37885731 ham radio in plain english

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HA M RA DI O IN P L AIN ENG LI SHA Step-By-Step Guide For Regular Peopl"

by Randy Pryor

Ham Radio In Plain English

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You do not have resell rights or giveaway rights to this book. Only customers that have purchased this material are authorized to view it. If you think you mayhave an illegally distributed copy of this book, please contact us immediately.Please email [email protected] to report any illegal distribution.

Copyright NoticeCopyright 2005 Randy Pryor All rights reserved. No part of this publication may

be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical or electronic, including photocopying and recording, or by information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission or further information should be emailed to: [email protected]

Legal NoticesWhile all attempts have been made to verify information provided in this publication, neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility for errors, omissions or contrary interpretation of the subject matter herein. The Publisher wants to stress that the information contained herein may be subject to varying state and/or local laws or regulations. All users are advised to retain competent counsel to determine what state and/or local laws or regulations may apply

to the users particular operation. The purchaser or reader of this publication assumes responsibility for the use of these materials and information. Adherence to all applicable laws and regulations, both federal and state and local, governing professional licensing, operation practices, and all other aspects of operation in the United States or any other jurisdiction is the sole responsibility ofthe purchaser or reader. The publisher and author assume no responsibility or liability whatsoever on the behalf of any purchaser or reader of these materials.Any perceived slights of specific people or organizations is unintentional.


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TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroductionMeet the Gang 11 14 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 15! 15! 16! 16! 17! 17! 17! 17! 17! 17! 18! 18! 18! 19! 20! 21! 21! 21! 21! 22! 22! 22! 22! 23! 23! 23 24! 24!

CHAPTER 1 - THE WORLD OF AMATEUR RADIO! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Purpose of Amateur Radio !! ! ! Operating a Ham Radio: Making Contacts! Ragchews! ! ! ! ! ! ! Nets! ! ! !! ! ! ! Traffic Nets ! ! ! ! ! ! Emergency Service Nets! ! ! ! ALE Mailboxes and Bulletin Boards ! ! Full Duplex Operation! ! ! ! ! Swap Nets! ! ! ! ! ! ! DX-ing, Contests, and Awards! ! ! Ham Radio and Ordinary Radio! ! ! Transceiver! ! !! ! ! Cost of Equipment! ! ! ! ! Setting Up Ham Radio Equipment! ! ! BandwidthSelection! ! ! ! ! Some Points for Beginners! ! ! ! To Listen is the Phrase! ! ! !Contacting Your Nearest Club! ! ! Finding One in the Same Boat ! ! ! Know YourEquipment! ! ! ! ! Use All Resources ! ! ! ! ! Practice Courtesy! ! ! ! ! Be Cool ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ham and Phonetics! ! ! ! ! Operation Using Computers ! ! ! ! Satellites! ! ! ! ! ! ! Amateur Radio on Boats! ! ! !


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Signal Reports (the RST code)! ! ! ! ! International Q-Code (Extract)! ! ! ! ! Continuous Wave Transmitter Web Sites for Buying Equipment and Electronic Circuits Buying Old Equipment The Statistics of Ham Radio Users Making of a Simple QRPRig !

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25! 26 27 27 27 30 30 31 31 31 32 33 33 34 34 35 36

CHAPTER 2 - BASICS OF RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSIONMode of Radio Wave Transmission Propagation of VHF Signal Reflection of VHF/UHFSignals The Process of Ionization in the Ionosphere The Ionosphere Layers The FLayer The E Layer The D Layer Critical Frequency

CHAPTER 3 - FACTORS AFFECTING RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSION 37Factors Affecting Radio Waves Absorption Fading Losses Due to Ground ReflectionFree Space Loss Electromagnetic Interference Radio Waves and Weather Ducting Ear

th Moon Earth Satellite Sunspots 37 37 37 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 40 41 41 42

CHAPTER 4 - TRANSMISSION THEORYTransfer of Radio Waves from the Transmitter to the Antenna Transmission Line Theory


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Lumped Constants Distributed Constants Inductance of a Transmission Line Capacitance of a Transmission Line Resistance of a Transmission Line DC Applied to a Transmission Line AC Applied to a Transmission Line

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CHAPTER 5 - ANTENNAAntennas The Basic Antenna Energy Distribution on an Antenna Radio Wave Modulation Morse Code Modulation Radiation of Electromagnetic Energy Antenna Gain Antenna Reciprocity Radiation Resistance Isotropic Radiation Anisotropic Radiation Antenna Loading Antenna Positioning Types of Different Antennas Half wave Antennas!! ! ! Quarter wave Antennas! ! ! Horizontal Dipole Inverted V Folded Dipole Directional Antennas Parasitic Antenna Yagi Antenna One Antenna for Different Bands Terminology Used in Array Antennas Driven Element Parasitic Element Driven Array! ! ! ! !Ham Radio In Plain English

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Bi-directional Array Unidirectional Array

59 59 60 60 60 60 60 61 61 62 63 64 64 64 65 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 66 67 69 69 7070 70 72 73 74 75 756

CHAPTER 6 - HAM RADIO LICENSE

FCC Control Operator Amateur Radio License License Classes Renewal of the License Changes Made by the FCC in 2000 Expired License VHF/UHF Bands VHF Bands ImageTransmissions Station Licensee Identification Third Party Communications Frequency Sharing Power Limits Language Beacons Distress Transmission and Dummy Load Repeaters Station License Required Control Operator Required Operator License Stations aboard Ships or Aircraft Restrictions on Station Locations Station AntennaStructures Application for New License or Reciprocal Permit for Alien Amateur Licensee Application for a Modified or Renewed License Mailing Address License Term FCC Modification of Station LicenseHam Radio In Plain English


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Replacement License Document 76 Subpart B--Station Operation Standards 76 General Standards 76 Station Licensee Responsibilities 76 Control Operator Duties 77 Alien Control Operator Privileges 77 Station Control 78 Authorized Transmissions79 Prohibited Transmissions 80 Third Party Communications 81 International Communications 82 Station Identification 83 Restricted Operation 84 Subpart C--Special Operations 85 Auxiliary Station 85 Beacon Station 86 Repeater Station 87 SpaceStation 88 Earth Station 89 Space Telecommand Station 90 Telecommand of an Amat

eur Station 90 Telecommand of Model Craft 91 Telemetry 91 Message Forwarding System 91 Subpart D--Technical Standards 92 Frequency Sharing Requirements 92 Emission Standards 97 RTTY and Data Emission Codes 100 SS Emission Types 101 Transmitter Power Standards 103 Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers 104 Standards for Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers 105

CHAPTER 7 - AMATEUR RADIO PRACTICESafety Lightning DamageHam Radio In Plain English

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Safety of the Station Grounding What is a Ground? ! ! ! ! Power Line Ground DC Ground (Safety Ground) RF Ground High Voltage Power Supplies Antenna Safety Safety of the Equipment Hazardous Voltages Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) SWR Readings - How Are They Rated? Fixing a Bad SWR Reading Lengthening Shortening Meters and Measurements Voltmeter Ammeter Multimeter RF Wattmeter Directional Wattmeter Peak

Reading Wattmeter Oscilloscope Audio Wave Modulation Morse Code Modulation !

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Chapter 8 - ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY

! God of Small Things! ! ! Points to Remember Cells Connected in Series Cells Connected in Parallel The Direction of Current Flow What is Electric Current? Properties of Electric Current ConductorsHam Radio In Plain English

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Extrinsic Semiconductors P and N Type! Pn Junction Diodes Pn Junctions Formationof Pn Junction Properties of Pn Junction Transistors Base Emitter and CollectorLayers Vacuum Tubes

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Chapter 9 - MAGNETISM AND BASIC ELECTRIC DEVICESElectric Potential Potential Difference Resistance Capacitors Schematic Symbol for a Capacitor Equivalent Series Resistance of a Capacitor (ESR) Film Capacitors

Electrolytic Capacitors Capacitor and Voltage Electric Field Alternating Current Magnetism Types of Magnets Magnetic Poles and Forces Magnetic Fields Circuit Theory Types of Circuits Circuit Components The Objective of a Resistor Light Dependent Resistor Capacitor Temperature Sensors Microphone SwitchHam Radio In Plain English


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Fuse Voltmeter Ammeter Multimeter Circuit Equations

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Chapter 10 - TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITYStructure of Electric Power Systems Distribution Transmission and Distribution

Chapter 11 - ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND RADIO WAVESElectromagnetic Waves Basics of Wave Motion Wavelength Amplitude Frequency RadioWaves Units of Frequency Bandwidth The Factors Affecting Radio Waves

Chapter 12 - A PEEP INTO THE ATMOSPHEREWhat Is Atmosphere? Troposphere Stratosphere Ionosphere Conclusion


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sophisticated than the Internet. There are various reasons why hams get involvedin amateur radio, but they all have a basic knowledge of the technology, regulations, and operating principles that apply to radio in the first place. The Internet has greatly impacted the world with a new level of technology, but that does not take away the irresistible and timeless appeal of amateur radio. Perhaps its the idea of something old-fashioned in a modern world of high tech or maybe itsthe efficiency and simplicity that go hand in hand with the operation of amateu

r radio, but the appeal certainly has stood the test of time and space. Amateurradio is as old as the history of radio itself but the reason why amateur radiooperators are called hams is rather obscure. Hams are a very mixed bunch. The twocommon things that hams share is the interest of what is happening in the worldaround them and using a radio to reach out. Some people prefer Morse code on anold brass telegraph via a low power transmitter, others opt for voice communication on a hand-held radio, and still others get their kicks from computer messages transmitted through satellites. These individuals come from all walks of life.Theyre students, movie stars, truck drivers, sailors, and every profession imaginable. Their ages and interests are as varied as their careers.

A set of Antennas - The whole world within your reach


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It may sound like all fun and games, but the amateur radio set up is a very serious business. The radio has the ability to transmit life saving messages globally. In 1912, Congress passed the first laws regulating radio transmissions in theU.S. By 1914, amateur experimenters were up to their ears in this hobby and were communicating nationwide, so setting up a system to relay messages from coastto coast had become a necessity. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) wascreated by Congress in 1927, and consequently, specific frequencies were assign

ed for various uses, including ham bands. The FCC created the Amateur Radio Service to lend a serious side to the hobby. Amateur radio could offer a pool of experts providing backup emergency communications in the face of critical times. Inaddition, the FCC acknowledged that amateur radio had the ability to enhance communication, improve the technical skills of radio, and boost international goodwill. This philosophy has definitely paid off. Countless lives have been saved because skilled hobbyists have acted as emergency communicators to render aid during earthquakes in Japan, floods in Indonesia, and epidemics in Africa. Most recently, Ham radio operators all over India became a lifeline as they helped locate and reunite countless families and assist in relief operations in the wake ofthe tsunami disaster.

Imagine yourself by the side of one of these.

If youre wondering how hard is it to learn amateur radio, you may be relieved toknow that just about anyone can learn enough to acquire a license easily. Only basic electronics and basic knowledge of radio operations are required.


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Over the years, three basic license classes have evolved. The higher the class license you have, the more privileges and modes of operation you receive. But each higher-class license requires extensive knowledge of technology, rules and regulations, as well as higher Morse code proficiency. So, you can learn the basicsor you can become an expert and still enjoy the hobby.

Meet the Gang Here is a sampling of the individuals involved with amateur radio.

Although hams usually consider it to be a hobby, amateur radio can be more thanthat it can prove to be a life altering experience. This is Rose Robin; she wasa witness to a motor accident along one of the national highways of our country. While driving to her parents home, she witnessed a horrific scene. She watchedanother car lose control, break the barricade, and speed off a cliff. Rose stopped her car and dashed to the scene of the accident. The car was overturned, itswheels spinning wildly. She raced to the car but found it impossible to yank thedoors open to rescue the hapless mother and child trapped inside. Both were bleeding and unconscious. Roses quick thinking and critical desire to save a human life sent her dashing back to her car where she picked up her pocket-sized hand-held radio and radioed for help. Within minutes, police and an ambulance had arrived at the spot and could rescue the victims. Meet Josephine Williams, a lonely

widow of 46. She lost her husband to cancer a year ago, and since then she has been living a rather cloistered life. No friends, no visitors, nothing. Mrs. Williams had not been very social when her husband was alive, but lately her loneliness had been eating into the very vitals of her existence. Being lonely is a thing of the past now, thanks to her radio. She has found two new friends who are fellow hams. One is a 23 year old martial arts student in Japan, and the other isan Indian male nurse working in Canada.


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Chapter 1 The World of Amateur RadioRadio is just a fashion contrivance that will soon die out. It is obvious that there never will be invented a proper receiver! ~ Thomas Edison Amateur radio has overcome many obstacles since its invention. Advances in technology have never hindered its path. In fact, the system has learned to cope with the technologies.A fine example is the contact made by two stations assisted by computers. The commercialization that has overtaken many other fields has not affected the hams.

This is the sole reason why it is free for two hams to talk to each other, evenacross the globe. Also, if a disaster like an earthquake occurs, hams can provide critical help when most communication facilities are destroyed. Purpose of Amateur Radio Amateur radio stations key functions include self-training in radio communications, intercommunication, and investigations in radio communications. The individuals taking part in these activities should only get involved for personal reasons and not do it with any monetary interests in mind. The attitude or the essence of the amateur radio is the grouping together of people from different walks of life towards a common goal without any financial aims. This is a veryimportant aspect since most people will do just about anything for money. We can state the purpose of ham radio in simple terms as to increase the number of trained radio operators and electronic experts by encouraging experimentation and

enhance international goodwill. One with an interest in electronics and technology can really indulge in the realms of technical wizardry. When opening the hoodof a ham radio, there is basic and there is innovative. The basic involves direct current electronics while the innovative concerns cutting edge radio frequency techniques. Ham Radio In Plain English 15


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Technical doctors can dissect the equipment, make amends with many things, and barge into the nuances of radio operations. With the help of some types of software, they can use the Internet along with radios to create hi-tech hybrid systems. Voice and Morse code communication are still the most used routes, but computer-based digital operation is gaining momentum. Todays popular home station configuration is a hybrid of the computer and radio. The communication can be done between continents. This is one of the intriguing factors of ham radio. Mans desire

to learn is another aspect, which facilitates the progression of this hobby. Ageis not a barrier since many familiarize themselves with antennas, propagation of radio waves, solar cycles, sunspots, and similar activities. Antennas have become a real obsession for people who love to invent. New designs are created every day and hams have contributed many new variations to the antenna designer

s art. All that is required is some wire, a feed line, and a soldering iron. Hams are also helpful in supporting other areas such as radio control (R/C), model rocketry, and meteorology. Miniature ham radio video transmitters are flown in modelaircraft, rockets, and balloons, beaming back pictures from heights of hundredsand even thousands of feet. Ham radio data links also lend a helping hand in the fields of astronomy, aviation, auto racing, and rallies.

Operating a Ham Radio: Making Contacts If you can tune to a radio across the hambands, you will understand the activities of hams. It can vary from a simple conversation to contesting. Ragchews Hams mostly engage in conversation. This is called chewing the rag. Contacts are named ragchews. Ragchews can happen between continents or just across town.


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Nets Nets is an abbreviation for networks. They are the organized air meetings, scheduled for hams with similar interests or purposes. Traffic Nets This is the system that passes text messages or traffic, through ham radio. Operators exchangemessages, which can range from the mundane to the most urgent.

Emergency Service Nets When disaster strikes, hams who are trained for these purposes organize and provide decisive communications into and out of the affected

areas until normality is restored.

ALE Mailboxes and Bulletin Boards ALE is the abbreviation for Automatic Link Establishment. Here a computer system monitors a frequency all the time so that others can connect to it and send or retrieve messages.

Full Duplex Operation Full duplex is a communication mode in which a radio can transmit and receive at the same time by using two different frequencies.

Swap Nets Like flea markets, a weekly swap net allows hams to list items for sale or things they need. A net control station overlooks and moderates the process, and business is generally conducted over the phone once the parties have been

put in contact with each other.


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DX-ing, Contests, and Awards DX is short for distance. The thrill of making contacts at a very long distance from home has lured many a ham. Competitions are organized for hams, in which they compete to contact faraway stations and to log contacts with every country. Ham radio contests are events in which one earns points for each contact made. Through these exchanges, hams often contact a specific area, use a certain band, find a special station and try to communicate with as many stations as possible. When two hams make contact, they usually confirm co

ntact by using QSL cards. A ham collects all of the QSL cards received from timeto time. Those who make maximum numbers of contacts are given awards in the competitions. Ham fests are often conducted by Amateur Radio Clubs. At a ham fest,one can buy or sell radio equipment and meet people in person after having communicated with them on the air.

Ham Radio and Ordinary Radio Ordinary radio sets are designed to receive eitherAmplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM) broadcast. Ham radio operators use Single Side Band (SSB) transmission for their communication requirements. Ham radio stations use very low power, less than 100 watts. But a broadcast station uses power in the kilowatts range. Many broadcast band radio receivers cover some of the frequencies earmarked for the ham radio stations. A four band rad

io set usually covers some popular ham radio frequencies like 7 to 7.1 MHz (i.e.7000 to 7100 kHz), 14 to 14.350 MHz (i.e. 14,000 to 14,350 kHz) and 21 to 21.450 MHz (i.e. 21,000 to 21,450 kHz). This kind of receiver can be improvised to receive ham radio transmissions with very little effort. While hearing ham radio stations in ordinary radio sets, the sound will resemble a duck quacking. Transceiver The term transceiver is used to identify the equipment. Both transmitters and receivers are assembled in one unit to perform two basic roles. The transmitter generates a radio frequency signal of required power at the desired frequency. It should have Ham Radio In Plain English 18


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some means of changing or modulating the basic frequency, so that it can carry afeasible signal. The receiver must be able to select the required frequency, rejecting all unwanted frequencies. Also, the receiver should have the capacity toamplify the weak incoming signal to prevail over the losses the signal suffersin its journey through space. In a radio receiver, the modulated signal is received after the conversion of the original modulated carrier signal into another carrier modulated by the same modulation waveform but at a much lower frequency.

This mixing is done with another locally generated sine wave signal. At the output of the non-linear mixet, the difference frequency, called intermediate frequency, is selected by a tuned circuit. (If this sounds like gobbledygook, dont worry, keep reading!)

Transceiver

Cost of Equipment An endearing factor for an aspiring ham is that the necessaryequipment needed to get started in this field should not cost an arm and a leg.Start up can begin with less than $200. Depending on your pocketbook, you can select a wide range of equipment which varies from $100 to $2,000. You can easilyshop from e-shops on the Internet or from some of the ham stores in town.


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Setting Up Ham Radio Equipment

Though there are no special rules regarding the mode of equipment for starting,its better to begin with the base station rather than going for mobile or handheld. This way, you will have the opportunity to judge the niceties of a station operation. To start the hobby, a simple short wave radio and a QRP transmitter areall that are required. If everything is available, it will only take a few hour

s to get set up. Initially, most ham operators begin with a simple station. An HF radio, microphone, Morse code key, and a simple wire dipole antenna are all that are required for your cruise on air. The step by step process is given below.1. First, locate the place where you are going to keep the equipment. It is better to keep the length of the coaxial cable to a minimum. Take special care while deciding the location, in order to bring the coaxial and ground wire in easily. 2. A desk or computer credenza is a perfect place for the equipment. 3. Install an eight foot copper ground wire into the ground. Lay a heavy wire from the ground rod to the grounding post on the ham radio. 4. Lay an antenna coax from theantenna to the radio shack. 5. Proper clearance should be kept on the rear sideof the radio for air circulation. 6. Place an electrical surge protector between the equipment and outlet. 7. Place an antenna lead to a switch enabling the sh

unting circuit to ground. 8. Cover the radio to protect it from dust.


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Bandwidth Selection The transceiver is equipped with a function key. As you operate the function key, you can select the desired bandwidth. Before you start, take these precautions: 1. Ensure that power supply connections are securely madeand proper polarity is available. 2. Make sure that the antennas are connected to the correct pigtails on the transceiver (mostly on the rear). The basic stepsrequired to begin an operation are: 1. Turn the transceiver on. 2. Set the bandon which you want to operate. 3. Adjust the volume level of the audio. 4. Adjust

the operating frequency.

Some Points for BeginnersNothing worth knowing can be understood with the mind. ~ Woody Allen To Listen Is the Phrase As in intrapersonal communications, listening is the most powerful andimportant way for a beginner to start. This way, one can learn the techniques ofmany hardcore amateurs. Listening to air contacts is called reading the mail. There is no secrecy in ham communications - they are open and public. Contacting Your Nearest Club Once you decide to join this hobby, take full advantage of the opportunities it offers. Meet as many people as possible in the nearest club. They will certainly help you.

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Hams often find great joy in helping the beginners. Such people are known as Elmers. An Elmer knows the stuff required to pass the test and will often help you toprepare.

Finding One in the Same Boat Find a friend who is just like you, at the bottom of the learning curve. Meet them on air and enjoy the proceedings together. If you do not have a club near you (to take the test or meet an Elmer), contact the A

RRL Development office at www.arrl.org/development. They will have the information you need.

Know Your Equipment A lot of equipment is available on the market. Depending onthe price, such equipment differs from one another on performance and capabilities. Its always best to consult with your elmer, regarding the purchase of any advanced equipment. Equipment manuals can assist with the understanding of your instrument. Demos or tutorials are available so do not hesitate to check them out.Keep the manual ready for any quick reference.

Use All Resources Internet forums are available. Just join the forum and you canget many valuable tips. One such help group is http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ha

mradiohelpgroup/

Practice Courtesy Accustom yourself with the practice of saying polite words like "Please," "Thanks," "Excuse me, and "Sorry." This way you can earn the goodwillof your cooperators.


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Be Cool Of course, its possible that, no one responds to your CQ (general call sent by one station to any other station). Relax and try again. Also some technical hiccups can occur. Through practice you will be able to rectify minor issues.You can almost always get help from your buddies regarding these.

Ham and Phonetics During radio operations, at times the signals may be weak. This makes it difficult for the person to comprehend the words completely. This pro

blem sometimes necessitates hams to spell out certain words, for example, a name. If you try this using the English alphabet, it can cause greater confusion. Ifyou try to spell your name using the letters alone, a listener may misinterpretone letter for another. So instead of spelling out with letters, use words known as phonetics, which have been chosen specially for serving our purpose. The standard alphabet is: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu. There are also some standardsfor the pronunciation of numbers and numerals. In order to avoid confusion withnumbers such as 50 and 15, you have to speak each digit separately. According to standards, you should spell decimal to represent decimal point. If you want tosay 15.100 MHz, you should say the words, one five decimal one zero zero.

Operation Using Computers The use of computers in ham radio operations have enthused the younger generation. A computer is connected to a terminal node controller and a transceiver for a packet radio operation. The terminal node controllerhas a modem similar to the modem used for Internet connections. The TNC also utilizes firmware. It is this firmware that


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converts computer data into packets of digital information, which is then sent across the packet radio network. This firmware is called PAD or packet assembler.This unit captures incoming and outgoing data and encapsulates it into packetsof data. This data can be sent to and from a data radio or transceiver. The enter key of the keyboard can also function as the push to talk facility in the normal ham radio operation.

Satellites This is an area which excites many hams. There are many small satellites orbiting the earth, which are made and operated by radio amateurs worldwide.AMSAT is the global organization, which organizes satellite construction and lobbies for spare space on commercial launch vehicles. Communication can be made by Morse code, voice, or pocket radio over very large distances with the help ofthese satellites. The easiest satellites to use are the low orbit ones as they can be availed with low power and modest antennas. Russian RS series and South Africas Sunsat (SO-35) are low orbited satellites. As the sensitivity of these satellites is superior, even operation from buses, trains and trams becomes possible! These low orbit satellites have short pass-times and they are quite good for communication up to a few thousand kilometers while the other satellites would require more powerful and bigger antennas. But they offer worldwide communication.

Amateur Radio on Boats "My mom said she learned how to swim when someone took her out in the lake and threw her off the boat. I said,

Mom, they weren

t tryingto teach you how to swim.

" ~ Paula Poundstone, comedian Amateur radio is quitepopular among the yachting and small boat community. It is used to provide general communications and for receiving weather information. However certain restrictions may exist when operating within the territorial limits of another country.


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Hams also operate a lot of maritime nets" through which information of common interest to mariners, such as weather, is exchanged. Different digital modes like SITOR/ AMTOR, radio teletype (RTTY), PACTOR I, PACTOR II, PACTOR III, PSK31 are normally used. Heres a quick glance at some of the terms used for propagation on aboat. Pactor -- It is a mode that uses both upper and lower case characters andteleprints over radio with the help of a code. Pactor is a combination of amtor(amateur teleprinting over radio) and packet. Common modes are Pactor I and Pac

tor II. TNC -- TNC is the short form for terminal node controller. It is comparable to a radio modem. PTT -- PTT stands for push to talk. It is what makes yourradio transmit. SOFTWARE -- A type of software is used to make a cruising e-mailwork. This is freely available on the Internet. ISP/RADIO E-MAIL PROVIDER -- Itis with the help of a radio e-mail provider that actual access takes place.

Signal Reports (the RST code)Signal reports are used for gauging the strength of the receiving signals. Codesas given in the table are utilized for conveying the strength of the signal.

R EADABILITYR1 Unreadable R2 R3 Readable with difficulty R4 R5 Perfectly readable

SIGNAL STRENGTHS1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 Extremely strong signals Moderately strong signals Fairly good signals Weak signals Faint signals

TONET1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 Pure note Slight ripple Modulated (warble) Rough Extremely rough


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International Q-Code (Extract)QRG QRH QRI QRK QRL QRM QRN QRO QRP QRQ QRS QRT QRU QRV QRX QRZ QSA QSB QSD QSLQSO QSP QSV QSY QSZ QTH QTR What is my exact frequency? Does my frequency vary?What is the tone of my transmission? What is the readability of my signals? Areyou busy? Are you being interfered with? Are you troubled by static? Shall I increase power? Shall I decrease power? Shall I send faster? Shall I send more slowly? Shall I stop sending? Have you anything for me? Are you ready? When will you

call me again? Who is calling me? What is the strength of my signals? Are my signals fading? Is my keying defective? Can you give me acknowledgment of receipt?Can you communicate with..... direct (or by relay) ? Will you relay to....? Shall I send a series of V

s ? Shall I change to another frequency? Shall I send each word more than once? What is your location? What is the correct time?


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Continuous Wave Transmitter The continuous wave is used for the transmission ofpulses of RF energy for creating Morse code characters. This type of transmission is also called interrupted continuous wave transmission. The advantage of cw transmission is that it requires a narrow bandwidth and less output power. Even severe noise conditions will not hamper the transmission. A cw transmitter facilitates the transmission with the help of a generator, amplifier, keyer, and antenna. RF oscillations are generated and are then amplified. The oscillator generat

es the RF carrier at a specified frequency. The oscillator outputs are then amplified many times in order to equip them to radiate over long distances.

Web Sites for Buying Equipment and Electronic Circuits www.hamradio.com www.discountfamilyradios.com www.unadilla.com http://www.advancedspecialties.net http://www.burnabyradio.com http://www.comdac.com http://www.hamtronics.com

Buying Old Equipment Old is gold goes the saying. Many people prefer to go for oldand used equipment. The following web sites offer details of used ham radio equipment suppliers. http://hometown.aol.co.uk/oldradioparts/front.htm http://www.ac6v.com/components.htm http://archives.radioattic.com/features/started.htm



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The following list provides some of the addresses of old equipment and spare part dealers. They carry a variety of merchandise for collectors and restorers of vintage radio/phono/TV/jukeboxes. Catalogs or inventory lists are available fromall of them. Following this list is a directory of commonly needed items, with additional sources:

Antique Electronic Supply 6221 S. Maple Ave Tempe, AZ 85283 Tel: 480-820-5411 Co

ntact Daily Electronics P.O. Box 5029 Compton, CA 90224 Tel: 800-346-6667 (Orders) Tel: 213-774-1255 (Tech) Don Diers 4276 North 50 Street #SC3 Milwaukee, WI 53216-1313 DNF 6690 7 Mile Road South Lyon, MI 48178 Electron Tube Enterprises Box8311 Essex, VT 05451 Tel: 802-879-1844 Fax: 802-879-7764 Fair Radio Sales Military Surplus Electronics 2395 St Johns Rd PO Box 1105 Lima, OH 45802 Phone: 419-227-6573, 419-223-2196 Fax: 419-227-1313 www.fairradio.com Ham Radio In Plain English 28


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Kirby 298 West Carmel Drive Carmel, IN 46032

Lippert N61W 15889 Edgemont Meno Fls, WI 53051

New Tube Co. P.O. Box 202 Middle Village, NY 11379 Tel: 718-894-2131

Quest Electronics, Inc. 5715 W. 11th Avenue Denver, CO 80214 303-274-7545 Voice

303-274-2317 Fax [email protected] email Steinmetz Electronics 7519 Maplewood Avenue, Hammond, IN 46324 Tel: 219-931-9316 Michael C. Marx SND Tube Sales 908 Caulks Hill Road St. Charles, MO 63304 Phone 636-939-9190 24 Hour Fax 636-922-0601 E-mail: [email protected]


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Sometimes it happens that one may inherit all of this equipment. But it will notbe of any use unless it is fully operational. In such cases, you may be able toget help from the local radio club.

The Statistics of Ham Radio Users I think there is a world market for maybe fivecomputers. ~ Thomas Watson, IBM chairman, 1943 Statistics relating to the numberof users in the U.S. can be found at: http://www.users.crosspaths.net/wallio/LIC

ENSE.html

Making of a Simple QRP Rig Many free resources are available on the Net for those who want to experience the thrill of making their own QRP rigs. One such siteis: http://www.geocities.com/pa2ohh/index.html, which gives a complete explanation for making it very simple. Those who want to go mobile can have a look at http://www.installer.com/pics/instpics.html for more information.


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Chapter 2 Basics of Radio Wave TransmissionMode of Radio Wave Transmission "The wireless music box has no imaginable commercial value. Who would pay for a message sent to nobody in particular?" ~ David Sarnoff

s associates in response to his urgings for investment in the radio in the 1920s The electromagnetic energy mainly takes two forms to reach a receiving antenna. It either takes the shape of the ground waves or it navigates as sky waves. Ground waves travel near the surface of the earth. Radio waves that are refl

ected back to the earths surface from the ionosphere are known as sky waves. To put it simply, the surface wave travels along the surface of the earth, while thespace wave travels over the surface. A surface wave is not affected by the shape of the land, thanks to the phenomenon of diffraction. As described elsewhere,it takes a bend, when hindered by an obstacle. The surface wave along its journey over the surface induces a voltage in the earth. This causes a loss of energyof the wave. This loss of energy is reduced by polarizing the wave before transmission. The space wave has two ways to reach its destination. The first route isthrough the direct journey through the air from the transmitting antenna to thereceiving antenna. The second way is through the reflection from the ground tothe receiving antenna. This is demonstrated in the figure below. As the space wave takes two paths of different lengths reaching the receiving site, there is a

possibility that the signal will fade. If the waves reach out of phase, the signal may also fade. On the other hand, if they reach in phase, the signal will bea strong one.

Propagation of VHF SignalVHF and UHF radio signals often travel in straight lines to all possible directions. If there are no obstructions on its path, the signal can travel very long distances. But presence of obstructions may weaken the signals. Since the earths surface is curved, there are some limitations for these waves. They will not bendaround the curvature of the earth and will get lost in space, due to its propagation in straight lines. Because of Ham Radio In Plain English 31


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this characteristic, VHF/UHF propagation is described as line of sight propagation. They can travel as far as human eye can see the horizon.

Reflection of VHF/UHF SignalsThese signals are reflected when they are obstructed by metal objects. Dependingupon the area of the objecting surface, the amount of reflection also varies. Large metal objects such as an aircraft or a large metal building reflect these w

aves significantly. The property of these signals is considered an advantage inlarge cities, where some other signals would have been blocked.


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The Process of Ionization in the Ionosphere The region of atmosphere that extends from 30 miles to about 250 miles is rightly called ionosphere due to the presence of electrically charged gas atoms called ions. The ultraviolet rays from thesun collide with gas atoms and hurl an electron from the atom. This gives the atom a positive charge and it then coexists with the negative charged free electron in space. This process is known as ionization. The presence of many such freeions and electrons leads to the formation of an ionized layer. An exact reverse

happens thereafter, which reinstates the old position again. The positive ion and the electron collide with each other thus giving the old neutral status to the positive ions. Depending upon the time of the day, these combination and recombination processes compete against each other. Whenever the rate of ionization exceeds the recombination process, the density of the ionized layers increases, greatly affecting the radio waves.

"Everything that can be invented has been invented." ~ Charles H. Duell, Commissioner, U.S. Office of Patents, 1899

The Ionosphere LayersThe charged particles in the ionosphere create four distinct layers, within the

ionosphere. These groups are again classified into two categories. One is present when the earths surface is bright and the other in darkness (when the earths surface is hidden from the sun). The four layers are F1, F2, E and D. During the night, the two F layers combine to form one layer. The E and D layers are absent during night hours.


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The F Layer Worldwide amateur radiations are possible, thanks to the F layer. Asthe radio signal strikes this layer, it is bent back at an angle towards the earth without any significant energy loss. The F layer splits into two layers, F1and F2, during daytime. F1 is the inner one and F2 is the outer one. Much of therefraction during daytime happens in F2 layer.

The E Layer

The E layer exists only during the daylight and is found between the F and D layers. At very high frequencies, some refraction occurs in the E layer. As this issporadic in nature, this phenomenon is known as sporadic-E.


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The D Layer This layer, which is closest to the earth, is found only during daytime. The main characteristic of this layer is that it absorbs both medium and high frequency radio waves instead of refracting them. Sometimes the level of absorption is too large and the communication of radio waves may not happen for a short period. This ionization affects another phenomenon in the ionosphere calledrefraction. Refraction is affected when there is an abrupt change of velocity ofthe upper part of the radio wave as it enters a new medium. The factors, such a

s the frequency of the radio waves, the density of the ionization of the layer,and the angle at which the wave enters the layer, decide the quantum of refraction. The figure depicts the effect of ionization densities on refraction. An ionized layer itself is divided into different regions according to densities. We will dissect the three layers one by one.

As the wave enters the bottom layer, it is entering a region of high degree ionization. The sudden change in the velocity of the upper part causes it to bend towards the earth. At the center portion, as the density of ionization is uniform,the refraction effects Ham Radio In Plain English 35


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are less. As it again enters the area of lesser density, the wave is bent away from the earth.

Critical Frequency As the wave enters an ionospheric layer, there is a possibility for the wave to get refracted or to get lost in space. For a given layer, there is a maximum frequency at which the radio waves can be transmitted verticallyand get returned to earth. This frequency is termed as critical frequency.

The waves with higher frequencies than the critical frequency will be lost in space. From the figure, we can observe that for lower frequencies the waves get refracted more sharply. The highest frequency wave, which is of higher frequency than the critical frequency of the ionized layer, gets lost in space.


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Chapter 3The Factors Affecting Radio Wave Transmission640K ought to be enough for anybody. ~ Bill Gates, 1981 Factors Affecting Radio Waves The radio waves along their journey from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna are affected by a lot of factors. Absorption As the radio waves travel through the ionosphere, the current conditions greatly influence the radiowaves. The absorption causes a lot of energy drain and makes the signal weak. A

bsorption occurs predominantly in the region of higher ionization density. The radio waves entering into the ionosphere lose some of their energy to the free electrons and ions. When these ions and free electrons collide with other particles much of the energy is lost into the atmosphere. Fading Another factor that hinders the flow of radio waves is fading. This is due to many conditions. One of them is refraction. Refraction causes polarization of the wave and this in turn causes fading. Absorption of energy in the ionosphere is another reason. The figure below explains the process of multi-path fading.


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Due to various atmospheric properties, radio waves may reach the same destination in different paths. These paths can be ground waves, waves affected due to ionospheric refraction, reflected waves from the ionosphere, and so on. The figuredescribes the different possibilities by which a radio wave can reach destination A. Here, the end result is that the waves can reach out of phase at the receiver thus causing weak signals. This is known as multi-path fading.

Losses Due to Ground Reflection

If a radio wave along its passage gets reflected from the earths surface, then some amount of energy may be lost. Factors such as frequency of the wave and ground irregularities determine the extent of loss.

Free Space Loss When waves are transmitted, the wave front starts spreading out.When the distance of travel increases, the spreading of the wave front also increases. This means Ham Radio In Plain English 38


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that the amount of energy in a fixed area also reduces. As the wave front reaches the receiving antenna, only a small area of the wave front is covered by the antenna.

Electromagnetic Interference The electromagnetic interferences also can create havoc in radio communications. These are due to either man made interference or natural interference. Man made interference can happen from a variety of reasons.

Some are related to devices, which generate radio frequency energy. The extentof man made interference may vary largely throughout the day and may be reducedat night. If a lot of devices are used in areas such as industrial estates, thesignals absorbed by a receiver at that particular location may become very feeble. Natural interferences are caused by natural phenomena, such as thunderstorms,cosmic sources, snowstorms, and the sun. All of these can cause energy radiations and may propagate almost in manner similar to radio waves. The reception of these radiations in the receiving antenna can cause distraction to the radio waves. As this does not affect above the frequency of 30 MHz, this will have littleeffect on amateur bands. The electromagnetic interference can be controlled or eliminated by various methods such as the use of directional antennas.

Radio Waves and Weather Weather changes can affect the radio propagation to a certain extent by leading to the weakening or attenuation of the radio waves. Raindrops are capable of absorbing some power from the radio waves and this power isthen scattered away in the form of heat. Fog can also cause problems to the radio waves. Fog is suspended in the atmosphere. The amount of water per unit volume determines the quantum of hindrance caused by the fog.

Ducting Normally, warm air is found near the surface of the earth. As the altitude increases, the air becomes cooler. Sometimes an abnormal situation occurs, asa layer of Ham Radio In Plain English 39


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warm air is formed above the layers of cool air. This is referred to as temperature inversion. This results in the formation of channels or ducts of cool air between the surface of warm air and earth or between two layers of warm air. Theseducts trap the radio waves (which would otherwise bleed out into space) and guide them along the surface of the earth. This process is known as ducting. When this happens, the radio waves will travel more distance than usual.

Earth Moon Earth Earth Moon Earth or EME is a fascinating part of amateur radiocommunications. Through this process a ham attempts to direct the signal towardsthe moon so that a fellow ham can receive the moon- echoes. In order to make this happen, one must have very sensitive equipment with powered amplifiers and alarge antenna system. This is because the echoes become extremely feeble. The process is known as path loss.

SatelliteOne can communicate with another station through a satellite, if both the stations are in the view of the satellite at the same time. When the satellite is lowto the horizon, the required power will be higher as the distance to the satellite is very large.

SunspotsThe sunspot cycle is a phenomenon that extends to a period of 11 years. Every five and half years, the sun reaches a low in sunspots and during the next five and a half years the suns surface is dotted with hundreds of spots. When the numberof sunspots increases, the quantum of solar energy increases, thus making the ionosphere heavily charged. During this period, when the number of sunspots is high, the HF propagation also improves.


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Chapter 4Transmission TheorySuccess always occurs in private, and failure in full view. ~ Anonymous Transfer of Radio Waves from the Transmitter to the Antenna

The energy waves from the transmitter cannot be carried using the ordinary electrical wire without energy loss. Transmission lines are used for this purpose. As

the antennas are normally located a distance from the instrument, the transmission lines are necessary for carrying the energy from the radio room to the antenna. The transmission line has two ends. The end connected to the transmitter orthe source is called the input end. The end connected to the antenna is called the output end. Transmission lines are mainly categorized into two types, balanced and unbalanced lines. Balanced lines consist of two parallel wires each capable of carrying radio waves. The unbalanced lines have only one wire to carry thesignals. The advantage of the coaxial line is that it matches the impedance of most commercially made ham radios. Also, there is no problem in placing the cables near metal objects due to the presence of the shield around the wire. Ham Radio In Plain English 41


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The transmission line can also be expressed in terms of its impedance. Input impedance is the ratio of voltage to the current at the input end. This impedance is contributed to the transmitter by the transmission line and antenna. The ratioof voltage to the current at the output end is known as output impedance. Thisimpedance is contributed to the load by the transmission line and its source. Transmission Line Theory The electrical properties of two-wire transmission linesare mostly influenced by the construction of the line. The two-wire line functio

ns like a long capacitor. Since long conductors also possess a magnetic field around them, they show the properties of inductance. The inductive and capacitivereactance depends on the applied frequency. A conductance value also may be present, which is the value of the current flow that is expected through the insulation. Lumped Constants A transmission line also exhibits the properties of inductance, capacitance, and resistance just like the ordinary circuits. In practice,the constants in conventional circuits are lumped into a single device or component. For example, two metal plates separated by a small space can be used to supply the required capacitance for a circuit. Similarly a coil of wire has the property of inductance. Considering the ideal case, a transmission line would alsohave its constants of inductance, capacitance, and resistance lumped together, as shown in the figure.

But in practice, this is not the case. Transmission line constants are distributed. Ham Radio In Plain English 42


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Distributed Constants The distributed constants in the transmission lines are spread along the entire length of the transmission line and cannot be distinguished separately. Factors like the length of the line, the size of the conducting wires, the spacing between the wires, and the dielectric (air or insulating medium) between the wires determines the amount of inductance, capacitance, and resistance in the line.

Inductance of a Transmission Line The flow of current through a wire induces some magnetic lines of force in the wire. The change in the value of the amplitudeof the current induces a change in the field also. This produces a certain amount of inductance, which is expressed in micro Henry per unit length.


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Capacitance of a Transmission Line Capacitance is also present in between the transmission line wires. The two parallel wires function as the plates of a capacitor and the air between them acts as a dielectric. The electric field thus formed between the wires is similar to the field that exists between the two plates of a capacitor.

Resistance of a Transmission Line As shown above, the transmission line has elec

trical resistance along its length. This resistance is expressed in ohms per unit length.


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AC Applied to a Transmission Line

The figure above explains how the things will change when an ac generator replaces a battery. The instantaneous values of the generated voltage are propagated to the other end, one after the other. Here the difference is that the applied voltage is sinusoidal, not a constant one.


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Chapter 5AntennaIf you cant beat your computer at chess, try kickboxing. ~ Anonymous Antennas An antenna is a vital ingredient in any radio transmission system. RF signals produced by a transmitter should be transferred to the space for a successful transmission. The device used for this purpose is known as antenna. A transmitting antenna sends the signal into space, which is later absorbed by a receiving antenna. T

he transmission of RF energy is done in the form of electromagnetic field. The receiving antenna absorbs the electromagnetic field and voltage is induced in theantenna. The receiver then converts this electromagnetic radiation back into RFenergy.


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The Basic Antenna Antennas hold a vital place in radio communication. An antennaconsists of a conductor or a set of conductors, which either radiates or collects electromagnetic energy. A radio frequency energy produced by a transmitter iscarried to an antenna through a transmission line. The antenna transforms thisenergy into radio waves that propagate in space at the speed of the light. Thiswave continues to travel until it is either reflected or absorbed by an object.If the obstructing object is another antenna, it absorbs part of the radio waves

and transforms it into energy. This energy is carried away to a receiver through another transmission line. The basic components of a communication system are:1) Transmitting equipment 2) Transmission line 3) Transmitting antenna 4) Medium 5) Receiving antenna 6) Receiving equipment The two basic fields associated with every antenna are induction field and radiation field. The induction field, which is the field related with the energy stored in the antenna, has no hand inthe transmission of electromagnetic energy, although radiation of energy is notpossible without the induction field. Antennas are basically classified into twotypes. They are Hertz antennas and Marconi antennas. Hertz antennas are generally located at a distance above the ground and are capable of radiating vertically and horizontally. Marconi antennas are located perpendicular to Earth, one endof it being grounded. While Hertz antennas are used for frequencies above 2 MHz

, Marconi antennas are used for frequencies below 2 MHz. The main parts of an antenna are the coupling device, the feeder, and the antenna. The transmitters andfeeders are connected using the coupling device. The transmission line that caries the energy to the antenna is known as the feeder. The characteristic Ham Radio In Plain English 48


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of the antenna depends on the frequency of the transmitting operation, the amount of the power to be radiated, and the direction of the receiving set.

Energy Distribution on an Antenna Electromagnetic radiation is based on two laws. First, a moving electric field creates a magnetic field. The second is that amoving magnetic field creates an electric field. At any moment, these two fieldswill be perpendicular to each other. A high-frequency generator is attached to

a half cut wire. The set frequency of the generator is such that each half of the wire is one-fourth the wavelength of the output. The system thus produced is known as a dipole, which is a common type of antenna. At a given instant, the left side of the generator is negative and the right side is positive. As a result,the electrons will flow away from the negative terminal and will be attracted to the positive terminal. The amplitude of the flowing current will be varying with the generated voltage. The charge distribution will be of sine wave pattern.After every half cycle, the polarity of the charges will be reversed. The sinusoidal variation of charge lags the sinusoidal variation of the current by one-fourth the cycle. Radio Wave Modulation The functioning of a radio may be a perplexing thing to a beginner. Your voice produced in front of a microphone is heard using another radio, which is placed at a different location. How does this happe

n? Modulation is the process of merging a radio signal with an information signal. That means that for modulation to happen a carrier must be there. It is thiscarrier signal that delivers this information to the desired destination.

Morse Code Modulation Morse code turns off and on an RF carrier in order to transmit a simple code alphabet. This is also known as continuous wave (CW).


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Radiation of Electromagnetic Energy The E field and the H field of an electromagnetic energy will be 90 degrees out of phase with each other. As the energy wavetraverses a greater distance, the energy spreads out over a greater area and decreases as the distance traversed increases. Consider that an alternating current is applied at the starting point X of a wire, which extends up to Y. The wavewill pass through the wire until point Y. The end Y is free and because of thatthe wave is unable to travel further. This wave will then reflect back and trave

l to the starting point. Here also, it gets reflected and the process repeats. As this to and fro motion continues, the energy of the wave will be gradually lost by the resistance of the wire. But each time when it reaches the starting point X, the lost energy will be reinforced. This results in the continuous oscillation of energy along the wire. These oscillations are then applied to the antennaat a rate equivalent to the frequency of the f voltage. The waves travel at a rate of 300,000,000 meters per second. The antenna length should be made in sucha way that one to and fro motion of the wave should happen during one cycle of the RF voltage. The maximum movement of electrons always happens at the center ofthe antenna. Due to this, the center of the antenna is always at low impedanceand this condition is called the standing wave of the current. The points havinghigh current and voltage are called as current and voltage loops. The point of

minimum current and voltage is called as Nodes.


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Antenna Gain Most of the antennas are highly directional. This means that more energy is radiated in certain directions compared to other directions.


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Antenna Reciprocity As we have already described at the transmitting stage, electrical energy is converted into the electromagnetic energy and consequently radiated into space. At the receiving antenna, electromagnetic energy is converted into electrical energy. The same antenna can be used in both the cases without any loss of efficiency. This property of the interchangeability of the antenna forboth transmitting and receiving is known as antenna reciprocity.

Radiation Resistance Radiated energy is lost in heating the antenna wire. Considering radiation, if the assumed resistance is actually present, it would dissipate the same quantity of power the antenna takes to radiate the energy. This assumed resistance is named as radiation resistance.

Isotropic Radiation Some of the antennas radiate equal amount of energy in all directions. This type of radiation is known as isotropic radiation. This is oftencompared to the radiation pattern from the sun. Sun radiates equal amounts of energy in all directions.

Anisotropic Radiation Radiations produced by most radiators can be found to havehigher intensity in one direction. These types of radiators are referred to as

anisotropic radiators. The ordinary flashlight is the best example of an anisotropic radiator.

Antenna Loading The same antenna system can be used for transmitting and receiving signals having different frequencies. For this to happen, the antenna shouldeither be physically Ham Radio In Plain English 52


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or electrically lengthened or shortened. Making physical changes are not that practical. That necessitates the reduction or enlargement of the electrical length. This is done by inserting either a capacitor or an inductor in series with theantenna. The process is known as loading.

Work is a necessary evil to be avoided. ~ Mark Twain, writer

Antenna Positioning Special care should be taken to locate the antenna well above the ground keeping it away from any tall buildings, trees, electrical power conductors, telephone and telegraph wires, and other metal objects that will absorb the energy. Better results can be obtained by hoisting it to the maximum possible height. The antenna and the output stage of the transmitter have certain impedance in them. Maximum possible energy transfer from a source to the load is possible only when the impedance is matched. That means that the output impedanceof the transmitter should match the input impedance of the antenna. A co-axial cable is used by most amateurs because of its properties of maximum efficiency and minimum loss of energy. RG-59/U is a small co-axial cable having an impedanceof 73 Ohms. Ham Radio In Plain English 53


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Other stations often judge the performance of an amateur station from the strength of the signal they hear. This enunciates the importance of an effective antenna system.

Types of Different Antennas

Most of us have a misconception that if the length of antenna is more, than the

energy radiated by it will also be on the higher. But this is not the case. Antenna should have specific dimensions for effective operation. The basic Hertz antenna has a length of half its wavelength. This is also called as a dipole or a doublet. The basic Marconi antenna has a length one-fourth its wavelength. Halfwave Antennas


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A half-wave antenna (Hertz, dipole or doublet) is made up of two lengths of tubing, each having one-fourth of wavelength at a particular frequency. This antennais capable of operating at a distance above the ground surface. For a half-waveantenna, the current is maximum at the center and minimum at the ends. Voltageis minimum at the center and maximum at the ends.

Quarterwave Antennas A grounded quarter-wave antenna can be obtained by cutting a

half-wave antenna and then grounding one end well. The antenna thus obtained will resonate with the same frequency as the ungrounded half wavelength antenna. Most of the mobile transmitting and receiving antennas are quarter-wave (Marconi)antennas.

Horizontal Dipole The beginners often start with this antenna, as it is easy toconstruct. It gives excellent results in H.F bands. The most attractive thing isthat it requires only two points to hook it up. The height can be above 30 feet, and the higher the better. This is considered a basic antenna. The length in feet is calculated using the formula, 468/f MHz. An insulator is used in the center after cutting it into two halves. The maximum radiation is in the broadside of the axis and least along the axis line. The materials of the dipole are easily

available. Dipole can be used for both local as well as Dx. Inverted V The difference between the inverted V and the dipole is that the center is raised to a height comparing with the ends. The length of the inverted V in feet can be calculated using the formula, 464/f MHz. The angle between two halves must be between90 and 120 degrees. The radiating part of a vertical antenna is called the radiator. Normally copper wire or aluminum tubing is used for the radiator. Ham Radio In Plain English 55


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If its the Psychic Network, why do they need a phone number? ~ Robin Williams, comedian Folded Dipole A folded dipole is similar to an ordinary half-wave antenna with one or more additional conductors connected across its ends. Additional conductors are placed at a distance which will be equal to a fraction of its wavelength. The spacings are materialized using standard feed-line spreaders. The folded dipole is used over a wider frequency range than that of a simple dipole.

Directional Antennas


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A directional antenna focuses or directs radio energy in a specific direction. As a result of this the stations on the directed sides will be getting strong signals when compared to those on the opposite sides. That means that the directional antenna propagates the energy more in one direction at the cost of a weak radiation on the rear side.

Parasitic Antenna The parasitic antennas are defined as the antennas, in which t

he radio energy is obtained in some elements by the induction or radiation fromthe driven element. Directional antennas are example of the parasitic antenna. Yagi and quad fall under this category.

Yagi Antenna Yagi antenna consists of many dipoles, one shorter from the other.Refer to the figure given below. Reflectors, radiators, and directors are the parts of a yagi antenna. The elements are not placed uniformly thus causing an uneven spacing between the elements. The reflector and director are usually found welded to a conducting tube. The radiations from different elements will be in phase in the forward direction, but may not be in phase in other directions. A higher number of parasitic elements guarantees more gain, but may lead to a narrowfrequency response.


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Terminology Used in Array Antennas Driven Element A driven element is the element connected directly to the transmission line. It is almost similar to the dipole. While transmitting, it receives the power directly from the transmitter. Similarly, while receiving, it delivers the absorbed energy directly to the receiver.

Parasitic Element A parasitic element is placed near the driven element, from wh

ich it derives the power. When a parasitic element produces maximum energy radiation in a direction away from itself but towards a parasitic element, it is called a reflector.

Driven Array When all the elements in an array are driven, it is referred to asa driven array.

Bi-directional Array A bi-directional array directs in the opposite directions along the line of maximum radiation.

Unidirectional Array A unidirectional array directs only in one direction.



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Chapter 6

Ham Radio LicenseNever go to a doctor whose office plants have died. ~ Erma Bombeck, author FCC TheFCC regulates amateur radio under the jurisdiction of the United States of America. This agency can impose fines or even take away licenses if someone is not following the rules. Licenses are required due to many security aspects involved

in radio communications.

Control OperatorAn amateur station is the place where a station facilitated for the amateur radio transmissions is located. A licensed amateur who is completely responsible forthe station transmissions is called a control operator.

Amateur Radio License Any individual who intends to operate a ham radio stationin the U.S, should hold a license from the FCC, prior to his or her initiation to the world of ham radio. The license is renewed every 10 years. Where can you find the information youd need to study for the test? Most of the information is right here in this book.

License ClassesJust as there is no one drivers license, amateur radio also has different types of licenses. The FCC has three license classes. One should begin with a technician class


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operator license and then graduate to higher classes. There is no possibility ofstarting out in a higher class. Naturally, lower classes offer fewer privilegesthan higher ones. Type of Classes Technician Class Offered Privileges Have fullliberty to use VHF and UHF spectrum 30 MHz. Limited privileges in Morse code and voice in the HF spectrum. Limited access to all the HF amateur bands with Morse code, data and voice modes. Full amateur privileges. Eligibility RequirementsPassing a 35 question exam is mandatory.

Technician with Morse Code General Class

A five wpm Morse code exam and a passing grade in the previous exam. A 35 question exam (requires that you have passed the technician and Morse code exams already). Possess a general class license and pass a 50 question exam.

Amateur

Extra Renewal of the License

A license is valid for 10 years. After the 10 years, a further two years are all

owed for renewal although the amateur radio privileges cease to exist during this period. After the renewal of the license, one can operate a station. Accordingto the FCC, it is best to renew the license 90 days prior to the expiration date.

Changes Made by the FCC in 2000 The FCC made changes based on three aspects. Thenumber of operator licenses was reduced from six to three. The number of telegraphy examination elements was reduced from three to one. The number of elementsin the written examination was reduced from five to three. There will be only one Morse code examination at a speed of five words-per-minute (wpm). RACES station licenses were eliminated.


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One can retain credit for the Element 1 (5 wpm) telegraphy examination if he/shehas an expired FCC issued Technician Class operator license granted before February 14, 1991 or an expired Novice Class operator license issued at any time. But one question remains unanswered. What is the necessity of a license at all? CBradio operators are not required to have one. The simple answer is that ham operators can work at a power level of almost 375 times than that of a CB operator.Also, ham operators can transmit across state and international barriers. This

makes it mandatory to understand the international rules and regulations.

VHF/UHF BandsIf it werent for Philo T. Farnsworth, inventor of television, wed still be eating frozen radio dinners. ~ Johnny Carson, comedian The bandwidth assigned to a ham may differ in some respects from one country to another. This is done by the concerned body of the particular country (like FCC for the U.S.) by going through a lot of aspects. This makes it impossible to have a common frequency allotment inthe international level. A technician with no Morse code license can operate onallowed frequency segments above 30 MHz. Most of the activity pertaining to thissegment will be limited to local areas. The amateur bands that can be used by ano code technician are given below. Note that the 13 cm band is divided into tw

o segments.

50.0MHz_____________________54.0MHz 144.0MHz___________________148.0MHz 222.0MHz___________________225.0MHz 420.0MHz___________________450.0MHz 902MHz______________________928MHz 1240MHz____________________1300MHz 2300~2310MHz_________ 2390~2450MHz

6 Meter Band VHF 2 Meter Band VHF 1.25 Meter Band VHF 70 centimeter Band UHF 33centimeter Band UHF 23 centimeter Band UHF 13 centimeter Band UHF


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The Technician with Morse Code HF Amateur Bands

3675kHz___________________ __3750kHz 7.1MHz______________________7.150MHz 21.100MHz__________________21.200MHz 28.100MHz__________________28.500MHz

80 Meter Band HF 40 Meter Band HF 15 Meter Band HF 10 Meter Band HF

VHF Bands

6m 6m 2m 2m

50.0 - 50.1 MHz 50.1 - 54.0 MHz 144.0 - 144.1 MHz 144.1 - 148.0 MHz

CW only Phone emissions permitted, FM included CW only Phone permitted, FM included.

Image Transmissions Image transmissions are the transmissions of still images orthat of video images. Fax and slow and fast scan television are some of the image transmission modes. Hams often involve themselves in sharing their personal v

ideos.

Station Licensee If an individual is licensed and owns a radio, then he/she is the control operator when he/she is using the radio. The location where the control operator functions is called the control point. It is possible that the station licensee and the control operator are two separate individuals. A control operator can be anyone who the station licensee designates.


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IdentificationCall sign is a sequence of letters and numbers the FCC provides for identifyinga station. This will be provided as soon as one is licensed. Call sign is a mustfor ham radio operation. It is mandatory for an operator to identify his or herstation every 10 minutes or at the end of the operation. Third Party Communications As implied by the name, third party communications are the communications sent between two amateur stations on the behalf of someone. A third party is the

one who has sent the message through two amateur stations. The policy of the FCCstates that an amateur should never be paid for third party communications. When one allows a third party to use his/her station, then he/she must closely monitor the transmission. Third party messages to a foreign country can only be madeif the U.S. has a third party agreement with that government.

Frequency Sharing Sometimes, it is possible that there are others in the same band. At certain instances, the amateur radio operators share the band with otherradio services. When amateurs are the secondary users of a band, one must not interfere with the primary users of the band. This rule stands good for the fellowoperators as well.

Power Limits FCC has specified maximum possible power levels. The term coined for this purpose is Peak Envelope Power or PEP. The maximum power output for technician grade is 1500 watts PEP. Maximum power output allowed to a technician withMorse code is 200 watts PEP. One should always use the minimum required power.For example, if only a certain amount of power is required for transmitting to aparticular area, then do not use more than the required power, because it is unnecessary wastage.


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Language Any language is permitted. There are many individuals who transmit in other languages like Japanese and Spanish.

Beacons Beacons are special transmitters that work 24 hours a day to give information on radio conditions and propagation characteristics. One must tune to a beacon frequency and check whether a beacon signal is present. The presence of thesignal confirms the existence of a radio communication path between the locatio

n and the beacon.

Distress Whenever there is a distress call on the radio, contact the person andthe proper authorities. It does not matter if the frequency is outside your license privileges. MAYDAY and SOS are the words transmitted in case of an emergency. This should be used for life or property threatening emergencies.

Transmission and Dummy Load During repair, it may be required to operate the station for a while for the correct diagnosis of the problem. Rather than using a live signal, technicians use a dummy load around the antenna. A dummy load is nothing but a huge resistor which has the ability to dissipate the radio signal asheat into the air.

Repeaters As described earlier, most VHF-UHF bands have a line of sight transmission. Due to this, VHF signals are easily blocked by mountains and hills. In order to avoid this situation, a device known as a repeater is used to strengthen the signal. The significance of repeaters is that they make it possible to transmit signals to very long dis-


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tances. The difference between the input and the output of a repeater is termedas offset.

The main rules pertaining to the amateur radio transmission are given below. Notknowing the rules is no excuse. My father hated radio and could not wait for television to be invented so that he could hate that, too. ~ Peter De Vries, novelist S 97.5 Station License Required The person having physical control of the stat

ion apparatus must have been granted a station license (detailed below) or holdan unexpired document (detailed below) before the station may transmit on any amateur service frequency from any place that is: Within 50 km of the Earth

s surface and at a place where the amateur service is regulated by the FCC. Within 50 kmof the Earth

s surface and aboard any vessel or craft that is documented or registered in the United States. More than 50 km above the Earth

s surface aboard any craft that is documented or registered in the United States. The types of station licenses are: An operator/primary station license. One, but only one, operator/primary station license is granted to each person who is qualified to be an amateur operator. The primary station license is granted together with the amateuroperator license. Except for a representative of a foreign government, any person who qualifies by examination is eligible to apply for an operator/primary sta

tion license. The operator/primary station license document is printed on FCC Form 660.


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A club station license. A club station license is granted only to the person whois the license trustee designated by an officer of the club. The trustee must be a person who has been granted an Amateur Extra, Advanced, General, TechnicianPlus, or Technician operator license. The club must be composed of at least twopersons and must have a name, a document of organization, management, and a prim

ary purpose devoted to amateur service activities consistent with this Part. Theclub station license document is printed on FCC Form 660.

A military recreation station license. A military recreation station license isgranted only to the person who is the license custodian designated by the official in charge of the United States military recreational premises where the station is situated. The person must not be a representative of a foreign government.The person need not have been granted an amateur operator license. The militaryrecreation station license document is printed on FCC Form 660.

A RACES station license. A RACES station license is granted only to the person who is the license custodian designated by the official responsible for the governmental agency served by that civil defense organization. The custodian must bethe civil defense official responsible for coordination of all civil defense activities in the area concerned. The custodian must not be a representative of a foreign government. The custodian need not have been granted an amateur operatorlicense. The RACES station license document is printed on FCC Form 660.

The types of documents are: A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC Form 610-AL) issued to the person by the FCC. An amateur service license issued tothe person by the Government of Canada. The person must be a Canadian citizen. A

person who has been granted a station license of the type listed above or who holds an unexpired document of the type listed above is authorized to use, Ham Radio In Plain English 68


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in accordance with the FCC Rules, all transmitting apparatus under the physicalcontrol of the station licensee at points where the amateur service is regulatedby the FCC.

S 97.7 Control Operator Required When transmitting, each amateur station must have a control operator. The control operator must be a person who has been granted an amateur operator/primary station license, or who holds an unexpired documen

t of the following types: A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC Form 610-AL) issued to the person by the FCC. An amateur service license issued to the person by the Government of Canada. The person must be a Canadian citizen.

Maybe this world is another planets Hell. ~ Aldous Huxley, writer S 97.9 Operator License The classes of amateur operator licenses are: Novice, Technician, Technician Plus (until such licenses expire, a Technician Class license granted beforeFebruary 14, 1991, is considered a Technician Plus Class license), General, Advanced, and Amateur Extra. A person who has been granted an operator license is authorized to be the control operator of an amateur station with the privileges ofthe operator class specified on the license. A person who has been granted an operator license of Novice, Technician, Technician Plus, General, or Advanced cla

ss and who has properly submitted to the administering VEs an application document, FCC Form 610, for an operator license of a higher class, and who holds a CSCE indicating that the person has completed the necessary examinations within theprevious 365 days, is authorized to exercise the rights and privileges of the higher operator class until final disposition of the application or until 365 days following the passing of the examination, whichever comes first.


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S 97.11 Stations aboard Ships or Aircraft The installation and operation of an amateur station on a ship or aircraft must be approved by the master of the shipor pilot in command of the aircraft. The station must be separate from and independent of all other radio apparatus installed on the ship or aircraft, except acommon antenna may be shared with a voluntary ship radio installation. The station

s transmissions must not cause interference to any other apparatus installedon the ship or aircraft. The station must not constitute a hazard to the safety

of life or property. For a station aboard an aircraft, the apparatus shall not be operated while the aircraft is operating under Instrument Flight Rules, as defined by the FAA, unless the station has been found to comply with all applicableFAA Rules. S 97.13 Restrictions on Station Locations Before placing an amateurstation on land of environmental importance or that is significant in American history, architecture or culture, the licensee may be required to take certain actions prescribed by S 1.1301 - 1.1319 of the FCC Rules. A station within 1600 m(1 mile) of an FCC monitoring facility must protect that facility from harmful interference. Failure to do so could result in imposition of operating restriction

37885731 ham radio in plain english

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