted to the endoplasmic reticulum initiallyhave an N-terminal peptide, the ER signal sequence, translated by a cytosolic ribosome.
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The ER signal sequence is bound by a signal-recognition particle (SRP), a

ribonucleoprotein complex composed of 6 peptides and a 300 nucleotide RNA molecule.

The SRP binds to the SRP receptor to dock the ribosome on the ER membrane.When the SRP receptor binds GTP, the nascent polypeptide enters the pore.

The SRP is released with hydrolysis of the GTP.

The growing polypeptide translocates through a hydrophilic pore created by one or moremembrane proteins called the translocon.

The most recent evidence suggests that the ribosome fits tightly across the cytoplasmic

side of the pore and that the ER-lumen side is somehow closed off until the polypeptide isabout 70 amino acids long.

When the polypepide is complete, the signal peptidase cleave the signal to release the

protein into the ER lumen while retaining the signal peptide, for a time, in the membrane.

Afterwards the ribosome is released and the pore closes completely.

In the endoplasmic reticulum, folding of the newly-made proteins may also require

molecular chaperones and other proteins involved in protein folding.Bip (binding protein), a member of the Hsp70 chaperone family, briefly binds to andstabilizes hydrophobic regions of proteins (especially rich in Trp, Phe, Leu) allowing

proper folding instead of aggregation with other inmature proteins.

Protein disulfide isomerase catalyses the formation and breakage of disulfide bondsbetween cysteine residues to produce a stable conformation.

There are two possible mechanisms for the insertion of integral membrane proteins

having a single transmembrane segment.

1) Type I: Insertion of a polypeptide with both a terminal ER signal sequence and aninternal stop-transfer sequence.

The terminal peptide is eventually cut off, leaving a transmembrane protein with its N-terminus in the ER lumen and its C-terminus in the cytosol.2) Type II: Insertion of a polypeptide with only a single, internal start transfer sequence,

which both starts polypeptide transfer and anchors itself permanently in the membrane.

The amino-carboxyl orientation of the completed protein depends on the orientation ofthe start-transfer sequence when it first inserts into the translocation apparatus.

Posttranslational import allows some polypeptides to enter organelles after protein

synthesis.

Like cotranslational import into the ER, posttranslationalimport into a mitochondrion(and chloroplast) involves a signal sequence (called a transit sequence), a membrane

receptor, pore-forming membrane proteins, and a peptidase.

Polypeptides being imported into the mitochondrion span both membranes at the sametime.

This was demonstrated in a cell-free import system incubated on ice in which the

polypeptides begin to penetrate the mitochondrion but then stall.

The transit sequence is cleaved by the transit peptidase present in the matrix, indicatingthat the N-terminus of the polypeptide is within the mitochondrion.

At the same time, most of the polypeptide molecule is can be attacked by exogenously
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added proteolytic enzymes on the outside of the mitochondrion.

Therefore, the polypeptide must span both membranes transiently during import at a

contact site between the two membranes.

However, in the mitochondrion, the membrane receptor recognizes the signal sequence

directly without the intervention of a cytosolic SRP.Furthermore, chaperone proteins play several crucial roles in the mitochondrial process:

1) Chaperones keep the polypeptide partially unfolded after synthesis in the cytosol sothat binding of the transit sequence and translocation can occur.

2) Chaperones drive the translocation itself by binding to and releasing from the

polypeptide within the matrix, an ATP-requiring process and3) Chaperones often help the polypeptide fold into its final conformation.

Polypeptides synthesized on cytosolic ribosomes but destined for either the

intermembrane space or the inner membrane of the mitochondrion require two separate

targeting sequences (both located at the N-terminus).

1) The polypeptide is directed to a contact (translocation) site on the mitochondrion by apositively charged or amphipathic transit sequence.

2) Cleavage of the transit sequence by a peptidase in the mitochondrial matrix uncovers ahighly hydrophobic second signal sequence.

3) This second signal sequence causes the polypeptide to be inserted into the inner

membrane in the same way that mitochondrially encoded polypeptides are targeted to thismembrane.

4) The remainder of the polypeptide is then moved across the membrane into the

intermembrane space (or into the inner membrane for integral inner membrane proteins).

5) Cleavage by a second peptidase can release the polypeptide into the intermembranespace leaving the signal sequence behind in the inner membrane.

3903204 protein sorting

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