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HAM RADIO IN PLAIN ENGLISH A Step-By-Step Guide For Regular Peopl" by Randy Pryor Ham Radio In Plain English 1

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Page 1: Ham Radio in Plain English

HAM RADIO IN PLAIN ENGLISHA Step-By-Step Guide For Regular Peopl"

by Randy Pryor

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You do not have resell rights or giveaway rights to this book. Only customers that have purchased this material are authorized to view it. If you think you may have an illegally distributed copy of this book, please contact us immediately. Please email [email protected] to report any illegal distribution.

Copyright NoticeCopyright © 2005 Randy Pryor All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical or electronic, including photocopying and re-cording, or by information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission or further information should be emailed to: [email protected]

Legal NoticesWhile all attempts have been made to verify information provided in this publication, neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility for errors, omissions or contrary interpretation of the subject matter herein.

The Publisher wants to stress that the information contained herein may be subject to varying state and/or local laws or regulations. All users are ad-vised to retain competent counsel to determine what state and/or local laws or regulations may apply to the user’s particular operation.

The purchaser or reader of this publication assumes responsibility for the use of these materials and information. Adherence to all applicable laws and regulations, both federal and state and local, governing professional licensing, operation practices, and all other aspects of operation in the United States or any other jurisdiction is the sole responsibility of the pur-chaser or reader. The publisher and author assume no responsibility or li-ability whatsoever on the behalf of any purchaser or reader of these mate-rials. Any perceived slights of specific people or organizations is uninten-tional.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 11 Meet the Gang 14

CHAPTER 1 - THE WORLD OF AMATEUR RADIO! ! ! ! 15!! Purpose of Amateur Radio ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 15!! Operating a Ham Radio: Making Contacts! ! ! ! 16!! Ragchews! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 16!! Nets! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 17!! Traffic Nets ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 17!! Emergency Service Nets! ! ! ! ! ! ! 17!! ALE Mailboxes and Bulletin Boards ! ! ! ! ! 17!! Full Duplex Operation! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 17!! Swap Nets! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 17!! DX-ing, Contests, and Awards! ! ! ! ! ! 18!! Ham Radio and Ordinary Radio! ! ! ! ! ! 18!! Transceiver! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 18!! Cost of Equipment! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 19!! Setting Up Ham Radio Equipment! ! ! ! ! ! 20!! Bandwidth Selection ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 21!! Some Points for Beginners! ! ! ! ! ! ! 21!! ‘To Listen’ is the Phrase ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 21!! Contacting Your Nearest Club ! ! ! ! ! ! 21!! Finding One in the Same Boat ! ! ! ! ! ! 22!! Know Your Equipment! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 22!! Use All Resources ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 22!! Practice Courtesy! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 22!! Be Cool ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 23!! Ham and Phonetics! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 23!! Operation Using Computers ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 23 ! Satellites! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 24!! Amateur Radio on Boats! ! ! ! ! ! ! 24!

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! Signal Reports (the RST code)! ! ! ! ! ! 25!! International Q-Code (Extract) ! ! ! ! ! ! 26 Continuous Wave Transmitter 27 Web Sites for Buying Equipment and Electronic Circuits 27 Buying Old Equipment 27 The Statistics of Ham Radio Users 30 Making of a Simple QRP Rig 30

CHAPTER 2 - BASICS OF RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSION 31 Mode of Radio Wave Transmission 31 Propagation of VHF Signal 31 Reflection of VHF/UHF Signals 32 The Process of Ionization in the Ionosphere 33 The Ionosphere Layers 33 The F Layer 34 The E Layer 34 The D Layer 35 Critical Frequency 36

CHAPTER 3 - FACTORS AFFECTING RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSION 37 Factors Affecting Radio Waves 37 Absorption 37 Fading 37 Losses Due to Ground Reflection 38 Free Space Loss 38 Electromagnetic Interference 39 Radio Waves and Weather 39 Ducting 39 Earth Moon Earth 40 Satellite 40 Sunspots 40

CHAPTER 4 - TRANSMISSION THEORY 41 Transfer of Radio Waves from the Transmitter to the Antenna 41 Transmission Line Theory 42

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Lumped Constants 42 Distributed Constants 43 Inductance of a Transmission Line 43 Capacitance of a Transmission Line 44 Resistance of a Transmission Line 44 DC Applied to a Transmission Line 45 AC Applied to a Transmission Line 46

CHAPTER 5 - ANTENNA 47 Antennas 47 The Basic Antenna 48 Energy Distribution on an Antenna 49 Radio Wave Modulation 49 Morse Code Modulation 49 Radiation of Electromagnetic Energy 50 Antenna Gain 51 Antenna Reciprocity 52 Radiation Resistance 52 Isotropic Radiation 52 Anisotropic Radiation 52 Antenna Loading 52 Antenna Positioning 53 Types of Different Antennas 54! Half –wave Antennas! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 54! Quarter –wave Antennas! ! ! ! ! ! ! 55 Horizontal Dipole 55 Inverted V 55 Folded Dipole 56 Directional Antennas 56 Parasitic Antenna 57 Yagi Antenna 57 One Antenna for Different Bands 58 Terminology Used in Array Antennas 59 Driven Element 59 Parasitic Element 59 Driven Array 59

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Bi-directional Array 59 Unidirectional Array 59

CHAPTER 6 - HAM RADIO LICENSE 60 FCC 60 Control Operator 60 Amateur Radio License 60 License Classes 60 Renewal of the License 61 Changes Made by the FCC in 2000 61 Expired License 62 VHF/UHF Bands 63 VHF Bands 64 Image Transmissions 64 Station Licensee 64 Identification 65 Third Party Communications 65 Frequency Sharing 65 Power Limits 65 Language 66 Beacons 66 Distress 66 Transmission and Dummy Load 66 Repeaters 66 Station License Required 67 Control Operator Required 69 Operator License 69 Stations aboard Ships or Aircraft 70 Restrictions on Station Locations 70 Station Antenna Structures 70 Application for New License or Reciprocal Permit for Alien Amateur Licensee 72 Application for a Modified or Renewed License 73 Mailing Address 74 License Term 75 FCC Modification of Station License 75

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Replacement License Document 76 Subpart B--Station Operation Standards 76 General Standards 76 Station Licensee Responsibilities 76 Control Operator Duties 77 Alien Control Operator Privileges 77 Station Control 78 Authorized Transmissions 79 Prohibited Transmissions 80 Third Party Communications 81 International Communications 82 Station Identification 83 Restricted Operation 84 Subpart C--Special Operations 85 Auxiliary Station 85 Beacon Station 86 Repeater Station 87 Space Station 88 Earth Station 89 Space Telecommand Station 90 Telecommand of an Amateur Station 90 Telecommand of Model Craft 91 Telemetry 91 Message Forwarding System 91 Subpart D--Technical Standards 92 Frequency Sharing Requirements 92 Emission Standards 97 RTTY and Data Emission Codes 100 SS Emission Types 101 Transmitter Power Standards 103 Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers 104 Standards for Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers 105

CHAPTER 7 - AMATEUR RADIO PRACTICE 108 Safety 108 Lightning Damage 108

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Safety of the Station 108 Grounding 108! What is a Ground? ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 108 Power Line Ground 108 DC Ground (Safety Ground) 108 RF Ground 109 High Voltage Power Supplies 109 Antenna Safety 109 Safety of the Equipment 109 Hazardous Voltages 110 Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) 110 SWR Readings - How Are They Rated? 110 Fixing a Bad SWR Reading 110 Lengthening 110 Shortening 111 Meters and Measurements 111 Voltmeter 111 Ammeter 111 Multimeter 111 RF Wattmeter 111 Directional Wattmeter 112 Peak Reading Wattmeter 112 Oscilloscope 112 Audio Wave Modulation 112 Morse Code Modulation 112

Chapter 8 - ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 113! ‘God of Small Things’ ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 113 Points to Remember 114 Cells Connected in Series 114 Cells Connected in Parallel 115 The Direction of Current Flow 115 What is Electric Current? 116 Properties of Electric Current 116 Conductors 117

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! Extrinsic Semiconductors – P and N Type ! ! ! ! 118 Pn Junction Diodes 119 Pn Junctions 119 Formation of Pn Junction 119 Properties of Pn Junction 120 Transistors 121 Base 121 Emitter and Collector Layers 121 Vacuum Tubes 121

Chapter 9 - MAGNETISM AND BASIC ELECTRIC DEVICES 123 Electric Potential 123 Potential Difference 123 Resistance 123 Capacitors 124 Schematic Symbol for a Capacitor 126 Equivalent Series Resistance of a Capacitor (ESR) 126 Film Capacitors 126 Electrolytic Capacitors 128 Capacitor and Voltage 129 Electric Field 130 Alternating Current 130 Magnetism 131 Types of Magnets 131 Magnetic Poles and Forces 132 Magnetic Fields 132 Circuit Theory 135 Types of Circuits 135 Circuit Components 135 The Objective of a Resistor 136 Light Dependent Resistor 138 Capacitor 139 Temperature Sensors 142 Microphone 142 Switch 143

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Fuse 144 Voltmeter 144 Ammeter 144 Multimeter 144 Circuit Equations 146

Chapter 10 - TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY 148 Structure of Electric Power Systems 148 Distribution 150 Transmission and Distribution 150

Chapter 11 - ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND RADIO WAVES 151 Electromagnetic Waves 151 Basics of Wave Motion 151 Wavelength 151 Amplitude 152 Frequency 152 Radio Waves 152 Units of Frequency 152 Bandwidth 153 The Factors Affecting Radio Waves 154

Chapter 12 - A PEEP INTO THE ATMOSPHERE 155 What Is Atmosphere? 155 Troposphere 155 Stratosphere 156 Ionosphere 156 Conclusion 157

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HAM RADIO IN PLAIN ENGLISHA Step-By-Step Guide For Regular Peopl"

Introduction“The radio has no future.”~ Lord Kelvin, British mathematician1897

People’s interests range from the fun to the weird to the downright bizarre. Some jog,

others collect porcelain knickknacks, while still others investigate the paranormal. A

hobby is a reflection of a person’s character. Since humans are the most social of all

animals, there is an inherent desire to establish contact and maintain relationships with

others. When these two elements are joined together, they create the perfect hobby -

amateur radio.

What exactly explains the popular, cult-like following to ham radio? Perhaps it’s

the unique mix of fun entertainment, public service, and convenience. It could be the

satisfaction and accomplishment that arises when a person establishes contact with a

fellow human being on the other side of the world with a gadget that seems much less

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sophisticated than the Internet. There are various reasons why hams get involved in

amateur radio, but they all have a basic knowledge of the technology, regulations, and

operating principles that apply to radio in the first place.

The Internet has greatly impacted the world with a new level of technology, but

that does not take away the irresistible and timeless appeal of amateur radio. Perhaps

it’s the idea of something old-fashioned in a modern world of high tech or maybe it’s the

efficiency and simplicity that go hand in hand with the operation of amateur radio, but

the appeal certainly has stood the test of time and space.

Amateur radio is as old as the history of radio itself but the reason why amateur

radio operators are called “hams” is rather obscure. Hams are a very mixed bunch. The

two common things that hams share is the interest of what is happening in the world

around them and using a radio to reach out. Some people prefer Morse code on an old

brass telegraph via a low power transmitter, others opt for voice communication on a

hand-held radio, and still others get their kicks from computer messages transmitted

through satellites. These individuals come from all walks of life. They’re students, movie

stars, truck drivers, sailors, and every profession imaginable. Their ages and interests

are as varied as their careers.

A set of Antennas - The whole world within your reach

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It may sound like all fun and games, but the amateur radio set up is a very seri-

ous business. The radio has the ability to transmit life saving messages globally. In

1912, Congress passed the first laws regulating radio transmissions in the U.S. By

1914, amateur experimenters were up to their ears in this hobby and were communicat-

ing nationwide, so setting up a system to relay messages from coast to coast had be-

come a necessity. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was created by

Congress in 1927, and consequently, specific frequencies were assigned for various

uses, including ham bands. The FCC created the Amateur Radio Service to lend a seri-

ous side to the hobby. Amateur radio could offer a pool of experts providing backup

emergency communications in the face of critical times. In addition, the FCC acknowl-

edged that amateur radio had the ability to enhance communication, improve the tech-

nical skills of radio, and boost international goodwill. This philosophy has definitely paid

off. Countless lives have been saved because skilled hobbyists have acted as emer-

gency communicators to render aid during earthquakes in Japan, floods in Indonesia,

and epidemics in Africa. Most recently, Ham radio operators all over India became a life-

line as they helped locate and reunite countless families and assist in relief operations

in the wake of the tsunami disaster.

Imagine yourself by the side of one of these.

If you’re wondering how hard is it to learn amateur radio, you may be relieved to

know that just about anyone can learn enough to acquire a license easily. Only basic

electronics and basic knowledge of radio operations are required.

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Over the years, three basic license classes have evolved. The higher the class

license you have, the more privileges and modes of operation you receive. But each

higher-class license requires extensive knowledge of technology, rules and regulations,

as well as higher Morse code proficiency. So, you can learn the basics or you can be-

come an expert and still enjoy the hobby.

Meet the Gang

Here is a sampling of the individuals involved with amateur radio. Although hams

usually consider it to be a hobby, amateur radio can be more than that – it can prove to

be a life altering experience.

This is Rose Robin; she was a witness to a motor accident along one of the na-

tional highways of our country. While driving to her parents’ home, she witnessed a hor-

rific scene. She watched another car lose control, break the barricade, and speed off a

cliff. Rose stopped her car and dashed to the scene of the accident. The car was over-

turned, its wheels spinning wildly. She raced to the car but found it impossible to yank

the doors open to rescue the hapless mother and child trapped inside. Both were bleed-

ing and unconscious. Rose’s quick thinking and critical desire to save a human life sent

her dashing back to her car where she picked up her pocket-sized hand-held radio and

radioed for help. Within minutes, police and an ambulance had arrived at the spot and

could rescue the victims.

Meet Josephine Williams, a lonely widow of 46. She lost her husband to cancer a

year ago, and since then she has been living a rather cloistered life. No friends, no visi-

tors, nothing. Mrs. Williams had not been very social when her husband was alive, but

lately her loneliness had been eating into the very vitals of her existence. Being lonely is

a thing of the past now, thanks to her radio. She has found two new friends who are fel-

low hams. One is a 23 year old martial arts student in Japan, and the other is an Indian

male nurse working in Canada.

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Chapter 1

The World of Amateur Radio“Radio is just a fashion contrivance that will soon die out. It is obvious that there never will be invented a proper receiver!”~ Thomas Edison

Amateur radio has overcome many obstacles since its invention. Advances in

technology have never hindered its path. In fact, the system has learned to cope with

the technologies. A fine example is the contact made by two stations assisted by com-

puters. The commercialization that has overtaken many other fields has not affected the

hams. This is the sole reason why it is free for two hams to talk to each other, even

across the globe. Also, if a disaster like an earthquake occurs, hams can provide critical

help when most communication facilities are destroyed.

Purpose of Amateur Radio

Amateur radio stations’ key functions include self-training in radio communica-

tions, intercommunication, and investigations in radio communications. The individuals

taking part in these activities should only get involved for personal reasons and not do it

with any monetary interests in mind.

The attitude or the essence of the amateur radio is the grouping together of peo-

ple from different walks of life towards a common goal without any financial aims. This is

a very important aspect since most people will do just about anything for money.

We can state the purpose of ham radio in simple terms as to increase the num-

ber of trained radio operators and electronic experts by encouraging experimentation

and enhance international goodwill.

One with an interest in electronics and technology can really indulge in the

realms of technical wizardry. When opening the hood of a ham radio, there is basic and

there is innovative. The basic involves direct current electronics while the innovative

concerns cutting edge radio frequency techniques.

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Technical doctors can dissect the equipment, make amends with many things,

and barge into the nuances of radio operations. With the help of some types of soft-

ware, they can use the Internet along with radios to create hi-tech hybrid systems.

Voice and Morse code communication are still the most used routes, but

computer-based digital operation is gaining momentum. Today’s popular home station

configuration is a hybrid of the computer and radio. The communication can be done

between continents. This is one of the intriguing factors of ham radio.

Man’s desire to learn is another aspect, which facilitates the progression of this

hobby. Age is not a barrier since many familiarize themselves with antennas, propaga-

tion of radio waves, solar cycles, sunspots, and similar activities. Antennas have be-

come a real obsession for people who love to invent. New designs are created every

day and hams have contributed many new variations to the antenna designer's art. All

that is required is some wire, a feed line, and a soldering iron.

Hams are also helpful in supporting other areas such as radio control (R/C),

model rocketry, and meteorology. Miniature ham radio video transmitters are flown in

model aircraft, rockets, and balloons, beaming back pictures from heights of hundreds

and even thousands of feet. Ham radio data links also lend a helping hand in the fields

of astronomy, aviation, auto racing, and rallies.

Operating a Ham Radio: Making Contacts

If you can tune to a radio across the ham bands, you will understand the activi-

ties of hams. It can vary from a simple conversation to contesting.

Ragchews

Hams mostly engage in conversation. This is called “chewing the rag.” Contacts

are named ragchews. Ragchews can happen between continents or just across town.

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Nets

“Nets” is an abbreviation for networks. They are the organized air meetings,

scheduled for hams with similar interests or purposes.

Traffic Nets

This is the system that passes text messages or traffic, through ham radio. Op-

erators exchange messages, which can range from the mundane to the most urgent.

Emergency Service Nets

When disaster strikes, hams who are trained for these purposes organize and

provide decisive communications into and out of the affected areas until normality is re-

stored.

ALE Mailboxes and Bulletin Boards

ALE is the abbreviation for Automatic Link Establishment. Here a computer sys-

tem monitors a frequency all the time so that others can connect to it and send or re-

trieve messages.

Full Duplex Operation

Full duplex is a communication mode in which a radio can transmit and receive at

the same time by using two different frequencies.

Swap Nets

Like flea markets, a weekly swap net allows hams to list items for sale or things

they need. A net control station overlooks and moderates the process, and business is

generally conducted over the phone once the parties have been put in contact with each

other.

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DX-ing, Contests, and Awards

DX is short for distance. The thrill of making contacts at a very long distance from

home has lured many a ham. Competitions are organized for hams, in which they com-

pete to contact faraway stations and to log contacts with every country. Ham radio con-

tests are events in which one earns points for each contact made. Through these ex-

changes, hams often contact a specific area, use a certain band, find a special station

and try to communicate with as many stations as possible.

When two hams make contact, they usually confirm contact by using QSL cards.

A ham collects all of the QSL cards received from time to time. Those who make maxi-

mum numbers of contacts are given awards in the competitions.

Ham fests are often conducted by Amateur Radio Clubs. At a ham fest, one can

buy or sell radio equipment and meet people in person after having communicated with

them on the air.

Ham Radio and Ordinary Radio

Ordinary radio sets are designed to receive either Amplitude Modulated (AM) or

Frequency Modulated (FM) broadcast. Ham radio operators use Single Side Band

(SSB) transmission for their communication requirements. Ham radio stations use very

low power, less than 100 watts. But a broadcast station uses power in the kilowatts

range. Many broadcast band radio receivers cover some of the frequencies earmarked

for the ham radio stations. A four band radio set usually covers some popular ham radio

frequencies like 7 to 7.1 MHz (i.e. 7000 to 7100 kHz), 14 to 14.350 MHz (i.e. 14,000 to

14,350 kHz) and 21 to 21.450 MHz (i.e. 21,000 to 21,450 kHz). This kind of receiver can

be improvised to receive ham radio transmissions with very little effort. While hearing

ham radio stations in ordinary radio sets, the sound will resemble a duck quacking.

TransceiverThe term transceiver is used to identify the equipment. Both transmitters and re-

ceivers are assembled in one unit to perform two basic roles. The transmitter generates

a radio frequency signal of required power at the desired frequency. It should have

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some means of changing or modulating the basic frequency, so that it can carry a feasi-

ble signal. The receiver must be able to select the required frequency, rejecting all un-

wanted frequencies. Also, the receiver should have the capacity to amplify the weak in-

coming signal to prevail over the losses the signal suffers in its journey through space.

In a radio receiver, the modulated signal is received after the conversion of the original

modulated carrier signal into another carrier modulated by the same modulation wave-

form but at a much lower frequency. This mixing is done with another locally generated

sine wave signal. At the output of the non-linear mixet, the difference frequency, called

intermediate frequency, is selected by a tuned circuit. (If this sounds like gobbledygook,

don’t worry, keep reading!)

Transceiver

Cost of Equipment

An endearing factor for an aspiring ham is that the necessary equipment needed to

get started in this field should not cost an arm and a leg. Start up can begin with less

than $200. Depending on your pocketbook, you can select a wide range of equipment

which varies from $100 to $2,000. You can easily shop from e-shops on the Internet or

from some of the ham stores in town.

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Setting Up Ham Radio Equipment

Though there are no special rules regarding the mode of equipment for starting, it’s

better to begin with the base station rather than going for mobile or handheld. This way,

you will have the opportunity to judge the niceties of a station operation.

To start the hobby, a simple short wave radio and a QRP transmitter are all that are

required. If everything is available, it will only take a few hours to get set up.

Initially, most ham operators begin with a simple station. An HF radio, microphone,

Morse code key, and a simple wire dipole antenna are all that are required for your

cruise on air. The step by step process is given below.

1. First, locate the place where you are going to keep the equipment. It is better to

keep the length of the coaxial cable to a minimum. Take special care while decid-

ing the location, in order to bring the coaxial and ground wire in easily.

2. A desk or computer credenza is a perfect place for the equipment.

3. Install an eight foot copper ground wire into the ground. Lay a heavy wire from

the ground rod to the grounding post on the ham radio.

4. Lay an antenna coax from the antenna to the radio shack.

5. Proper clearance should be kept on the rear side of the radio for air circulation.

6. Place an electrical surge protector between the equipment and outlet.

7. Place an antenna lead to a switch enabling the shunting circuit to ground.

8. Cover the radio to protect it from dust.

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Bandwidth Selection

The transceiver is equipped with a function key. As you operate the function key,

you can select the desired bandwidth.

Before you start, take these precautions:

1. Ensure that power supply connections are securely made and proper polarity is

available.

2. Make sure that the antennas are connected to the correct pigtails on the trans-

ceiver (mostly on the rear).

The basic steps required to begin an operation are:

1. Turn the transceiver on.

2. Set the band on which you want to operate.

3. Adjust the volume level of the audio.

4. Adjust the operating frequency.

Some Points for Beginners

“Nothing worth knowing can be understood with the mind.”~ Woody Allen

‘To Listen’ Is the Phrase

As in intrapersonal communications, listening is the most powerful and important

way for a beginner to start. This way, one can learn the techniques of many hardcore

amateurs. Listening to air contacts is called “reading the mail.” There is no secrecy in

ham communications - they are open and public.

Contacting Your Nearest Club

Once you decide to join this hobby, take full advantage of the opportunities it of-

fers. Meet as many people as possible in the nearest club. They will certainly help you.

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Hams often find great joy in helping the beginners. Such people are known as

“Elmers.” An Elmer knows the stuff required to pass the test and will often help you to

prepare.

Finding One in the Same Boat

Find a friend who is just like you, at the bottom of the learning curve. Meet them

on air and enjoy the proceedings together. If you do not have a club near you (to take

the test or meet an Elmer), contact the ARRL Development office at

www.arrl.org/development. They will have the information you need.

Know Your Equipment

A lot of equipment is available on the market. Depending on the price, such

equipment differs from one another on performance and capabilities. It’s always best to

consult with your elmer, regarding the purchase of any advanced equipment. Equipment

manuals can assist with the understanding of your instrument. Demos or tutorials are

available so do not hesitate to check them out. Keep the manual ready for any quick

reference.

Use All Resources

Internet forums are available. Just join the forum and you can get many valuable

tips. One such help group is http://groups.yahoo.com/group/hamradiohelpgroup/

Practice Courtesy

Accustom yourself with the practice of saying polite words like "Please,"

"Thanks," "Excuse me,” and "Sorry." This way you can earn the goodwill of your co-

operators.

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Be Cool

Of course, it’s possible that, no one responds to your CQ (general call sent by

one station to any other station). Relax and try again. Also some technical hiccups can

occur. Through practice you will be able to rectify minor issues. You can almost always

get help from your buddies regarding these.

Ham and Phonetics

During radio operations, at times the signals may be weak. This makes it difficult

for the person to comprehend the words completely. This problem sometimes necessi-

tates hams to spell out certain words, for example, a name. If you try this using the Eng-

lish alphabet, it can cause greater confusion. If you try to spell your name using the let-

ters alone, a listener may misinterpret one letter for another. So instead of spelling out

with letters, use words known as phonetics, which have been chosen specially for serv-

ing our purpose.

The standard alphabet is: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel,

India, Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango,

Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

There are also some standards for the pronunciation of numbers and numerals.

In order to avoid confusion with numbers such as 50 and 15, you have to speak each

digit separately. According to standards, you should spell decimal to represent decimal

point. If you want to say 15.100 MHz, you should say the words, “one five decimal one

zero zero.”

Operation Using Computers The use of computers in ham radio operations have enthused the younger gen-

eration. A computer is connected to a terminal node controller and a transceiver for a

packet radio operation. The terminal node controller has a modem similar to the modem

used for Internet connections. The TNC also utilizes firmware. It is this firmware that

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converts computer data into packets of digital information, which is then sent across the

packet radio network.

This firmware is called PAD or packet assembler. This unit captures incoming

and outgoing data and encapsulates it into packets of data. This data can be sent to

and from a data radio or transceiver. The enter key of the keyboard can also function as

the push to talk facility in the normal ham radio operation.

Satellites

This is an area which excites many hams. There are many small satellites orbit-

ing the earth, which are made and operated by radio amateurs worldwide. AMSAT is the

global organization, which organizes satellite construction and lobbies for spare space

on commercial launch vehicles. Communication can be made by Morse code, voice, or

pocket radio over very large distances with the help of these satellites.

The easiest satellites to use are the low orbit ones as they can be availed with

low power and modest antennas. Russian RS series and South Africa’s Sunsat (SO-35)

are low orbited satellites. As the sensitivity of these satellites is superior, even operation

from buses, trains and trams becomes possible! These low orbit satellites have short

pass-times and they are quite good for communication up to a few thousand kilometers

while the other satellites would require more powerful and bigger antennas. But they of-

fer worldwide communication.

Amateur Radio on Boats

"My mom said she learned how to swim when someone took her out in the lake and threw her off the boat. I said, 'Mom, they weren't trying to teach you how to swim.'"~ Paula Poundstone, comedian

Amateur radio is quite popular among the yachting and small boat community. It

is used to provide general communications and for receiving weather information. How-

ever certain restrictions may exist when operating within the territorial limits of another

country.

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Hams also operate a lot of “maritime nets" through which information of common

interest to mariners, such as weather, is exchanged. Different digital modes like SITOR/

AMTOR, radio teletype (RTTY), PACTOR I, PACTOR II, PACTOR III, PSK31 are nor-

mally used.

Here’s a quick glance at some of the terms used for propagation on a boat.

Pactor -- It is a mode that uses both upper and lower case characters and tele-

prints over radio with the help of a code. Pactor is a combination of amtor (amateur

teleprinting over radio) and packet. Common modes are Pactor I and Pactor II.

TNC -- TNC is the short form for terminal node controller. It is comparable to a

radio modem.

PTT -- PTT stands for push to talk. It is what makes your radio transmit.

SOFTWARE -- A type of software is used to make a cruising e-mail work. This is

freely available on the Internet.

ISP/RADIO E-MAIL PROVIDER -- It is with the help of a radio e-mail provider

that actual access takes place.

Signal Reports (the RST code)Signal reports are used for gauging the strength of the receiving signals. Codes

as given in the table are utilized for conveying the strength of the signal.

READABILITY SIGNAL STRENGTH TONE

R1 Unreadable S1 Faint signals T1 Extremely rough

R2 S2 T2

R3 Readable with difficulty S3 Weak signals T3 Rough

R4 S4 T4

R5 Perfectly readable S5 Fairly good signals T5 Modulated (warble)

S6 T6

S7 Moderately strong signals T7 Slight ripple

S8 T8

S9 Extremely strong signals T9 Pure note

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International Q-Code (Extract)

QRG What is my exact frequency?

QRH Does my frequency vary?

QRI What is the tone of my transmission?

QRK What is the readability of my signals?

QRL Are you busy?

QRM Are you being interfered with?

QRN Are you troubled by static?

QRO Shall I increase power?

QRP Shall I decrease power?

QRQ Shall I send faster?

QRS Shall I send more slowly?

QRT Shall I stop sending?

QRU Have you anything for me?

QRV Are you ready?

QRX When will you call me again?

QRZ Who is calling me?

QSA What is the strength of my signals?

QSB Are my signals fading?

QSD Is my keying defective?

QSL Can you give me acknowledgment of receipt?

QSO Can you communicate with..... direct (or by relay) ?

QSP Will you relay to....?

QSV Shall I send a series of V's ?

QSY Shall I change to another frequency?

QSZ Shall I send each word more than once?

QTH What is your location?

QTR What is the correct time?

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Continuous Wave Transmitter

The continuous wave is used for the transmission of pulses of RF energy for cre-

ating Morse code characters. This type of transmission is also called interrupted con-

tinuous wave transmission. The advantage of cw transmission is that it requires a nar-

row bandwidth and less output power. Even severe noise conditions will not hamper the

transmission.

A cw transmitter facilitates the transmission with the help of a generator, ampli-

fier, keyer, and antenna. RF oscillations are generated and are then amplified. The os-

cillator generates the RF carrier at a specified frequency. The oscillator outputs are then

amplified many times in order to equip them to radiate over long distances.

Web Sites for Buying Equipment and Electronic Circuits

www.hamradio.com

www.discountfamilyradios.com

www.unadilla.com

http://www.advancedspecialties.net

http://www.burnabyradio.com

http://www.comdac.com

http://www.hamtronics.com

Buying Old Equipment

‘Old is gold’ goes the saying. Many people prefer to go for old and used equip-

ment. The following web sites offer details of used ham radio equipment suppliers.

http://hometown.aol.co.uk/oldradioparts/front.htm

http://www.ac6v.com/components.htm

http://archives.radioattic.com/features/started.htm

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The following list provides some of the addresses of old equipment and spare

part dealers. They carry a variety of merchandise for collectors and restorers of vintage

radio/phono/TV/jukeboxes. Catalogs or inventory lists are available from all of them.

Following this list is a directory of commonly needed items, with additional sources:

Antique Electronic Supply6221 S. Maple AveTempe, AZ 85283Tel: 480-820-5411

Contact Daily ElectronicsP.O. Box 5029Compton, CA 90224Tel: 800-346-6667 (Orders)Tel: 213-774-1255 (Tech)

Don Diers4276 North 50 Street #SC3Milwaukee, WI 53216-1313

DNF6690 7 Mile RoadSouth Lyon, MI 48178

Electron Tube EnterprisesBox 8311Essex, VT 05451Tel: 802-879-1844Fax: 802-879-7764

Fair Radio SalesMilitary Surplus Electronics2395 St Johns RdPO Box 1105Lima, OH 45802Phone: 419-227-6573, 419-223-2196Fax: 419-227-1313www.fairradio.com

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Kirby298 West Carmel DriveCarmel, IN 46032

Lippert N61W15889 EdgemontMeno Fls, WI 53051

New Tube Co.P.O. Box 202Middle Village, NY 11379Tel: 718-894-2131

Quest Electronics, Inc.5715 W. 11th AvenueDenver, CO 80214303-274-7545 Voice 303-274-2317 [email protected] email

Steinmetz Electronics7519 Maplewood Avenue,Hammond, IN 46324Tel: 219-931-9316

Michael C. MarxSND Tube Sales908 Caulks Hill RoadSt. Charles, MO 63304 Phone 636-939-9190 24 Hour Fax 636-922-0601 E-mail: [email protected]

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Sometimes it happens that one may inherit all of this equipment. But it will not be

of any use unless it is fully operational. In such cases, you may be able to get help from

the local radio club.

The Statistics of Ham Radio Users

“I think there is a world market for maybe five computers.”~ Thomas Watson, IBM chairman, 1943

Statistics relating to the number of users in the U.S. can be found at:

http://www.users.crosspaths.net/wallio/LICENSE.html

Making of a Simple QRP Rig

Many free resources are available on the Net for those who want to experience

the thrill of making their own QRP rigs. One such site is:

http://www.geocities.com/pa2ohh/index.html, which gives a complete explanation for

making it very simple. Those who want to go mobile can have a look at

http://www.installer.com/pics/instpics.html for more information.

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Chapter 2

Basics of Radio Wave TransmissionMode of Radio Wave Transmission

"The wireless music box has no imaginable commercial value. Who would pay for a message sent to nobody in particular?" ~ David Sarnoff's associates in response to his urgings for investment in the radio in the 1920s

The electromagnetic energy mainly takes two forms to reach a receiving an-tenna. It either takes the shape of the ground waves or it navigates as sky waves. Ground waves travel near the surface of the earth. Radio waves that are reflected back to the earth’s surface from the ionosphere are known as sky waves. To put it simply, the surface wave travels along the surface of the earth, while the space wave travels over the surface. A surface wave is not affected by the shape of the land, thanks to the phe-nomenon of diffraction. As described elsewhere, it takes a bend, when hindered by an obstacle. The surface wave along its journey over the surface induces a voltage in the earth. This causes a loss of energy of the wave. This loss of energy is reduced by polar-izing the wave before transmission.

The space wave has two ways to reach its destination. The first route is through the direct journey through the air from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. The second way is through the reflection from the ground to the receiving antenna. This is demonstrated in the figure below. As the space wave takes two paths of different lengths reaching the receiving site, there is a possibility that the signal will fade. If the waves reach out of phase, the signal may also fade. On the other hand, if they reach in phase, the signal will be a strong one.

Propagation of VHF Signal

VHF and UHF radio signals often travel in straight lines to all possible directions. If there are no obstructions on its path, the signal can travel very long distances. But presence of obstructions may weaken the signals. Since the earth’s surface is curved, there are some limitations for these waves. They will not bend around the curvature of the earth and will get lost in space, due to its propagation in straight lines. Because of

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this characteristic, VHF/UHF propagation is described as line of sight propagation. They can travel as far as human eye can see the horizon.

Reflection of VHF/UHF Signals

These signals are reflected when they are obstructed by metal objects. Depend-ing upon the area of the objecting surface, the amount of reflection also varies. Large metal objects such as an aircraft or a large metal building reflect these waves signifi-cantly. The property of these signals is considered an advantage in large cities, wheresome other signals would have been blocked.

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The Process of Ionization in the Ionosphere

The region of atmosphere that extends from 30 miles to about 250 miles is rightly

called ionosphere due to the presence of electrically charged gas atoms called ions.

The ultraviolet rays from the sun collide with gas atoms and hurl an electron from the

atom. This gives the atom a positive charge and it then coexists with the negative

charged free electron in space. This process is known as ionization. The presence of

many such free ions and electrons leads to the formation of an ionized layer.

An exact reverse happens thereafter, which reinstates the old position again.

The positive ion and the electron collide with each other thus giving the old neutral

status to the positive ions. Depending upon the time of the day, these combination and

recombination processes compete against each other. Whenever the rate of ionization

exceeds the recombination process, the density of the ionized layers increases, greatly

affecting the radio waves.

"Everything that can be invented has been invented." ~ Charles H. Duell, Commissioner, U.S. Office of Patents, 1899

The Ionosphere Layers

The charged particles in the ionosphere create four distinct layers, within the

ionosphere. These groups are again classified into two categories. One is present when

the earth’s surface is bright and the other in darkness (when the earth’s surface is hid-

den from the sun).

The four layers are F1, F2, E and D. During the night, the two F layers combine

to form one layer. The E and D layers are absent during night hours.

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The F Layer

Worldwide amateur radiations are possible, thanks to the F layer. As the radio

signal strikes this layer, it is bent back at an angle towards the earth without any signifi-

cant energy loss. The F layer splits into two layers, F1 and F2, during daytime. F1 is the

inner one and F2 is the outer one. Much of the refraction during daytime happens in F2

layer.

The E Layer

The E layer exists only during the daylight and is found between the F and D lay-

ers. At very high frequencies, some refraction occurs in the E layer. As this is sporadic

in nature, this phenomenon is known as sporadic-E.

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The D Layer

This layer, which is closest to the earth, is found only during daytime. The main

characteristic of this layer is that it absorbs both medium and high frequency radio

waves instead of refracting them. Sometimes the level of absorption is too large and the

communication of radio waves may not happen for a short period.

This ionization affects another phenomenon in the ionosphere called refraction.

Refraction is affected when there is an abrupt change of velocity of the upper part of the

radio wave as it enters a new medium. The factors, such as the frequency of the radio

waves, the density of the ionization of the layer, and the angle at which the wave enters

the layer, decide the quantum of refraction.

The figure depicts the effect of ionization densities on refraction. An ionized layer

itself is divided into different regions according to densities. We will dissect the three

layers one by one.

As the wave enters the bottom layer, it is entering a region of high degree ioniza-

tion. The sudden change in the velocity of the upper part causes it to bend towards the

earth. At the center portion, as the density of ionization is uniform, the refraction effects

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are less. As it again enters the area of lesser density, the wave is bent away from the

earth.

Critical Frequency

As the wave enters an ionospheric layer, there is a possibility for the wave to get

refracted or to get lost in space. For a given layer, there is a maximum frequency at

which the radio waves can be transmitted vertically and get returned to earth. This fre-

quency is termed as critical frequency.

The waves with higher frequencies than the critical frequency will be lost in

space. From the figure, we can observe that for lower frequencies the waves get re-

fracted more sharply. The highest frequency wave, which is of higher frequency than the

critical frequency of the ionized layer, gets lost in space.

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Chapter 3

The Factors Affecting Radio Wave Transmission

“640K ought to be enough for anybody.” ~ Bill Gates, 1981

Factors Affecting Radio Waves

The radio waves along their journey from the transmitting antenna to the receiv-ing antenna are affected by a lot of factors.

Absorption

As the radio waves travel through the ionosphere, the current conditions greatly influence the radio waves. The absorption causes a lot of energy drain and makes the signal weak. Absorption occurs predominantly in the region of higher ionization density. The radio waves entering into the ionosphere lose some of their energy to the free elec-trons and ions. When these ions and free electrons collide with other particles much of the energy is lost into the atmosphere.

Fading

Another factor that hinders the flow of radio waves is fading. This is due to many conditions. One of them is refraction. Refraction causes polarization of the wave and this in turn causes fading. Absorption of energy in the ionosphere is another reason.

The figure below explains the process of multi-path fading.

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Due to various atmospheric properties, radio waves may reach the same destina-

tion in different paths. These paths can be ground waves, waves affected due to iono-

spheric refraction, reflected waves from the ionosphere, and so on. The figure de-

scribes the different possibilities by which a radio wave can reach destination A. Here,

the end result is that the waves can reach out of phase at the receiver thus causing

weak signals. This is known as multi-path fading.

Losses Due to Ground Reflection

If a radio wave along its passage gets reflected from the earth’s surface, then

some amount of energy may be lost. Factors such as frequency of the wave and ground

irregularities determine the extent of loss.

Free Space Loss

When waves are transmitted, the wave front starts spreading out. When the dis-tance of travel increases, the spreading of the wave front also increases. This means

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that the amount of energy in a fixed area also reduces. As the wave front reaches the receiving antenna, only a small area of the wave front is covered by the antenna.

Electromagnetic Interference

The electromagnetic interferences also can create havoc in radio communica-tions. These are due to either man made interference or natural interference.

Man made interference can happen from a variety of reasons. Some are related

to devices, which generate radio frequency energy. The extent of man made interfer-ence may vary largely throughout the day and may be reduced at night. If a lot of de-vices are used in areas such as industrial estates, the signals absorbed by a receiver at that particular location may become very feeble.

Natural interferences are caused by natural phenomena, such as thunderstorms, cosmic sources, snowstorms, and the sun. All of these can cause energy radiations and may propagate almost in manner similar to radio waves. The reception of these radia-tions in the receiving antenna can cause distraction to the radio waves. As this does not affect above the frequency of 30 MHz, this will have little effect on amateur bands.

The electromagnetic interference can be controlled or eliminated by various methods such as the use of directional antennas.

Radio Waves and Weather

Weather changes can affect the radio propagation to a certain extent by leading to the weakening or attenuation of the radio waves. Raindrops are capable of absorbing some power from the radio waves and this power is then scattered away in the form of heat. Fog can also cause problems to the radio waves. Fog is suspended in the atmos-phere. The amount of water per unit volume determines the quantum of hindrance caused by the fog.

Ducting

Normally, warm air is found near the surface of the earth. As the altitude in-

creases, the air becomes cooler. Sometimes an abnormal situation occurs, as a layer of

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warm air is formed above the layers of cool air. This is referred to as temperature inver-

sion. This results in the formation of channels or ducts of cool air between the surface of

warm air and earth or between two layers of warm air. These ducts trap the radio waves

(which would otherwise bleed out into space) and guide them along the surface of the

earth. This process is known as ducting. When this happens, the radio waves will travel

more distance than usual.

Earth Moon Earth

Earth Moon Earth or EME is a fascinating part of amateur radio communications.

Through this process a ham attempts to direct the signal towards the moon so that a

fellow ham can receive the moon- echoes. In order to make this happen, one must have

very sensitive equipment with powered amplifiers and a large antenna system. This is

because the echoes become extremely feeble. The process is known as path loss.

Satellite

One can communicate with another station through a satellite, if both the stations

are in the view of the satellite at the same time. When the satellite is low to the horizon,

the required power will be higher as the distance to the satellite is very large.

Sunspots

The sunspot cycle is a phenomenon that extends to a period of 11 years. Every

five and half years, the sun reaches a low in sunspots and during the next five and a

half years the sun’s surface is dotted with hundreds of spots. When the number of sun-

spots increases, the quantum of solar energy increases, thus making the ionosphere

heavily charged. During this period, when the number of sunspots is high, the HF

propagation also improves.

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Chapter 4

Transmission Theory

“Success always occurs in private, and failure in full view.”~ Anonymous

Transfer of Radio Waves from the Transmitter to the Antenna

The energy waves from the transmitter cannot be carried using the ordinary elec-

trical wire without energy loss. Transmission lines are used for this purpose. As the an-

tennas are normally located a distance from the instrument, the transmission lines are

necessary for carrying the energy from the radio room to the antenna.

The transmission line has two ends. The end connected to the transmitter or the

source is called the input end. The end connected to the antenna is called the output

end.

Transmission lines are mainly categorized into two types, balanced and unbal-

anced lines. Balanced lines consist of two parallel wires each capable of carrying radio

waves. The unbalanced lines have only one wire to carry the signals.

The advantage of the coaxial line is that it matches the impedance of most com-

mercially made ham radios. Also, there is no problem in placing the cables near metal

objects due to the presence of the shield around the wire.

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The transmission line can also be expressed in terms of its impedance. Input im-pedance is the ratio of voltage to the current at the input end. This impedance is con-tributed to the transmitter by the transmission line and antenna. The ratio of voltage to the current at the output end is known as output impedance. This impedance is contrib-uted to the load by the transmission line and its source.

Transmission Line Theory

The electrical properties of two-wire transmission lines are mostly influenced by the construction of the line. The two-wire line functions like a long capacitor. Since long conductors also possess a magnetic field around them, they show the properties of in-ductance. The inductive and capacitive reactance depends on the applied frequency. A conductance value also may be present, which is the value of the current flow that is expected through the insulation.

Lumped Constants

A transmission line also exhibits the properties of inductance, capacitance, and resistance just like the ordinary circuits. In practice, the constants in conventional cir-cuits are lumped into a single device or component. For example, two metal plates separated by a small space can be used to supply the required capacitance for a circuit. Similarly a coil of wire has the property of inductance. Considering the ideal case, a transmission line would also have its constants of inductance, capacitance, and resis-tance lumped together, as shown in the figure.

But in practice, this is not the case. Transmission line constants are distributed.

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Distributed Constants

The distributed constants in the transmission lines are spread along the entire

length of the transmission line and cannot be distinguished separately. Factors like the

length of the line, the size of the conducting wires, the spacing between the wires, and

the dielectric (air or insulating medium) between the wires determines the amount of in-

ductance, capacitance, and resistance in the line.

Inductance of a Transmission Line

The flow of current through a wire induces some magnetic lines of force in the

wire. The change in the value of the amplitude of the current induces a change in the

field also. This produces a certain amount of inductance, which is expressed in micro

Henry per unit length.

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Capacitance of a Transmission Line

Capacitance is also present in between the transmission line wires. The two par-

allel wires function as the plates of a capacitor and the air between them acts as a di-

electric. The electric field thus formed between the wires is similar to the field that exists

between the two plates of a capacitor.

Resistance of a Transmission Line

As shown above, the transmission line has electrical resistance along its length.

This resistance is expressed in ohms per unit length.

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DC Applied to a Transmission Line

In the above figure, a battery is connected to a load through a transmission line.

When the switch is open, both current and voltage become nonexistent on the line. As

the switch is closed, point A becomes positive and point B becomes negative. This po-

tential difference soon migrates to A’ and B’. This causes an electric field as well as a

magnetic field. The moving electric field and the accompanying magnetic field together

constitute an electromagnetic wave that is moving from the generator (battery) toward

the load. This energy that reaches the load is equal to that developed at the battery.

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AC Applied to a Transmission Line

The figure above explains how the things will change when an ac generator re-

places a battery. The instantaneous values of the generated voltage are propagated to

the other end, one after the other. Here the difference is that the applied voltage is sinu-

soidal, not a constant one.

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Chapter 5

Antenna

“If you can’t beat your computer at chess, try kickboxing.”~ Anonymous

Antennas

An antenna is a vital ingredient in any radio transmission system. RF signals

produced by a transmitter should be transferred to the space for a successful transmis-

sion. The device used for this purpose is known as antenna. A transmitting antenna

sends the signal into space, which is later absorbed by a receiving antenna. The trans-

mission of RF energy is done in the form of electromagnetic field. The receiving an-

tenna absorbs the electromagnetic field and voltage is induced in the antenna. The re-

ceiver then converts this electromagnetic radiation back into RF energy.

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The Basic Antenna

Antennas hold a vital place in radio communication. An antenna consists of a

conductor or a set of conductors, which either radiates or collects electromagnetic en-

ergy. A radio frequency energy produced by a transmitter is carried to an antenna

through a transmission line. The antenna transforms this energy into radio waves that

propagate in space at the speed of the light. This wave continues to travel until it is ei-

ther reflected or absorbed by an object. If the obstructing object is another antenna, it

absorbs part of the radio waves and transforms it into energy. This energy is carried

away to a receiver through another transmission line. The basic components of a com-

munication system are:

1) Transmitting equipment

2) Transmission line

3) Transmitting antenna

4) Medium

5) Receiving antenna

6) Receiving equipment

The two basic fields associated with every antenna are induction field and radia-

tion field. The induction field, which is the field related with the energy stored in the an-

tenna, has no hand in the transmission of electromagnetic energy, although radiation of

energy is not possible without the induction field.

Antennas are basically classified into two types. They are Hertz antennas and

Marconi antennas. Hertz antennas are generally located at a distance above the ground

and are capable of radiating vertically and horizontally. Marconi antennas are located

perpendicular to Earth, one end of it being grounded. While Hertz antennas are used for

frequencies above 2 MHz, Marconi antennas are used for frequencies below 2 MHz.

The main parts of an antenna are the coupling device, the feeder, and the antenna.

The transmitters and feeders are connected using the coupling device. The transmis-

sion line that caries the energy to the antenna is known as the feeder. The characteristic

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of the antenna depends on the frequency of the transmitting operation, the amount of

the power to be radiated, and the direction of the receiving set.

Energy Distribution on an Antenna

Electromagnetic radiation is based on two laws. First, a moving electric field cre-

ates a magnetic field. The second is that a moving magnetic field creates an electric

field. At any moment, these two fields will be perpendicular to each other.

A high-frequency generator is attached to a half cut wire. The set frequency of

the generator is such that each half of the wire is one-fourth the wavelength of the out-

put. The system thus produced is known as a dipole, which is a common type of an-

tenna. At a given instant, the left side of the generator is negative and the right side is

positive. As a result, the electrons will flow away from the negative terminal and will be

attracted to the positive terminal. The amplitude of the flowing current will be varying

with the generated voltage. The charge distribution will be of sine wave pattern. After

every half cycle, the polarity of the charges will be reversed. The sinusoidal variation of

charge lags the sinusoidal variation of the current by one-fourth the cycle.

Radio Wave ModulationThe functioning of a radio may be a perplexing thing to a beginner. Your voice

produced in front of a microphone is heard using another radio, which is placed at a dif-

ferent location. How does this happen?

Modulation is the process of merging a radio signal with an information signal.

That means that for modulation to happen a carrier must be there. It is this carrier signal

that delivers this information to the desired destination.

Morse Code Modulation

Morse code turns off and on an RF carrier in order to transmit a simple code al-

phabet. This is also known as continuous wave (CW).

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Radiation of Electromagnetic Energy

The E field and the H field of an electromagnetic energy will be 90 degrees out of

phase with each other. As the energy wave traverses a greater distance, the energy

spreads out over a greater area and decreases as the distance traversed increases.

Consider that an alternating current is applied at the starting point X of a wire,

which extends up to Y. The wave will pass through the wire until point Y. The end Y is

free and because of that the wave is unable to travel further. This wave will then reflect

back and travel to the starting point. Here also, it gets reflected and the process re-

peats. As this to and fro motion continues, the energy of the wave will be gradually lost

by the resistance of the wire. But each time when it reaches the starting point X, the lost

energy will be reinforced. This results in the continuous oscillation of energy along the

wire. These oscillations are then applied to the antenna at a rate equivalent to the fre-

quency of the f voltage. The waves travel at a rate of 300,000,000 meters per second.

The antenna length should be made in such a way that one to and fro motion of the

wave should happen during one cycle of the RF voltage. The maximum movement of

electrons always happens at the center of the antenna. Due to this, the center of the an-

tenna is always at low impedance and this condition is called the standing wave of the

current. The points having high current and voltage are called as current and voltage

loops. The point of minimum current and voltage is called as Nodes.

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Antenna Gain

Most of the antennas are highly directional. This means that more energy is radi-

ated in certain directions compared to other directions.

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Antenna Reciprocity

As we have already described at the transmitting stage, electrical energy is con-

verted into the electromagnetic energy and consequently radiated into space. At the re-

ceiving antenna, electromagnetic energy is converted into electrical energy. The same

antenna can be used in both the cases without any loss of efficiency. This property of

the interchangeability of the antenna for both transmitting and receiving is known as an-

tenna reciprocity.

Radiation Resistance

Radiated energy is lost in heating the antenna wire. Considering radiation, if the

assumed resistance is actually present, it would dissipate the same quantity of power

the antenna takes to radiate the energy. This assumed resistance is named as radiation

resistance.

Isotropic Radiation

Some of the antennas radiate equal amount of energy in all directions. This type

of radiation is known as isotropic radiation. This is often compared to the radiation pat-

tern from the sun. Sun radiates equal amounts of energy in all directions.

Anisotropic Radiation

Radiations produced by most radiators can be found to have higher intensity in

one direction. These types of radiators are referred to as anisotropic radiators. The ordi-

nary flashlight is the best example of an anisotropic radiator.

Antenna Loading

The same antenna system can be used for transmitting and receiving signals

having different frequencies. For this to happen, the antenna should either be physically

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or electrically lengthened or shortened. Making physical changes are not that practical.

That necessitates the reduction or enlargement of the electrical length. This is done by

inserting either a capacitor or an inductor in series with the antenna. The process is

known as loading.

“Work is a necessary evil to be avoided.”~ Mark Twain, writer

Antenna Positioning

Special care should be taken to locate the antenna well above the ground keep-

ing it away from any tall buildings, trees, electrical power conductors, telephone and

telegraph wires, and other metal objects that will absorb the energy. Better results can

be obtained by hoisting it to the maximum possible height.

The antenna and the output stage of the transmitter have certain impedance in

them. Maximum possible energy transfer from a source to the load is possible only

when the impedance is matched. That means that the output impedance of the transmit-

ter should match the input impedance of the antenna. A co-axial cable is used by most

amateurs because of its properties of maximum efficiency and minimum loss of energy.

RG-59/U is a small co-axial cable having an impedance of 73 Ohms.

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Other stations often judge the performance of an amateur station from

the strength of the signal they hear. This enunciates the importance of an ef-

fective antenna system.

Types of Different Antennas

Most of us have a misconception that if the length of antenna is more, than the

energy radiated by it will also be on the higher. But this is not the case. Antenna should have specific dimensions for effective operation. The basic Hertz antenna has a length

of half its wavelength. This is also called as a dipole or a doublet. The basic Marconi an-

tenna has a length one-fourth its wavelength.

Half–wave Antennas

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A half-wave antenna (Hertz, dipole or doublet) is made up of two lengths of tub-

ing, each having one-fourth of wavelength at a particular frequency. This antenna is ca-

pable of operating at a distance above the ground surface. For a half-wave antenna,

the current is maximum at the center and minimum at the ends. Voltage is minimum at

the center and maximum at the ends.

Quarter–wave Antennas

A grounded quarter-wave antenna can be obtained by cutting a half-wave an-

tenna and then grounding one end well. The antenna thus obtained will resonate with

the same frequency as the ungrounded half wavelength antenna. Most of the mobile

transmitting and receiving antennas are quarter-wave (Marconi) antennas.

Horizontal Dipole

The beginners often start with this antenna, as it is easy to construct. It

gives excellent results in H.F bands. The most attractive thing is that it requires

only two points to hook it up. The height can be above 30 feet, and the higher

the better. This is considered a basic antenna.

The length in feet is calculated using the formula, 468/f MHz. An insula-

tor is used in the center after cutting it into two halves. The maximum radiation

is in the broadside of the axis and least along the axis line. The materials of the

dipole are easily available. Dipole can be used for both local as well as Dx.

Inverted V

The difference between the inverted V and the dipole is that the center is raised

to a height comparing with the ends. The length of the inverted V in feet can be calcu-

lated using the formula, 464/f MHz. The angle between two halves must be between 90

and 120 degrees.

The radiating part of a vertical antenna is called the radiator. Normally copper

wire or aluminum tubing is used for the radiator.

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“If it’s the Psychic Network, why do they need a phone number?”~ Robin Williams, comedian

Folded Dipole

A folded dipole is similar to an ordinary half-wave antenna with one or more addi-

tional conductors connected across its ends. Additional conductors are placed at a dis-

tance which will be equal to a fraction of its wavelength. The spacings are materialized

using standard feed-line spreaders. The folded dipole is used over a wider frequency

range than that of a simple dipole.

Directional Antennas

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A directional antenna focuses or directs radio energy in a specific direction. As a

result of this the stations on the directed sides will be getting strong signals when com-

pared to those on the opposite sides. That means that the directional antenna propa-

gates the energy more in one direction at the cost of a weak radiation on the rear side.

Parasitic Antenna

The parasitic antennas are defined as the antennas, in which the radio energy is

obtained in some elements by the induction or radiation from the driven element. Direc-

tional antennas are example of the parasitic antenna. Yagi and quad fall under this

category.

Yagi Antenna

Yagi antenna consists of many dipoles, one shorter from the other. Refer to the

figure given below. Reflectors, radiators, and directors are the parts of a yagi antenna.

The elements are not placed uniformly thus causing an uneven spacing between the

elements. The reflector and director are usually found welded to a conducting tube. The

radiations from different elements will be in phase in the forward direction, but may not

be in phase in other directions. A higher number of parasitic elements guarantees more

gain, but may lead to a narrow frequency response.

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One Antenna for Different Bands

You can make an antenna for different bands. Those who are interested in mak-

ing antennas for all bands can locate resources on the web.

• � To build a sturba curtain antenna for all bands, visit this page:

http://www.hamuniverse.com/sturba.html

• � The following url contains a detailed study to use a patch array for different

bandwidths with varied patch lengths and a low loss PCB material:

http://www.itn.liu.se/~shago/Publications/UWB_antenna.pdf

A lot of resources on quad antennas are available at

http://www.dxzone.com/catalog/ Technical_Reference/Antennas/Quad/ - 30k

http://members.fortunecity.com/xe1bef/10meters-antenna.htm

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Terminology Used in Array Antennas

Driven Element

A driven element is the element connected directly to the transmission line. It is

almost similar to the dipole. While transmitting, it receives the power directly from the

transmitter. Similarly, while receiving, it delivers the absorbed energy directly to the re-

ceiver.

Parasitic Element

A parasitic element is placed near the driven element, from which it derives the

power. When a parasitic element produces maximum energy radiation in a direction

away from itself but towards a parasitic element, it is called a reflector.

Driven Array

When all the elements in an array are driven, it is referred to as a driven array.

Bi-directional Array

A bi-directional array directs in the opposite directions along the line of maximum

radiation.

Unidirectional Array

A unidirectional array directs only in one direction.

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Chapter 6

Ham Radio License

“Never go to a doctor whose office plants have died.”~ Erma Bombeck, author

FCC

The FCC regulates amateur radio under the jurisdiction of the United States of

America. This agency can impose fines or even take away licenses if someone is not

following the rules. Licenses are required due to many security aspects involved in radio

communications.

Control Operator

An amateur station is the place where a station facilitated for the amateur radio

transmissions is located. A licensed amateur who is completely responsible for the sta-

tion transmissions is called a control operator.

Amateur Radio License

Any individual who intends to operate a ham radio station in the U.S, should hold

a license from the FCC, prior to his or her initiation to the world of ham radio. The li-

cense is renewed every 10 years. Where can you find the information you’d need to

study for the test? Most of the information is right here in this book.

License Classes

Just as there is no one driver’s license, amateur radio also has different types of

licenses. The FCC has three license classes. One should begin with a technician class

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operator license and then graduate to higher classes. There is no possibility of starting

out in a higher class. Naturally, lower classes offer fewer privileges than higher ones.

Type of Classes Offered Privileges Eligibility Requirements

Technician Class Have full liberty to use VHF and UHF spectrum 30 MHz.

Passing a 35 question exam is mandatory.

Technician with Morse

Code

Limited privileges in Morse code and voice in the HF spectrum.

A five wpm Morse code exam and a passing grade in the previous exam.

General Class Limited access to all the HF amateur bands with Morse code, data and voice modes.

A 35 question exam (requires that you have passed the technician and Morse code exams already).

Amateur Full amateur privileges. Possess a general class license and

Extra pass a 50 question exam.

Renewal of the License

A license is valid for 10 years. After the 10 years, a further two years are allowed

for renewal although the amateur radio privileges cease to exist during this period. After

the renewal of the license, one can operate a station. According to the FCC, it is best to

renew the license 90 days prior to the expiration date.

Changes Made by the FCC in 2000

The FCC made changes based on three aspects. The number of operator li-

censes was reduced from six to three. The number of telegraphy examination elements

was reduced from three to one. The number of elements in the written examination was

reduced from five to three. There will be only one Morse code examination at a speed of

five words-per-minute (wpm). RACES station licenses were eliminated.

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Novices and Advanced Class licensees can still operate without any difficulty.

New Novice and Advanced Class licenses have not been issued since April 15, 2000.

All six license classes will still remain in the FCC database. However, the Novice, Tech

Plus, and Advanced Class will gradually cease as members renew or upgrade.

The Tech Plus operators can have their licenses renewed under Technician, but

they retain the exam credit indefinitely for the five words-per-minute Morse code. Gen-

erally speaking, all previous Novice operators and Technician Class operators (licensed

before February 14, 1991), even those with long-expired licenses, retain credit for the

five wpm Morse code exam. The importance of Morse code is greatly reduced. The top

speed in ham radio becomes five wpm.

None of the amateur license classes receive any additional frequency privileges

and no one lost privileges. The only exception is that Technician Class radio amateurs

licensed before March 21, 1987 could become General Class licensees after April 15,

2000 without further examination. A time may come soon, where Morse code is consid-

ered obsolete.

Expired License

If the time duration after the expiry of the license is less than two years, the li-

cense only needs to be renewed. The name, address and call sign of every amateur

remains in the FCC's database for a two year "grace period" beyond expiration. In case

the two year "grace period" is up, one must start all over again. There are two excep-

tions to this rule that apply only to Technical Class operators. These exceptions are:

One can retain credit for the Element 1 (5 wpm) telegraphy and Element 3 (gen-

eral written) examination if he/she has an expired FCC issued Technician Class opera-

tor license granted before March 21, 1987. That means, even though the license has

expired 10 years ago, the person still gets credit for Element 1 and 3. He or she would

merely have to pass Element 2 (Technician) and submit the expired Technician license

granted before March 21, 1987 (or other evidence) to the VE team to become a General

Class operator.

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One can retain credit for the Element 1 (5 wpm) telegraphy examination if he/she

has an expired FCC issued Technician Class operator license granted before February

14, 1991 or an expired Novice Class operator license issued at any time.

But one question remains unanswered. What is the necessity of a license at all? CB radio operators are not required to have one. The simple answer is that ham operators

can work at a power level of almost 375 times than that of a CB operator. Also, ham op-

erators can transmit across state and international barriers. This makes it mandatory to understand the international rules and regulations.

VHF/UHF Bands

“If it weren’t for Philo T. Farnsworth, inventor of television, we’d still be eating frozen radio dinners.” ~ Johnny Carson, comedian

The bandwidth assigned to a ham may differ in some respects from one country to another. This is done by the concerned body of the particular country (like FCC for

the U.S.) by going through a lot of aspects. This makes it impossible to have a common

frequency allotment in the international level. A technician with no Morse code license can operate on allowed frequency segments above 30 MHz. Most of the activity pertain-

ing to this segment will be limited to local areas. The amateur bands that can be used by a no code technician are given below. Note that the 13 cm band is divided into two

segments.

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50.0MHz_____________________54.0MHz 6 Meter Band VHF

144.0MHz___________________148.0MHz 2 Meter Band VHF

222.0MHz___________________225.0MHz 1.25 Meter Band VHF

420.0MHz___________________450.0MHz 70 centimeter Band UHF

902MHz______________________928MHz 33 centimeter Band UHF

1240MHz____________________1300MHz 23 centimeter Band UHF

2300~2310MHz_________ 2390~2450MHz 13 centimeter Band UHF

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The Technician with Morse Code HF Amateur Bands

3675kHz___________________ __3750kHz 80 Meter Band HF

7.1MHz______________________7.150MHz 40 Meter Band HF

21.100MHz__________________21.200MHz 15 Meter Band HF

28.100MHz__________________28.500MHz 10 Meter Band HF

VHF Bands

6m 50.0 - 50.1 MHz CW only

6m 50.1 - 54.0 MHz Phone emissions permitted, FM included

2m 144.0 - 144.1 MHz CW only

2m 144.1 - 148.0 MHz Phone permitted, FM included.

Image TransmissionsImage transmissions are the transmissions of still images or that of video images.

Fax and slow and fast scan television are some of the image transmission modes.

Hams often involve themselves in sharing their personal videos.

Station Licensee

If an individual is licensed and owns a radio, then he/she is the control operator

when he/she is using the radio. The location where the control operator functions is

called the control point. It is possible that the station licensee and the control operator

are two separate individuals. A control operator can be anyone who the station licensee

designates.

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Identification

Call sign is a sequence of letters and numbers the FCC provides for identifying a

station. This will be provided as soon as one is licensed. Call sign is a must for ham ra-dio operation. It is mandatory for an operator to identify his or her station every 10 min-

utes or at the end of the operation.

Third Party Communications

As implied by the name, third party communications are the communications sent between two amateur stations on the behalf of someone. A third party is the one who

has sent the message through two amateur stations. The policy of the FCC states that an amateur should never be paid for third party communications. When one allows a

third party to use his/her station, then he/she must closely monitor the transmission.

Third party messages to a foreign country can only be made if the U.S. has a

third party agreement with that government.

Frequency Sharing

Sometimes, it is possible that there are others in the same band. At certain in-

stances, the amateur radio operators share the band with other radio services. When

amateurs are the secondary users of a band, one must not interfere with the primary users of the band. This rule stands good for the fellow operators as well.

Power Limits

FCC has specified maximum possible power levels. The term coined for this pur-

pose is Peak Envelope Power or PEP. The maximum power output for technician grade is 1500 watts PEP. Maximum power output allowed to a technician with Morse code is

200 watts PEP.

One should always use the minimum required power. For example, if only a cer-tain amount of power is required for transmitting to a particular area, then do not use

more than the required power, because it is unnecessary wastage.

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LanguageAny language is permitted. There are many individuals who transmit in other lan-

guages like Japanese and Spanish.

Beacons

Beacons are special transmitters that work 24 hours a day to give information on

radio conditions and propagation characteristics. One must tune to a beacon frequency

and check whether a beacon signal is present. The presence of the signal confirms the

existence of a radio communication path between the location and the beacon.

Distress

Whenever there is a distress call on the radio, contact the person and the proper

authorities. It does not matter if the frequency is outside your license privileges.

MAYDAY and SOS are the words transmitted in case of an emergency. This

should be used for life or property threatening emergencies.

Transmission and Dummy Load

During repair, it may be required to operate the station for a while for the correct

diagnosis of the problem. Rather than using a live signal, technicians use a dummy

load around the antenna. A dummy load is nothing but a huge resistor which has the

ability to dissipate the radio signal as heat into the air.

Repeaters

As described earlier, most VHF-UHF bands have a line of sight transmission.

Due to this, VHF signals are easily blocked by mountains and hills. In order to avoid this

situation, a device known as a repeater is used to strengthen the signal. The signifi-

cance of repeaters is that they make it possible to transmit signals to very long dis-

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tances. The difference between the input and the output of a repeater is termed as off-

set.

The main rules pertaining to the amateur radio transmission are given below. Not know-ing the rules is no excuse.

“My father hated radio and could not wait for television to be invented so that he could hate that, too.”~ Peter De Vries, novelist

S 97.5 Station License Required

The person having physical control of the station apparatus must have been

granted a station license (detailed below) or hold an unexpired document (detailed be-

low) before the station may transmit on any amateur service frequency from any place

that is:

• � Within 50 km of the Earth's surface and at a place where the amateur service is

regulated by the FCC.

• � Within 50 km of the Earth's surface and aboard any vessel or craft that is

documented or registered in the United States.

• � More than 50 km above the Earth's surface aboard any craft that is docu-

mented or registered in the United States.

The types of station licenses are:

• � An operator/primary station license. One, but only one, operator/primary station

license is granted to each person who is qualified to be an amateur operator.

The primary station license is granted together with the amateur operator li-

cense. Except for a representative of a foreign government, any person who

qualifies by examination is eligible to apply for an operator/primary station li-

cense. The operator/primary station license document is printed on FCC Form

660.

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• � A club station license. A club station license is granted only to the person who is

the license trustee designated by an officer of the club. The trustee must be a

person who has been granted an Amateur Extra, Advanced, General, Techni-

cian Plus, or Technician operator license. The club must be composed of at

least two persons and must have a name, a document of organization, man-

agement, and a primary purpose devoted to amateur service activities consis-

tent with this Part. The club station license document is printed on FCC Form

660.

• � A military recreation station license. A military recreation station license is

granted only to the person who is the license custodian designated by the offi-

cial in charge of the United States military recreational premises where the sta-

tion is situated. The person must not be a representative of a foreign govern-

ment. The person need not have been granted an amateur operator license.

The military recreation station license document is printed on FCC Form 660.

• � A RACES station license. A RACES station license is granted only to the per-

son who is the license custodian designated by the official responsible for the

governmental agency served by that civil defense organization. The custodian

must be the civil defense official responsible for coordination of all civil defense

activities in the area concerned. The custodian must not be a representative of

a foreign government. The custodian need not have been granted an amateur

operator license. The RACES station license document is printed on FCC Form

660.

The types of documents are:

• � A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC Form 610-AL) issued to the

person by the FCC.

• � An amateur service license issued to the person by the Government of Canada.

The person must be a Canadian citizen.

• � A person who has been granted a station license of the type listed above or

who holds an unexpired document of the type listed above is authorized to use,

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in accordance with the FCC Rules, all transmitting apparatus under the physical

control of the station licensee at points where the amateur service is regulated

by the FCC.

S 97.7 Control Operator Required

When transmitting, each amateur station must have a control operator. The con-trol operator must be a person who has been granted an amateur operator/primary sta-

tion license, or who holds an unexpired document of the following types:

• � A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC Form 610-AL) issued to the

person by the FCC.

• � An amateur service license issued to the person by the Government of Canada.

The person must be a Canadian citizen.

“Maybe this world is another planet’s Hell.” ~ Aldous Huxley, writer

S 97.9 Operator License

The classes of amateur operator licenses are: Novice, Technician, Technician

Plus (until such licenses expire, a Technician Class license granted before February 14,

1991, is considered a Technician Plus Class license), General, Advanced, and Amateur

Extra. A person who has been granted an operator license is authorized to be the con-

trol operator of an amateur station with the privileges of the operator class specified on

the license.

A person who has been granted an operator license of Novice, Technician, Tech-

nician Plus, General, or Advanced class and who has properly submitted to the adminis-

tering VEs an application document, FCC Form 610, for an operator license of a higher

class, and who holds a CSCE indicating that the person has completed the necessary

examinations within the previous 365 days, is authorized to exercise the rights and privi-

leges of the higher operator class until final disposition of the application or until 365

days following the passing of the examination, whichever comes first.

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S 97.11 Stations aboard Ships or Aircraft

The installation and operation of an amateur station on a ship or aircraft must be

approved by the master of the ship or pilot in command of the aircraft.

The station must be separate from and independent of all other radio apparatus

installed on the ship or aircraft, except a common antenna may be shared with a volun-

tary ship radio installation. The station's transmissions must not cause interference to

any other apparatus installed on the ship or aircraft.

The station must not constitute a hazard to the safety of life or property. For a

station aboard an aircraft, the apparatus shall not be operated while the aircraft is oper-

ating under Instrument Flight Rules, as defined by the FAA, unless the station has been

found to comply with all applicable FAA Rules.

S 97.13 Restrictions on Station Locations

Before placing an amateur station on land of environmental importance or that is

significant in American history, architecture or culture, the licensee may be required to

take certain actions prescribed by S 1.1301 - 1.1319 of the FCC Rules.

A station within 1600 m (1 mile) of an FCC monitoring facility must protect that

facility from harmful interference. Failure to do so could result in imposition of operating

restrictions upon the amateur station by an EIC pursuant to S 97.121 of this Part. Geo-

graphical coordinates of the facilities that require protection are listed in Section

0.121(c) of the FCC Rules.

97.15 Station Antenna Structures

Unless the amateur station licensee has received prior approval from the FCC,

no antenna structure, including the radiating elements, tower, supports, and all appurte-

nances, may be higher than 61 m (200 feet) above ground level at its site.

Unless the amateur station licensee has received prior approval from the FCC,

no antenna structure, at an airport or heliport that is available for public use and is listed

in the airport directory of the current Airman's Information Manual or in either the Alaska

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or Pacific Airman's Guide and Chart Supplement; or at an airport or heliport under con-

struction that is the subject of a notice or proposal on file with the FAA, and except for

military airports, it is clearly indicated that the airport will be available for public use; or

at an airport or heliport that is operated by the armed forces of the United States; or at a

place near any of these airports or heliports, may be higher than:

• � One meter above the airport elevation for each 100 m from the nearest runway

longer than 1 km within 6.1 km of the antenna structure.

• � Two meters above the airport elevation for each 100 m from the nearest runway

shorter than 1 km within 3.1 km of the antenna structure.

• � Four meters above the airport elevation for each 100 m from the nearest landing

pad within 1.5 km of the antenna structure.

An amateur station antenna structure no higher than 6.1 m (20 feet) above ground

level at its site or no higher than 6.1 m above any natural object or existing manmade

structure, other than an antenna structure, is exempt from the requirements of this sec-

tion.

Further details as to whether an aeronautical study and/or obstruction marking and

lighting may be required, and specifications for obstruction marking and lighting, are

contained in Part 17 of the FCC Rules, Construction, Marking, and Lighting of Antenna

Structures. To request approval to place an antenna structure higher than the limits

specified here, the licensee must notify the FAA on FAA Form 7460-1 and the FCC on

FCC Form 854.

Except as otherwise provided herein, a station antenna structure may be erected at

heights and dimensions sufficient to accommodate amateur service communications.

[State and local regulation of a station antenna structure must not preclude amateur

service communications. Rather, it must reasonably accommodate such communica-

tions and must constitute the minimum practicable regulation to accomplish the state or

local authority's legitimate purpose. See PRB-1, 101 FCC 2d 952 (1985) for details.]

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S 97.17 Application for New License or Reciprocal Permit for Alien Amateur Licensee(a) Any qualified person is eligible to apply for an amateur service license.

(b) Each application for a new amateur service license must be made on the proper

document:

• � FCC Form 610 for a new operator/primary station license.

• � FCC Form 610-A for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee.

• � FCC Form 610-B for a new amateur service club or military recreation station li-

cense.

(c) Each application for a new operator/primary station license must be submitted to

the VEs administering the qualifying examination.

(d) Any eligible person may apply for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee. The

application document, FCC Form 610-A, must be submitted to the FCC, 1270 Fairfield

Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245.

(1) The person must be a citizen of a country with which the United States has ar-

rangements to grant reciprocal operating permits to visiting alien amateur operators is

eligible to apply for reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee.

(2) The person must be a citizen of the same country that issued the amateur service

license.

(3) No person who is a citizen of the United States, regardless of any other citizenship

also held, is eligible for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee.

(4) No person who has been granted an amateur operator license is eligible for a recip-

rocal permit for alien amateur licensee.

(e) No person shall obtain or attempt to obtain, or assist another person to obtain or

attempt to obtain, an amateur service license or reciprocal permit for alien amateur

licensee by fraudulent means.

(f) One unique call sign will be shown on the license of each new primary station. The

call sign will be selected by the sequential call sign system.

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(g) No new license for a club, military recreation, or RACES station will be granted.

“Television enables you to be entertained in your home by people you wouldn’t have in your home. ~ David Frost, talk show host

S 97.21 Application for a Modified or Renewed License

(a) A person who has been granted an amateur station license that has not expired:

(1) Must apply for a modification of the license as necessary to show the correct mail-

ing address, licensee name, club name, license trustee name, or license custodian

name. The application document must be submitted to: FCC, 1270 Fairfield Road,

Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245. For an operator/primary station license, the application

must be made on FCC Form 610. For a club, military recreation, or RACES station li-

cense, the application must be made on FCC Form 610-B.

(2) May apply for a modification of the license to show a higher operator class. The

application must be made on FCC Form 610 and must be submitted to the VEs ad-

ministering the qualifying examination.

(3) May apply for renewal of the license for another term. (The FCC may mail to the

licensee a FCC Form 610-R that may be used for this purpose.) The application may

be made on the FCC Form 610-R if it is received from the FCC. If the Form 610-R is

not received from the FCC at least 30 days before the expiration of the license, for an

operator/primary station license, the application may be made on FCC Form 610. For

a club, military recreation, or RACES station license, the application may be made on

FCC Form 610-B. The application must be submitted no more than 90 days before its

expiration to: FCC, 1270 Fairfield Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245. When the appli-

cation for renewal of the license has been received by the FCC at 1270 Fairfield Road,

Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245 prior to the license expiration date, the license operating

authority is continued until the final disposition of the application.

(4) May apply for a modification of the license to show a different call sign selected by

the sequential call sign system. The application document must be submitted to: FCC,

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1270 Fairfield Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245. The application must be made on

FCC Form 610. This modification is not available to club, military recreation, or

RACES stations.

(b) A person who had been granted an amateur station license, but the license has

expired, may apply for renewal of the license for another term during a two year filing

grace period. The application document must be received by the FCC at 1270 Fairfield

Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245 prior to the end of the grace period. For an

operator/primary station license, the application must be made on FCC Form 610. For

a club, military recreation, or RACES station license, the application must be made on

FCC Form 610-B. Unless and until the license is renewed, no privileges in the Part are

conferred.

(c) Each application for a modified or renewed amateur service license must be ac-

companied by a photocopy (or the original) of the license document unless an applica-

tion for renewal using FCC Form 610-R is being made, or unless the original docu-

ment has been lost, mutilated or destroyed.

(d) Unless the holder of a station license requests a change in call sign, the same call

sign will be assigned to the station upon renewal or modification of a station license.

(e) A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee cannot be renewed. A new reciprocal

permit for alien amateur licensee may be issued upon proper application.

S 97.23 Mailing Address

(a) Each application for a license and each application for a reciprocal permit for alien

amateur licensee must show a mailing address in an area where the amateur service

is regulated by the FCC and where the licensee or permittee can receive mail delivery

by the United States Postal Service. Each application for a reciprocal permit for alien

amateur licensee must also show the permittee's mailing address in the country of

citizenship.

(b) When there is a change in the mailing address for a person who has been granted

an amateur operator/primary station license, the person must file a timely application

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for a modification of the license. Revocation of the station license or suspension of the

operator license may result when correspondence from the FCC is returned as unde-

liverable because the person failed to provide the correct mailing address.

(c) When a person who has been granted a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licen-

see changes the mailing address where he or she can receive mail delivery by the

United States Postal Service, the person must file an application for a new permit.

Cancellation of the reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee may result when cor-

respondence from the FCC is returned as undeliverable because the permittee failed

to provide the correct mailing address.

S 97.25 License Term

(a) An amateur service license is normally granted for a 10-year term.

(b) A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee is normally granted for a 1-year term.

S 97.27 FCC Modification of Station License

(a) The FCC may modify a station license, either for a limited time or for the duration

of the term thereof, if it determines:

(1) That such action will promote the public interest, convenience, and necessity; or

(2) That such action will promote fuller compliance with the provisions of the Commu-

nications Act of 1934, as amended, or of any treaty ratified by the United States.

(b) When the FCC makes such a determination, it will issue an order of modification.

The order will not become final until the licensee is notified in writing of the proposed

action and the grounds and reasons therefore. The licensee will be given reasonable

opportunity of no less than 30 days to protest the modification; except that, where

safety of life or property is involved, a shorter period of notice may be provided. Any

protest by a licensee of an FCC order of modification will be handled in accordance

with the provisions of 47 U.S.C. S 316.

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S 97.29 Replacement License Document

Each person who has been granted an amateur station license or reciprocal

permit for alien amateur licensee whose original license document or permit document

is lost, mutilated or destroyed must request a replacement. A statement of how the

document was lost, mutilated, or destroyed must be attached to the request. A replace-

ment document must bear the same expiration date as the document that it replaces.

Subpart B--Station Operation Standards

S 97.101 General Standards

(a) In all respects not specifically covered by FCC Rules, each amateur station must

be operated in accordance with good engineering and good amateur practice.

(b) Each station licensee and each control operator must cooperate in selecting

transmitting channels and in making the most effective use of the amateur service fre-

quencies. No frequency will be assigned for the exclusive use of any station.

(c) At all times and on all frequencies, each control operator must give priority to sta-

tions providing emergency communications, except to stations transmitting communi-

cations for training drills and tests in RACES.

(d) No amateur operator shall willfully or maliciously interfere with or cause interfer-

ence to any radio communication or signal.

S 97.103 Station Licensee Responsibilities

(a) The station licensee is responsible for the proper operation of the station in accor-

dance with the FCC Rules. When the control operator is a different amateur operator

than the station licensee, both persons are equally responsible for proper operation of

the station.

(b) The station licensee must designate the station control operator. The FCC will pre-

sume that the station licensee is also the control operator, unless documentation to

the contrary is in the station records.

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(c) The station licensee must make the station and the station records available for

inspection upon request by an FCC representative. When deemed necessary by an

EIC to assure compliance with FCC Rules, the station licensee must maintain a record

of station operations containing such items of information as the EIC may require in

accord with S 0.314(x) of the FCC Rules.

“I have not failed. I have just found 10,000 ways that won’t work.”~ Thomas Edison, inventor

S 97.105 Control Operator Duties

(a) The control operator must ensure the immediate proper operation of the station,

regardless of the type of control.

(b) A station may only be operated in the manner and to the extent permitted by the

privileges authorized for the class of operator license held by the control operator.

S 97.107 Alien Control Operator Privileges

(a) The privileges available to a control operator holding an amateur service license

issued by the Government of Canada are:

(1) The terms of the convention between the United States and Canada (TIAS no.

2508) relating to the operation by citizens of either country of certain radio equipment

or stations in the other country;

(2) The operating terms and conditions of the amateur service license issued by the

Government of Canada; and

(3) The applicable provisions of the FCC Rules, but not to exceed the control operator

privileges of an FCC-issued Amateur Extra Class operator license.

(b) The privileges available to a control operator holding an FCC-issued reciprocal

permit for alien amateur licensee are:

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(1) The terms of the agreement between the alien's government and the United

States;

(2) The operating terms and conditions of the amateur service license issued by the

alien's government;

(3) The applicable provisions of the FCC Rules, but not to exceed the control operator

privileges of an FCC-issued Amateur Extra Class operator license; and

(4) None, if the holder of the reciprocal permit has obtained an FCC-issued operator/

primary station license.

(c) At any time the FCC may, in its discretion, modify, suspend, or cancel the amateur

service privileges within or over any area where radio services are regulated by the

FCC of any Canadian amateur service licensee or alien reciprocal permittee.

S 97.109 Station Control

(a) Each amateur station must have at least one control point.

(b) When a station is being locally controlled, the control operator must be at the con-

trol point. Any station may be locally controlled.

(c) When a station is being remotely controlled, the control operator must be at the

control point. Any station may be remotely controlled.

(d) When a station is being automatically controlled, the control operator need not be

at the control point. Only stations transmitting RTTY or data emissions on the 6 m or

shorter wavelength bands, and stations specifically designated elsewhere in this Part

may be automatically controlled. Automatic control must cease upon notification by an

EIC that the station is transmitting improperly or causing harmful interference to other

stations. Automatic control must not be resumed without prior approval of the EIC.

(e) No station may be automatically controlled while transmitting third- party communi-

cations, except a station participating as a forwarding station in a message forwarding

system.

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S 97.111 Authorized Transmissions

(a) An amateur station may transmit the following types of two-way communications:

(1) Transmissions necessary to exchange messages with other stations in the ama-

teur service, except those in any country whose administration has given notice that it

objects to such communications. The FCC will issue public notices of current ar-

rangements for international communications;

(2) Transmissions necessary to exchange messages with a station in another FCC-

regulated service while providing emergency communications;

(3) Transmissions necessary to exchange messages with a United States government

station, necessary to providing communications in RACES; and

(4) Transmissions necessary to exchange messages with a station in a service not

regulated by the FCC, but authorized by the FCC to communicate with amateur sta-

tions. An amateur station may exchange messages with a participating United States

military station during an Armed Forces Day Communications Test.

(b) In addition to one-way transmissions specifically authorized elsewhere in this Part,

an amateur station may transmit the following types of one-way communications:

(1) Brief transmissions necessary to make adjustments to the station;

(2) Brief transmissions necessary to establishing two-way communications with other

stations;

(3) Telecommand;

(4) Transmissions necessary to providing emergency communications;

(5) Transmissions necessary to assisting persons learning, or improving proficiency in,

the international Morse code;

(6) Transmissions necessary to disseminate information bulletins;

(7) Transmissions of telemetry.

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S 97.113 Prohibited Transmissions

(a) No amateur station shall transmit:

(1) Communications specifically prohibited elsewhere in this Part;

(2) Communications for hire or for material compensation, direct or indirect, paid or

promised, except as otherwise provided in these rules;

(3) Communications in which the station licensee or control operator has a pecuniary

interest, including communications on behalf of an employer. Amateur operators may,

however, notify other amateur operators of the availability for sale or trade of appara-

tus normally used in an amateur station, provided that such activity is not conducted

on a regular basis;

(4) Music using a phone emission except as specifically provided elsewhere in this

Section; communications intended to facilitate a criminal act; messages in codes or

ciphers intended to obscure the meaning thereof, except as otherwise provided

herein; obscene or indecent words or language; or false or deceptive messages, sig-

nals or identification;

(5) Communications, on a regular basis, which could reasonably be furnished alterna-

tively through other radio services.

(b) An amateur station shall not engage in any form of broadcasting, nor may an ama-

teur station transmit one-way communications except as specifically provided in these

rules; nor shall an amateur station engage in any activity related to program produc-

tion or news gathering for broadcasting purposes, except that communications directly

related to the immediate safety of human life or the protection of property may be pro-

vided by amateur stations to broadcasters for dissemination to the public where no

other means of communication is reasonably available before or at the time of the

event.

(c) A control operator may accept compensation as an incident of a teaching position

during periods of time when an amateur station is used by that teacher as a part of

classroom instruction at an educational institution.

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(d) The control operator of a club station may accept compensation for the periods of

time when the station is transmitting telegraphy practice or information bulletins, pro-

vided that the station transmits such telegraphy practice and bulletins for at least 40

hours per week; schedules operations on at least six amateur service MF and HF

bands using reasonable measures to maximize coverage; where the schedule of nor-

mal operating times and frequencies is published at least 30 days in advance of the

actual transmissions; and where the control operator does not accept any direct or in-

direct compensation for any other service as a control operator.

(e) No station shall retransmit programs or signals emanating from any type of radio

station other than an amateur station, except propagation and weather forecast infor-

mation intended for use by the general public and originated from United States Gov-

ernment stations and communications, including incidental music, originating on

United States Government frequencies between a space shuttle and its associated

Earth stations. Prior approval for shuttle retransmissions must be obtained from the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Such retransmissions must be for the

exclusive use of amateur operators. Propagation, weather forecasts, and shuttle re-

transmissions may not be conducted on a regular basis, but only occasionally, as an

incident of normal amateur radio communications.

(f) No amateur station, except an auxiliary, repeater or space station, may automati-

cally retransmit the radio signals of other amateur stations.

“We didn’t lose the game. We just ran out of time.”

~ Vince Lombardi, coach

S 97.115 Third Party Communications

(a) An amateur station may transmit messages for a third party to:

(1) Any station within the jurisdiction of the United States.

(2) Any station within the jurisdiction of any foreign government whose administration

has made arrangements with the United States to allow amateur stations to be used

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for transmitting international communications on behalf of third parties. No station shall

transmit messages for a third party to any station within the jurisdiction of any foreign

government whose administration has not made such an arrangement. This prohibi-

tion does not apply to a message for any third party who is eligible to be a control op-

erator of the station.

(b) The third party may participate in stating the message where:

(1) The control operator is present at the control point and is continuously monitoring

and supervising the third party's participation; and

(2) The third party is not a prior amateur service licensee whose license was revoked;

suspended for less than the balance of the license term and the suspension is still in

effect; suspended for the balance of the license term and relicensing has not taken

place; or surrendered for cancellation following notice of revocation, suspension or

monetary forfeiture proceedings. The third party may not be the subject of a cease

and desist order which relates to amateur service operation and which is still in effect.

(c) At the end of an exchange of international third party communications, the station

must also transmit in the station identification procedure the call sign of the station

with which a third party message was exchanged.

S 97.117 International Communications

Transmissions to a different country, where permitted, shall be made in plain lan-

guage and shall be limited to messages of a technical nature relating to tests, and, to

remarks of a personal character for which, by reason of their unimportance, recourse to

the public telecommunications service is not justified.

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S 97.119 Station Identification

(a) Each amateur station, except a space station or telecommand station, must trans-

mit its assigned call sign on its transmitting channel at the end of each communication,

and at least every 10 minutes during a communication, for the purpose of clearly mak-

ing the source of the transmissions from the station known to those receiving the

transmissions. No station may transmit unidentified communications or signals, or

transmit as the station call sign, any call sign not authorized to the station.

(b) The call sign must be transmitted with an emission authorized for the transmitting

channel in one of the following ways:

(1) By a CW emission. When keyed by an automatic device used only for identifica-

tion, the speed must not exceed 20 words per minute;

(2) By a phone emission in the English language. Use of a standard phonetic alphabet

as an aid for correct station identification is encouraged;

(3) By RTTY emission using a specified digital code when all or part of the communi-

cations is transmitted by RTTY or data emission;

(4) By an image emission conforming to the applicable transmission standards, either

color or monochrome, of S 73.682(a) of the FCC Rules when all or part of the com-

munications are transmitted in the same image emission; or

(5) By a CW or phone emission during SS emission transmission on a narrow band-

width frequency segment. Alternatively, by the changing of one or more parameters of

the emission so that a conventional CW or phone emission receiver can be used to

determine the station call sign.

(c) An indicator may be included with the call sign. It must be separated from the call

sign by the slant mark or by any suitable word that denotes the slant mark. If the indi-

cator is self-assigned it must be included after the call sign and must not conflict with

any other indicator specified by the FCC rules or with any prefix assigned to another

country.

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(d) When the operator license class held by the control operator exceeds that of the

station licensee, an indicator consisting of the call sign assigned to the control opera-

tor's station must be included after the call sign.

(e) When the control operator who is exercising the rights and privileges authorized by

S 97.9(b) of this part, an indicator must be included after the call sign as follows:

(1) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice to

Technician Class: KT;

(2) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice or

Technician Class to General Class: AG;

(3) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice,

Technician, or General Class operator to Advanced Class: AA; or

(4) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice,

Technician, General, or Advanced Class operator to Amateur Extra Class: AE.

(f) When the station is transmitting under the authority of a reciprocal permit for alien

amateur licensee, an indicator consisting of the appropriate letter-numeral designating

the station location must be included before the call sign issued to the station by the

licensing country. When the station is transmitting under the authority of an amateur

service license issued by the Government of Canada, a station location indicator must

be included after the call sign. At least once during each intercommunication, the iden-

tification announcement must include the geographical location as nearly as possible

by city and state, commonwealth or possession.

S 97.121 Restricted Operation

(a) If the operation of an amateur station causes general interference to the reception

of transmissions from stations operating in the domestic broadcast service when re-

ceivers of good engineering design, including adequate selectivity characteristics, are

used to receive such transmissions, and this fact is made known to the amateur sta-

tion licensee, the amateur station shall not be operated during the hours from 8 PM to

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10:30 PM local time, and on Sunday for the additional period from 10:30 AM until 1

PM local time, upon the frequency or frequencies used when the interference is cre-

ated.

(b) In general, such steps as may be necessary to minimize interference to stations

operating in other services may be required after investigation by the FCC.

Subpart C--Special Operations

S 97.201 Auxiliary Station

(a) Any amateur station licensed to a holder of a Technician, General, Advanced or

Amateur Extra Class operator license may be an auxiliary station. A holder of a Tech-

nician, General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class operator license may be the control

operator of an auxiliary station, subject to the privileges of the class of operator license

held.

(b) An auxiliary station may transmit only on the 1.25 m and shorter wavelength fre-

quency bands, except the 222.00-222.15 MHz, 431-433 MHz and 435-438 MHz seg-

ments.

(c) Where an auxiliary station causes harmful interference to another auxiliary station,

the licensees are equally and fully responsible for resolving the interference unless

one station's operation is recommended by a frequency coordinator and the other sta-

tion's is not. In that case, the licensee of the non-coordinated auxiliary station has pri-

mary responsibility to resolve the interference.

(d) An auxiliary station may be automatically controlled.

(e) An auxiliary station may transmit one-way communications.

“The object of war is not to die for your country but to make the other bastard die for

his.” ~ General, George Patton, army general

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S 97.203 Beacon Station

(a) Any amateur station licensed to a holder of a Technician, General, Advanced or

Amateur Extra Class operator license may be a beacon. A holder of a Technician,

General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class operator license may be the control opera-

tor of a beacon, subject to the privileges of the class of operator license held.

(b) A beacon must not concurrently transmit on more than one channel in the same

amateur service frequency band, from the same station location.

(c) The transmitter power of a beacon must not exceed 100 W.

(d) A beacon may be automatically controlled while it is transmitting on the

28.20-28.30 MHz, 50.06-50.08 MHz, 144.275-144.300 MHz, 222.05-222.06 MHz, or

432.300-432.400 MHz segments, or on the 33 cm and shorter wavelength bands.

(e) Before establishing an automatically controlled beacon in the National Radio Quiet

Zone or before changing the transmitting frequency, transmitter power, antenna height

or directivity, the station licensee must give written notification thereof to the Interfer-

ence Office, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, P.O. Box 2, Green Bank, WV

24944.

(1) The notification must include the geographical coordinates of the antenna, antenna

ground elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), antenna center of radiation above

ground level (AGL), antenna directivity, proposed frequency, type of emission, and

transmitter power.

(2) If an objection to the proposed operation is received by the FCC from the National

Radio Astronomy Observatory at Green Bank, Pocahontas County, WV, for itself or on

behalf of the Naval Research Laboratory at Sugar Grove, Pendleton County, WV,

within 20 days from the date of notification, the FCC will consider all aspects of the

problem and take whatever action is deemed appropriate.

(f) A beacon must cease transmissions upon notification by an EIC that the station is

operating improperly or causing undue interference to other operations. The beacon

may not resume transmitting without prior approval of the EIC.

(g) A beacon may transmit one-way communications.

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S 97.205 Repeater Station

(a) Any amateur station licensed to a holder of a Technician, General, Advanced or

Amateur Extra Class operator license may be a repeater. A holder of a Technician,

General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class operator license may be the control opera-

tor of a repeater, subject to the privileges of the class of operator license held.

(b) A repeater may receive and retransmit only on the 10 m and shorter wavelength

frequency bands except the 28.0-29.5 MHz, 50.0-51.0 MHz, 144.0- 144.5 MHz,

145.5-146.0 MHz, 222.00-222.15 MHz, 431.0-433.0 MHz and 435.0- 438.0 MHz seg-

ments.

(c) Where the transmissions of a repeater cause harmful interference to another re-

peater, the two station licensees are equally and fully responsible for resolving the in-

terference unless the operation of one station is recommended by a frequency coordi-

nator and the operation of the other station is not. In that case, the licensee of the

noncoordinated repeater has primary responsibility to resolve the interference.

(d) A repeater may be automatically controlled.

(e) Ancillary functions of a repeater that are available to users on the input channel are

not considered remotely controlled functions of the station. Limiting the use of a re-

peater to only certain user stations is permissible.

(f) Before establishing a repeater in the National Radio Quiet Zone or before changing

the transmitting frequency, transmitter power, antenna height or directivity, or the loca-

tion of an existing repeater, the station licensee must give written notification thereof to

the Interference Office, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, P.O. Box 2, Green

Bank, WV 24944.

(1) The notification must include the geographical coordinates of the station antenna,

antenna ground elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), antenna center of radiation

above ground level (AGL), antenna directivity, proposed frequency, type of emission,

and transmitter power.

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(2) If an objection to the proposed operation is received by the FCC from the National

Radio Astronomy Observatory at Green Bank, Pocahontas County, WV, for itself or on

behalf of the Naval Research Laboratory at Sugar Grove, Pendleton County, WV,

within 20 days from the date of notification, the FCC will consider all aspects of the

problem and take whatever action is deemed appropriate.

(g) The control operator of a repeater that retransmits inadvertently communications

that violate the rules in this Part is not accountable for the communications in violation.

S 97.207 Space Station

(a) Any amateur station may be a space station. A holder of any class operator license

may be the control operator of a space station, subject to the privileges of the class of

operator license held by the control operator.

(b) A space station must be capable of affecting a cessation of transmissions by tele-

command whenever such cessation is ordered by the FCC.

(c) The following frequency bands and segments are authorized to space stations:

(1) The 17 m, 15 m, 12 m and 10 m bands, 6 mm, 4 mm, 2 mm and 1 mm bands; and

(2) The 7.0-7.1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz, 435-438 MHz, 1260- 1270 MHz

and 2400-2450 MHz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.83-5.85 GHz, 10.45-10.50 GHz and

24.00-24.05 GHz segments.

(d) A space station may automatically retransmit the radio signals of Earth stations and

other space stations.

(e) A space station may transmit one-way communications.

(f) Space telemetry transmissions may consist of specially coded messages intended

to facilitate communications or related to the function of the spacecraft.

(g) The licensee of each space station must give two written, pre-space station notifi-

cations to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Washington, DC 20554. Each notification

must be in accord with the provisions of Articles 11 and 13 of the Radio Regulations.

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(1) The first notification is required no less than 27 months prior to initiating space sta-

tion transmissions and must specify the information required by Appendix 4, and

Resolution No. 642 of the Radio Regulations.

(2) The second notification is required no less than five months prior to initiating space

station transmissions and must specify the information required by Appendix 3 and

Resolution No. 642 of the Radio Regulations.

(h) The licensee of each space station must give a written, in-space station notification

to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Washington, DC 20554, no later than seven days

following initiation of space station transmissions. The notification must update the in-

formation contained in the pre-space notification.

(i) The licensee of each space station must give a written, post-space station notifica-

tion to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Washington, DC 20554, no later than three

months after termination of the space station transmissions. When the termination is

ordered by the FCC, notification is required no later than 24 hours after termination.

“You can get more with a kind word and a gun than you can with a kind word alone.”~ Al Capone, gangster

S 97.209 Earth Station

(a) Any amateur station may be an Earth station. A holder of any class operator li-

cense may be the control operator of an Earth station, subject to the privileges of the

class of operator license held by the control operator.

(b) The following frequency bands and segments are authorized to Earth stations:

(1) The 17 m, 15 m, 12 m and 10 m bands, 6 mm, 4 mm, 2 mm and 1 mm bands; and

(2) The 7.0-7.1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz, 435-438 MHz, 1260- 1270 MHz

and 2400-2450 MHz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.65-5.67 GHz, 10.45-10.50 GHz and

24.00-24.05 GHz segments.

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S 97.211 Space Telecommand Station

(a) Any amateur station designated by the licensee of a space station is eligible to

transmit as a telecommand station for that space station, subject to the privileges of

the class of operator license held by the control operator.

(b) A telecommand station may transmit special codes intended to obscure the mean-

ing of telecommand messages to the station in space operation.

(c) The following frequency bands and segments are authorized to telecommand sta-

tions:

(1) The 17 m, 15 m, 12 m and 10 m bands, 6 mm, 4 mm, 2 mm and 1 mm bands; and

(2) The 7.0-7.1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz, 435-438 MHz, 1260- 1270 MHz

and 2400-2450 MHz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.65-5.67 GHz, 10.45-10.50 GHz and

24.00-24.05 GHz segments.

(d) A telecommand station may transmit one-way communications.

S 97.213 Telecommand of an Amateur Station

An amateur station on or within 50 km of the Earth's surface may be under tele-

command where:

(a) There is a radio or wireline control link between the control point and the station

sufficient for the control operator to perform his/her duties. If radio, the control link

must use an auxiliary station. A control link using a fiber optic cable or another tele-

communication service is considered wireline.

(b) Provisions are incorporated to limit transmission by the station to a period of no

more than three minutes in the event of malfunction in the control link.

(c) The station is protected against making, willfully or negligently, unauthorized

transmissions.

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(d) A photocopy of the station license and a label with the name, address, and tele-

phone number of the station licensee and at least one designated control operator is

posted in a conspicuous place at the station location.

S 97.215 Telecommand of Model Craft

An amateur station transmitting signals to control a model craft may be operated as

follows:

(a) The station identification procedure is not required for transmissions directed only

to the model craft, provided that a label indicating the station call sign and the station

licensee's name and address is affixed to the station transmitter.

(b) The control signals are not considered codes or ciphers intended to obscure the

meaning of the communication.

(c) The transmitter power must not exceed 1 W.

S 97.217 Telemetry

Telemetry transmitted by an amateur station on or within 50 km of the Earth's sur-

face is not considered to be codes or ciphers intended to obscure the meaning of com-

munications.

S 97.219 Message Forwarding System

(a) Any amateur station may participate in a message forwarding system, subject to

the privileges of the class of operator license held.

(b) For stations participating in a message forwarding system, the control operator of

the station originating a message is primarily accountable for any violation of the rules

in this Part contained in the message.

(c) Except as noted in paragraph (d) of this section, for stations participating in a mes-

sage forwarding system, the control operators of forwarding stations that retransmit

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inadvertently communications that violate the rules in this Part are not accountable for

the violative communications. They are, however, responsible for discontinuing such

communications once they become aware of their presence.

(d) For stations participating in a message forwarding system, the control operator of

the first forwarding station must:

(1) Authenticate the identity of the station from which it accepts communication on be-

half of the system; or

(2) Accept accountability for any violation of the rules in this Part contained in mes-

sages it retransmits to the system.

Subpart D--Technical Standards

97.303 Frequency Sharing Requirements

The following is a summary of the frequency sharing requirements that apply to

amateur station transmissions on the frequency bands specified in S 97.301 of this Part.

(For each ITU Region, each frequency band allocated to the amateur service is desig-

nated as either a secondary service or a primary service. A station in a secondary serv-

ice must not cause harmful interference to, and must accept interference from, stations

in a primary service. See SS 2.105 and 2.106 of the FCC Rules, United States Table of

Frequency Allocations for complete requirements.)

(a) Where, in adjacent ITU Regions or Subregions, a band of frequencies is allocated

to different services of the same category, the basic principle is the equality of right to

operate. The stations of each service in one region must operate so as not to cause

harmful interference to services in the other Regions or Subregions. (See ITU Radio

Regulations, No. 346 (Geneva, 1979).)

(b) No amateur station transmitting in the 1900-2000 kHz segment, the 70 cm band,

the 33 cm band, the 13 cm band, the 9 cm band, the 5 cm band, the 3 cm band, the

24.05-24.25 GHz segment, the 76-81 GHz segment, the 144-149 GHz segment and

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the 241-248 GHz segment shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from

interference due to the operation of, the Government radio location service.

(c) No amateur station transmitting in the 1900-2000 kHz segment, the 3 cm band, the

76-81 GHz segment, the 144-149 GHz segment and the 241-248 GHz segment shall

cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation

of, stations in the non-Government radiolocation service.

(d) No amateur station transmitting in the 30 meter band shall cause harmful interfer-

ence to stations authorized by other nations in the fixed service. The licensee of the

amateur station must make all necessary adjustments, including termination of trans-

missions, if harmful interference is caused.

(e) Reserved

(f) In the 70 cm band:

(1) No amateur station shall transmit from north of Line A in the 420- 430 MHz seg-

ment.

(2) The 420-430 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur service in the United States

on a secondary basis, and is allocated in the fixed and mobile (except aeronautical

mobile) services in the International Table of allocations on a primary basis. No ama-

teur station transmitting in this band shall cause harmful interference to, nor is pro-

tected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in

the fixed and mobile (except aeronautical mobile) services.

(3) The 430-440 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur service on a secondary ba-

sis in ITU Regions 2 and 3. No amateur station transmitting in this band in ITU Re-

gions 2 and 3 shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference

due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in the radiolocation serv-

ice. In ITU Region 1, the 430-440 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur service on

a co-primary basis with the radio-location service. As between these two services in

this band in ITU Region 1, the basic principle that applies is the equality of right to op-

erate. Amateur stations authorized by the United States and radiolocation stations

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authorized by other nations in ITU Region 1 shall operate so as not to cause harmful

interference to each other.

(4) No amateur station transmitting in the 449.75-450.25 MHz segment shall cause

interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of stations in,

the space operation service and the space research service or Government or non-

Government stations for space telecommand.

(g) In the 33 cm band:

(1) No amateur station shall transmit from within the States of Colorado and Wyoming,

bounded on the south by latitude 39 N, on the north by latitude 42 N, on the east by

longitude 105 W, and on the west by longitude 180 W.1 This band is allocated on a

secondary basis to the amateur service subject to not causing harmful interference to,

and not receiving protection from any interference due to the operation of, industrial,

scientific and medical devices, automatic vehicle monitoring systems or Government

stations authorized in this band.

(2) No amateur station shall transmit from those portions of the States of Texas and

New Mexico bounded on the south by latitude 31 41' N, on the north by latitude 34 30'

N, on the east by longitude 104 11' W, and on the west by longitude 107 30' W.

(h) No amateur station transmitting in the 23 cm band, the 3 cm band, the 24.05-24.25

GHz segment, the 76-81 GHz segment, the 144-149 GHz segment and the 241-248

GHz segment shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference

due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in the radiolocation serv-

ice.

(i) In the 1240-1260 MHz segment, no amateur station shall cause harmful interfer-

ence to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations in the radio

navigation-satellite service, the aeronautical radio navigation service, or the radioloca-

tion service.

(j) In the 13 cm band:

(1) The amateur service is allocated on a secondary basis in all ITU Regions. In ITU

Region 1, no amateur station shall cause harmful interference to, and is not protected

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from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in the

fixed service. In ITU Regions 2 and 3, no station shall cause harmful interference to,

and is not protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by

other nations in the fixed, mobile and radiolocation services.

(2) In the United States, the 2300-2310 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur serv-

ice on a co-secondary basis with the Government fixed and mobile services. In this

segment, the fixed and mobile services must not cause harmful interference to the

amateur service. No amateur station transmitting in the 2400-2450 MHz segment is

protected from interference due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical

devices on 2450 MHz.

(k) No amateur station transmitting in the 3.332-3.339 GHz and 3.3458- 3525 GHz

segments, the 2.5 mm band, the 144.68-144.98 GHz, 145.45-145.75 GHz and

146.82-147.12 GHz segments and the 343-348 GHz segment shall cause harmful in-

terference to stations in the radio astronomy service. No amateur station transmitting

in the 300-302 GHz, 324-326 GHz, 345-347 GHz, 363-365 GHz and 379-381 GHz

segments shall cause harmful interference to stations in the space research service

(passive) or Earth exploration-satellite service (passive).

(l) In the 9 cm band:

(1) In ITU Regions 2 and 3, the band is allocated to the amateur service on a secon-

dary basis.

(2) In the United States, the band is allocated to the amateur service on a co-

secondary basis with the non-Government radiolocation service.

(3) In the 3.3-3.4 GHz segment, no amateur station shall cause harmful interference

to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by

other nations in the fixed and fixed-satellite service.

(4) In the 3.4-3.5 GHz segment, no amateur station shall cause harmful interference

to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by

other nations in the fixed and fixed-satellite service.

(m) In the 5 cm band:

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(1) In the 5.650-5.725 GHz segment, the amateur service is allocated in all ITU Re-

gions on a co-secondary basis with the space research (deep space) service.

(2) In the 5.725-5.850 GHz segment, the amateur service is allocated in all ITU Re-

gions on a secondary basis. No amateur station shall cause harmful interference to,

nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by other

nations in the fixed-satellite service in ITU Region 1.

(3) No amateur station transmitting in the 5.725-5.875 GHz segment is protected from

interference due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical devices operating

on 5.8 GHz.

(4) In the 5.650-5.850 GHz segment, no amateur station shall cause harmful interfer-

ence to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized

by other nations in the radiolocation service.

(5) In the 5.850-5.925 GHz segment, the amateur service is allocated in ITU Region 2

on a co-secondary basis with the radiolocation service. In the United States, the seg-

ment is allocated to the amateur service on a secondary basis to the non-Government

fixed-satellite service. No amateur station shall cause harmful interference to, nor is

protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by other na-

tions in the fixed, fixed-satellite and mobile services. No amateur station shall cause

harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, sta-

tions in the non-Government fixed-satellite service.

(n) In the 3 cm band:

(1) In the United States, the 3 cm band is allocated to the amateur service on a co-

secondary basis with the non-government radiolocation service.

(2) In the 10.00-10.45 GHz segment in ITU Regions 1 and 3, no amateur station shall

cause interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, sta-

tions authorized by other nations in the fixed and mobile services.

(o) No amateur station transmitting in the 1.2 cm band is protected from interference

due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical devices on 24.125 GHz. In the

United States, the 24.05-24.25 GHz segment is allocated to the amateur service on a

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co-secondary basis with the non- government radiolocation and Government and non-

government Earth exploration-satellite (active) services.

(p) The 2.5 mm band is allocated to the amateur service on a secondary basis. No

amateur station transmitting in this band shall cause harmful interference to, nor is

protected from interference due to the operation of, stations in the fixed, inter-satellite

and mobile services.

(q) No amateur station transmitting in the 244-246 GHz segment of the 1 mm band is

protected from interference due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical

devices on 245 GHz.

“It is now possible for a flight attendant to get a pilot pregnant.”

~ Richard Ferris, president of United Airlines

S 97.307 Emission Standards

(a) No amateur station transmission shall occupy more bandwidth than necessary for

the information rate and emission type being transmitted, in accordance with good

amateur practice.

(b) Emissions resulting from modulation must be confined to the band or segment

available to the control operator. Emissions outside the necessary bandwidth must not

cause splatter or key click interference to operations on adjacent frequencies.

(c) All spurious emissions from a station transmitter must be reduced to the greatest

extent practicable. If any spurious emission, including chassis or power line radiation,

causes harmful interference to the reception of another radio station, the licensee of

the interfering amateur station is required to take steps to eliminate the interference, in

accordance with good engineering practice.

(d) The mean power of any spurious emission from a station transmitter or external RF

power amplifier transmitting on a frequency below 30 MHz must not exceed 50 mW

and must be at least 40 dB below the mean power of the fundamental emission. For a

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transmitter of mean power less than 5 W, the attenuation must be at least 30 dB. A

transmitter built before April 15, 1977, or first marketed before January 1, 1978, is ex-

empt from this requirement.

(e) The mean power of any spurious emission from a station transmitter or external RF

power amplifier transmitting on a frequency between 30-225 MHz must be at least 60

dB below the mean power of the fundamental. For a transmitter having a mean power

of 25 W or less, the mean power of any spurious emission supplied to the antenna

transmission line must not exceed 25 uW and must be at least 40 dB below the mean

power of the fundamental emission, but need not be reduced below the power of 10

uW. A transmitter built before April 15, 1977, or first marketed before January 1, 1978,

is exempt from this requirement.

(f) The following standards and limitations apply to transmissions on the frequencies

specified in S 97.305(c) of this Part.

(1) No angle-modulated emission may have a modulation index greater than 1 at the

highest modulation frequency.

(2) No non-phone emission shall exceed the bandwidth of a communications quality

phone emission of the same modulation type. The total bandwidth of an independent

sideband emission (having B as the first symbol), or a multiplexed image and phone

emission, shall not exceed that of a communications quality A3E emission.

(3) Only a RTTY or data emission using a specified digital code listed in S 97.309(a) of

this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 300 bauds, or for

frequency-shift keying, the frequency shift between mark and space must not exceed

1 kHz.

(4) Only a RTTY or data emission using a specified digital code listed in S 97.309(a) of

this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 1200 bauds. For

frequency-shift keying, the frequency shift between mark and space must not exceed

1 kHz.

(5) A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using a specified digital code listed in S

97.309(a) of this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 19.6 kilo-

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bauds. A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using an unspecified digital code under

the limitations listed in S 97.309(b) of this Part also may be transmitted. The author-

ized bandwidth is 20 kHz.

(6) A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using a specified digital code listed in S

97.309(a) of this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 56 kilo-

bauds. A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using an unspecified digital code under

the limitations listed in S 97.309(b) of this Part also may be transmitted. The author-

ized bandwidth is 100 kHz.

(7) A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using a specified digital code listed in S

97.309(a) of this Part or an unspecified digital code under the limitations listed in S

97.309(b) of this Part may be transmitted.

(8) A RTTY or data emission having designators with A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J or R as

the first symbol; 1, 2, 7 or 9 as the second symbol; and D or W as the third symbol is

also authorized.

(9) A station having a control operator holding a Novice or Technician Class operator

license may only transmit a CW emission using the international Morse code.

(10) A station having a control operator holding a Novice or Technician Class operator

license may only transmit a CW emission using the international Morse code or phone

emissions J3E and R3E.

(11) Phone and image emissions may be transmitted only by stations located in ITU

Regions 1 and 3, and by stations located within ITU Region 2 that are west of 130

West longitude or south of 20 North latitude.

(12) Emission F8E may be transmitted.

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S 97.309 RTTY and Data Emission Codes

(a) Where authorized by S 97.305(c) and 97.307(f) of this Part, an amateur station

may transmit a RTTY or data emission using the following specified digital codes:

(1) The 5-unit, start-stop, International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2, code defined in In-

ternational Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee Recommendation F.1,

Division C (commonly known as Baudot).

(2) The 7-unit code, specified in International Radio Consultative Committee Recom-

mendation CCIR 476-2 (1978), 476-3 (1982), 476-4 (1986) or 625 (1986) (commonly

known as AMTOR).

(3) The 7-unit code defined in American National Standards Institute X3.4-1977 or In-

ternational Alphabet No. 5 defined in International Telegraph and Telephone Consulta-

tive Committee Recommendation T.50 or in International Organization for Standardi-

zation, International Standard ISO 646 (1983), and extensions as provided for in

CCITT Recommendation T.61 (Malaga-Torremolinos, 1984) (commonly known as AS-

CII).

(b) Where authorized by S S 97.305(c) and 97.307(f) of this Part, a station may trans-

mit a RTTY or data emission using an unspecified digital code, except to a station in a

country with which the United States does not have an agreement permitting the code

to be used. RTTY and data emissions using unspecified digital codes must not be

transmitted for the purpose of obscuring the meaning of any communication. When

deemed necessary by an EIC to assure compliance with the FCC Rules, a station

must:

(1) Cease the transmission using the unspecified digital code;

(2) Restrict transmissions of any digital code to the extent instructed;

(3) Maintain a record, convertible to the original information, of all digital communica-

tions transmitted.

“I went to a restaurant that serves breakfast ‘at any time.’ So I ordered French toast during the Renaissance.” ~ Steven Wright, comedian

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S 97.311 SS Emission Types

(a) SS emission transmissions by an amateur station are authorized only for commu-

nications between points within areas where the amateur service is regulated by the

FCC. SS emission transmissions must not be used for the purpose of obscuring the

meaning of any communication.

(b) Stations transmitting SS emission must not cause harmful interference to stations

employing other authorized emissions, and must accept all interference caused by

stations employing other authorized emissions. For the purposes of this paragraph,

unintended triggering of carrier operated repeaters is not considered to be harmful in-

terference.

(c) Only the following types of SS emission transmissions are authorized (hybrid SS

emission transmissions involving both spreading techniques are prohibited):

(1) Frequency hopping where the carrier of the transmitted signal is modulated with

unciphered information and changes frequency at fixed intervals under the direction of

a high speed code sequence.

(2) Direct sequence where the information is modulo-2 added to a high speed code

sequence. The combined information and code are then used to modulate the RF car-

rier. The high speed code sequence dominates the modulation function, and is the di-

rect cause of the wide spreading of the transmitted signal.

(d) The only spreading sequences that are authorized are from the output of one bi-

nary linear feedback shift register (which may be implemented in hardware or soft-

ware).

(1) Only the following sets of connections may be used:

Number of stages Taps used

in shift register in feedback

7 7, 1.

13 13, 4, 3, and 1.

19 19, 5, 2, and 1.

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(2) The shift register must not be reset other than by its feedback during an individual

transmission. The shift register output sequence must be used without alteration.

(3) The output of the last stage of the binary linear feedback shift register must be

used as follows:

(i) For frequency hopping transmissions using x frequencies, n consecutive bits from

the shift register must be used to select the next frequency from a list of frequencies

sorted in ascending order. Each consecutive frequency must be selected by a con-

secutive block of n bits. (Where n is the smallest integer greater than log2X.)

(ii) For direct sequence transmissions using m-ary modulation, consecutive blocks of

log2 m bits from the shift register must be used to select the transmitted signal during

each interval.

(e) The station records must document all SS emission transmissions and must be re-

tained for a period of one year following the last entry. The station records must in-

clude sufficient information to enable the FCC, using the information contained

therein, to demodulate all transmissions. The station records must contain at least the

following:

(1) A technical description of the transmitted signal;

(2) Pertinent parameters describing the transmitted signal including the frequency or

frequencies of operation and, where applicable, the chip rate, the code rate, the

spreading function, the transmission protocol(s) including the method of achieving

synchronization, and the modulation type;

(3) A general description of the type of information being conveyed (voice, text, mem-

ory dump, facsimile, television, etc.);

(4) The method and, if applicable, the frequency or frequencies used for station identi-

fication; and

(5) The date of beginning and the date of ending use of each type of transmitted sig-

nal.

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(f) When deemed necessary by an EIC to assure compliance with this Part, a station

licensee must:

(1) Cease SS emission transmissions;

(2) Restrict SS emission transmissions to the extent instructed; and

(3) Maintain a record, convertible to the original information (voice, text, image, etc.) of

all spread spectrum communications transmitted.

(g) The transmitter power must not exceed 100 W.

S 97.313 Transmitter Power Standards

(a) An amateur station must use the minimum transmitter power necessary to carry

out the desired communications.

(b) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 1.5 kW PEP.

(c) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 200 W PEP on:

(1) The 3.675-3.725 MHz, 7.10-7.15 MHz, 10.10-10.15 MHz and 21.1-21.2 MHz seg-

ments;

(2) The 28.1-28.5 MHz segment when the control operator is a Novice or Technician

operator; or

(3) The 7.050-7.075 MHz segment when the station is within ITU Regions 1 or 3.

(d) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 25 W PEP on the VHF

1.25 m band when the control operator is a Novice operator.

(e) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 5 W PEP on the UHF

23 cm band when the control operator is a Novice operator.

(f) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 50 W PEP on the UHF

70 cm band from an area specified in footnote US7 to S 2.106 of the FCC Rules, un-

less expressly authorized by the FCC after mutual agreement, on a case-by-case ba-

sis, between the EIC of the applicable field facility and the military area frequency co-

ordinator at the applicable military base. An Earth station or telecommand station,

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however, may transmit on the 435-438 MHz segment with a maximum of 611 W effec-

tive radiated power (1 kW equivalent isotropically radiated power) without the authori-

zation otherwise required. The transmitting antenna elevation angle between the lower

half-power (–3 dB relative to the peak or antenna bore sight) point and the horizon

must always be greater than ten.

(g) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 50 watts PEP on the

33 cm band from within 241 km of the boundaries of the White Sands Missile Range.

Its boundaries are those portions of Texas and New Mexico bounded on the south by

latitude 31 41' North, on the east by longitude 104 11' West, on the north by latitude 34

30' North, and on the west by longitude 107 30' West.

“We had gay burglars the other night. They broke in and rearranged the furniture.”

~ Robin Williams

S 97.315 Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers

(a) No more than one unit of one model of an external RF power amplifier capable of

operation below 144 MHz may be constructed or modified during any calendar year by

an amateur operator for use at a station without a grant of type acceptance. No ampli-

fier capable of operation below 144 MHz may be constructed or modified by a non-

amateur operator without a grant of type acceptance from the FCC.

(b) Any external RF power amplifier or external RF power amplifier kit (see S 2.815 of

the FCC Rules), manufactured, imported or modified for use in a station or attached at

any station must be type accepted for use in the amateur service in accordance with

Subpart J of Part 2 of the FCC Rules. This requirement does not apply if one or more

of the following conditions are met:

(1) The amplifier is not capable of operation on frequencies below 144 MHz. For the

purpose of this part, an amplifier will be deemed to be incapable of operation below

144 MHz if it is not capable of being easily modified to increase its amplification char-

acteristics below 120 MHz and either:

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(i) The mean output power of the amplifier decreases, as frequency decreases from

144 MHz, to a point where 0 dB or less gain is exhibited at 120 MHz; or

(ii) The amplifier is not capable of amplifying signals below 120 MHz even for brief pe-

riods without sustaining permanent damage to its amplification circuitry.

(2) The amplifier was manufactured before April 28, 1978, and has been issued a

marketing waiver by the FCC, or the amplifier was purchased before April 28, 1978, by

an amateur operator for use at that amateur operator's station.

(3) The amplifier was:

(i) Constructed by the licensee, not from an external RF power amplifier kit, for use at

the licensee's station; or

(ii) Modified by the licensee for use at the licensee's station.

(4) The amplifier is sold by an amateur operator to another amateur operator or to a

dealer.

(5) The amplifier is purchased in used condition by an equipment dealer from an ama-

teur operator and the amplifier is further sold to another amateur operator for use at

that operator's station.

(c) A list of type accepted equipment may be inspected at FCC headquarters in Wash-

ington, DC or at any FCC field location. Any external RF power amplifier appearing on

this list as type accepted for use in the amateur service may be marketed for use in

the amateur service.

S 97.317 Standards for Type Acceptance of External RF Power Amplifiers

(a) To receive a grant of type acceptance, the amplifier must satisfy the spurious

emission standards of S 97.307(d) or (e) of this Part, as applicable, when the amplifier

is:

(1) Operated at its full output power;

(2) Placed in the "standby" or "off" positions, but still connected to the transmitter; and

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(3) Driven with at least 50 W mean RF input power (unless higher drive level is speci-

fied).

(b) To receive a grant of type acceptance, the amplifier must not be capable of opera-

tion on any frequency or frequencies between 24 MHz and 35 MHz. The amplifier will

be deemed incapable of such operation if it:

(1) Exhibits no more than 6 dB gain between 24 MHz and 26 MHz and between 28

MHz and 35 MHz. (This gain will be determined by the ratio of the input RF driving

signal (mean power measurement) to the mean RF output power of the amplifier); and

(2) Exhibits no amplification (0 dB gain) between 26 MHz and 28 MHz.

(c) Type acceptance may be denied when denial would prevent the use of these am-

plifiers in services other than the amateur service. The following features will result in

dismissal or denial of an application for the type acceptance:

(1) Any accessible wiring which, when altered, would permit operation of the amplifier

in a manner contrary to the FCC rules;

(2) Circuit boards or similar circuitry to facilitate the addition of components to change

the amplifier's operating characteristics in a manner contrary to the FCC rules;

(3) Instructions for operation or modification of the amplifier in a manner contrary to

the FCC rules;

(4) Any internal or external controls or adjustments to facilitate operation of the ampli-

fier in a manner contrary to the FCC rules;

(5) Any internal RF sensing circuitry or any external switch, the purpose of which is to

place the amplifier in the transmit mode;

(6) The incorporation of more gain in the amplifier than is necessary to operate in the

amateur service; for purposes of this paragraph, the amplifier must:

(i) Not be capable of achieving designed output power when driven with less than 40

W mean RF input power;

(ii) Not be capable of amplifying the input RF driving signal by more than 15 dB, un-

less the amplifier has a designed transmitter power of less than 1.5 kW (in such a

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case, gain must be reduced by the same number of dB as the transmitter power rela-

tionship to 1.5 kW; This gain limitation is determined by the ratio of the input RF driv-

ing signal to the RF output power of the amplifier where both signals are expressed in

peak envelope power or mean power);

(iii) Not exhibit more gain than permitted by paragraph (c)(6)(ii) of this Section when

driven by an RF input signal of less than 50 W mean power; and

(iv) Be capable of sustained operation at its designed power level.

(7) Any attenuation in the input of the amplifier which, when removed or modified,

would permit the amplifier to function at its designed transmitter power when driven by

an RF frequency input signal of less than 50 W mean power; or

(8) Any other features designed to facilitate operation in a telecommunication service

other than the Amateur Radio Services, such as the Citizens Band (CB) Radio Serv-

ice.

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Chapter 7

Amateur Radio Practice

Safety

"I'm always amazed to hear of air crash victims so badly mutilated that they have to be identified by their dental records. What I can't understand is if they don't know who you are, how do they know who your dentist is?" ~ Paul Merton, comedian

Lightning Damage

It is always advisable to ground the antenna when not in use. If there is a possibility

of a storm, all the station equipment can be turned off. The antenna’s cables can be dis-

connected and hooked to the ground.

Safety of the station

Grounding All the station equipment should be grounded to prevent any electrical shock.

What is a Ground?

A ground is a low-impedance electrical connection to earth. All transmitting an-

tenna systems need an excellent ground system to provide proper operator safety and

optimum radiation of the maximum amount of RF energy into the air.

There are three types of ground.

Power Line Ground

It is the ground found at the power box on home's electrical service connection. It

provides overall electrical safety for the building and property.

DC Ground (Safety Ground)

This is a strap or wire placed from radio equipment to a convenient cold water

pipe or ground rod to eliminate the hazard of electrical shock. In case of a mobile con-

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nection in an automobile, this wire is the one that connects the ground stud on the rear

of the radio to the negative terminal of the battery, or the engine block.

RF Ground

RF ground is a low-impedance path for RF to reach Earth. Normally, the DC

Ground and the RF Ground are served by a common connection.

High Voltage Power Supplies

High voltage power supply deals with very high voltages. The manufacturers of

such equipment are bound to use interlock switches in the power supply. This facilitates

the disconnection of AC power to the supply, while the cabinet is opened for repairs.

This is done to avoid electrical shocks.

Antenna SafetyWhen someone is on the antenna for repair activities, it is best to wear a helmet.

Those on the ground should also wear a helmet.

The antennas and feed-lines should always be clear of power lines.

Safety of the Equipment

The U.S. occupational hazard standard for the people who work with amateur

radio is 10 m Watts/square cm. Many studies have revealed that for 99 percent of the

population, the total exposure is less than .001 m Watts per square cm. This is very low

compared to the current U.S. standard. But the situation changes when close to an op-

erating antenna. This will be much more than the standard value.

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Hazardous Voltages

Since 30 volts is enough to kill a person, one must take the necessary precautions while

working on high voltage. An electric current as feeble as 1/10th of an ampere can be fa-

tal. The body part most affected by an electric shock is the heart. That is why shocks

sometimes cause death.

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)

The standing wave ratio provides the information on the mismatch between the

antenna and the radio. A mismatch occurs when some of the power sent to the antenna

returns to the radio. This ratio between the voltage sent to the antenna and the voltage

reflected gives the SWR reading. If there is a mismatch, then the performance level of

the radio will be affected.

SWR Readings - How Are They Rated?

1:1 – This is the best ratio. (The best impedance match has been attained.) 1.5:1 – Excellent SWR match. 2:1-- A good SWR reading. 2.5:1 - An okay SWR reading. 3:1 - Poor SWR reading. 4:1 - Bad SWR reading. 5:1 - Very bad SWR reading. It is time to fix the antenna.

Fixing a Bad SWR Reading

A very high SWR reading denotes an incorrect length. Another chance is that the

connection along the feed line may be shorted somewhere. Otherwise, the length of the

antenna needs to be changed.

Lengthening

If the SWR reading at the low end (frequency) of the band is 5:1 and at the

higher end is 2 5, then the antenna needs to be lengthened.

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Shortening

If the SWR reading of the lower end is 2.5:1 and at the higher end is 5:1, then the

length of the antenna must be shortened.

“Some people see things that are and ask, Why? Some people dream of things that never were and ask, Why not? Some people have to go to work and don't have time for all that.” ~ George Carlin, comedian

Meters and Measurements

Voltmeter

Voltmeter is a device used to measure the voltage of a portion of a circuit. While

measuring, the voltmeters are connected “parallel” across the circuit.

Ammeter Ammeter is used to measure current in a circuit. Ammeter shows the current

flowing in amperes through the circuit. The ammeter is placed in series with the circuit.

Multimeter

A multimeter is multipurpose equipment, which can be used to measure the cur-

rent voltage as well as resistance.

RF Wattmeter

This device measures the quantity of radio frequency energy flowing out of the

radio. It is measured in Watts; hence the name Wattmeter. It generally operates at 50

ohms line impedance.

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Directional Wattmeter

This Wattmeter measures forward and reflected power. When a mismatch oc-

curs, this can be used to detect the power going in the direction towards the antenna

and the power going towards the radio.

Peak Reading Wattmeter

The peak energy emitted by a station is measured using a peak reading wattme-

ter to ensure that one station is in compliance with the power output permitted as per

the license.

Oscilloscope

This electronic test instrument is used to observe wave forms and voltages on a

cathode-ray tube. It displays time on the X-axis and amplitude on the Y-axis and the in-

tensity of the CRT spot along the Z axis. Different types of oscilloscopes are available

at http://eham.net/.

Audio Wave ModulationThe functioning of a radio may be a perplexing thing for a beginner. Voice pro-

duced in front of a microphone is heard using another radio which is placed at a differ-

ent location. How does this happen? Modulation is the process of merging a radio signal

with an information signal. For modulation to happen a carrier must be available. It is

this carrier signal that transmits the information to the desired destination.

Morse Code Modulation

Morse code turns off and on an RF carrier in order to transmit a simple code alphabet.

This is also called continuous wave (CW).

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Chapter 8

Elementary electricity

“Smoking kills. If you’re killed, you’ve lost a very important part of your life.”~ Brooke Shields, actress

‘God of Small Things’

It is always best to start small. One of my uncles who introduced me to the great

hobby of amateur radio used to say that it’s the basics that make a man.

Have you ever analyzed a flashlight? This is the best way to begin. A bulb is

connected across two cells in a series. The metal switch contacts of a sliding switch

make the command for the bulb to start its duty. This tiny thing can sometimes ruin the

flashlight.

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Let’s move on to the circuit diagram of a flashlight.

Two cells of 1.5 volts are connected to a lamp with a switch in between. The lines

in this schematic diagram represent the metal conductors which connect the system to-

gether.

Points to RememberA circuit is a closed conducting path. In the case of a flashlight, if the switch is not

closed, then the circuit is not complete. When the metal parts of the switch fail to make

contact, the circuit becomes incomplete.

Cells Connected in Series

The current in the circuit should flow to make the lamp glow. How does this hap-

pen in a flashlight? The voltage or potential difference V pushes the current to flow. Two

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cells of 1.5 V, connected in series will provide 3 V, while three cells will provide 4.5 V

(see the figure). A battery consists of two or more cells. The higher the voltage, the

brighter the lamp will be. Cells can also be connected in parallel.

Cells Connected in Parallel

A single cell may provide some current for a long time. If you connect the cells in

series, it may increase the voltage, but will not have any effect on its life. A parallel con-

nection guarantees a longer life.

The Direction of Current Flow

As evident from the figure, the battery or cell has two terminals, one is positive

while the other is negative. Conventionally, the current is considered to flow from the

positive terminal to the negative terminal. Conventional current is often used to desig-

nate this current. The arrows in the circuit diagrams always point in this direction. This

is the direction of flow of positive charged particles. When the charge carriers are nega-

tively charged electrons, the flow direction will be opposite to the direction of conven-

tional current. In electronic systems, charge carriers can be both positive and negative

materials. The holes and electrons found in the transistors are examples of the co-

existence of both positive and negative charge carriers in the same system.

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What Is Electric Current?

If two bodies are connected through a conducting wire, electrons will flow from

the negatively charged body to the positively charged one. This flow of electrons is

called electric current. The electric current will continue to flow as long as the ‘excess’

and ‘deficit’ of electrons exist in the bodies.

The electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different orbits. The elec-

trons in the inner orbits are tightly bound to the nucleus. As they move away from the

nucleus, this binding goes on decreasing so that electrons in the last orbit (called va-

lence electrons) are quite loosely bound to the nucleus. In certain substances, espe-

cially metals, the valence electrons are so weakly attached to their nuclei that they can

be easily removed or detached. These electrons are called free electrons. The free elec-

trons move at random from one atom to another in the material. Since a small piece of

metal has billions of atoms, there are a large number of free electrons present.

The SI unit of electric current is coulomb/sec, which is called ampere.

"Imagine if every Thursday your shoes exploded if you tied them in the usual way. This

happens all the time with computers, and nobody thinks of complaining."

~ Jeff Raskin

Properties of Electric Current

1. The actual direction of current is from the negative terminal to the positive terminal

through the part of the circuit external to the cell. However prior to the electron theory, it

was assumed that current flowed from positive terminal to the negative terminal of the

cell via the circuit. This convention is so firmly established that it is still in use. This as-

sumed direction is called conventional current.

2. Those substances, which have a large number of free electrons, will permit current

flow easily. Such substances are called conductors (i.e. copper, silver, aluminum, etc).

On the other hand, atoms of some substances have valence electrons that are tightly

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bound to their nuclei. Such substances will not permit the flow of electric current and are

called bad conductors or insulators (i.e. glass, mica, etc).

Conductors

Any material that permits an electrical current to flow through it without difficulty is

called a conductor. The most effective conductors in electric systems are those with a

high degree of free electrons. As a result, metals are excellent conductors of electricity,

while glass and wood are not. Materials used as conductors fall into one of four types:

metallic conductors, ionic conductors, insulators and semi-conductors.

• � Metallic conductors have a large number of free electrons, which facilitate the ef-

ficient transfer of electric current.

• � A solution that is highly ionic, or has a large number of free ions, is called an

ionic conductor. It is a good conductor of electric current, like metal in its liquid or

molten form. Salt water is an excellent example of an ionic conductor.

• � An insulator has a lesser number of free electrons and is a poor conductor. Insu-

lators do not permit electric current to flow through them, and for this reason,

they often surround conductors. Rubber, glass, and plastic are good examples of

insulators.

• � A semi-conductor conducts electricity partially, as it behaves like a conductor at

high temperatures, and an insulator at low temperatures. Semi-conductors con-

trol the movement of electrons in an electric current depending upon the struc-

ture of the material used to construct it. Careful placement of non-conductive

“impurities” on a conductive surface directs the flow of electrons, enabling ad-

vanced electronics. A semiconductor is neither a conductor nor an insulator. All

semiconductor materials originate from silicon. It is a component made of silicon

and glass. Silicon in its purest form is a good insulator. In order to change the

conductivity of the silicon, impurities are introduced, which changes the number

of electrons in the lattice structure. This process is called doping. Missing elec-

trons are called holes.

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Extrinsic Semiconductors – P and N Type

Since intrinsic or pure germanium/silicon semiconductors are of no use as such,

their conductivity is enormously enhanced by judicious addition of impurity atoms or

doping. The resultant semiconductor is called a doped or extrinsic semiconductor.

(a) Donor atoms: If an impurity atom is added to a pure semiconductor like germanium/

silicon atoms, these impurity atoms dislodge some of the germanium/silicon atoms.

Each impurity atom donates a free electron and is therefore called donor atom. The

doped semiconductor containing donor atoms is called donor type semiconductor or N-

type semiconductor, because its conductivity is mostly due to electron current. However,

the crystal as a whole remains electrically neutral.

The mobile electrons so donated are far in excess of the conduction electrons re-

leased by thermal breaking of covalent bonds and they are therefore called excess elec-

trons. Hence, the conductivity of N-type semiconductor is fairly constant over a large

temperature range (unlike a pure semiconductor).

When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped, the result introduces allowable energy

levels slightly below the conduction band. Since the impurity atoms are placed relatively

far away from each other, no interaction takes place and a single basic discrete level

forms the new allowable state. In silicon, the gap is 0.05 V below the conduction level.

Hence at room temperature, almost all excess electrons donated get raised into the

conduction band.

In N-type semiconductor, electron-hole pairs are formed as in the pure crystal. But,

because of the more numerous excess electrons, recombination is rapid and only fewer

holes than in pure crystal are present. In an N-type crystal, holes are called the minority

carriers and the electrons are called the majority carriers. The doped semiconductor

behaves like a resistor (called bulk resistance) with enhanced conductivity due to dop-

ing.

(b) Acceptors and P-type semiconductors: If a trivalent impurity like indium, boron and

gallium is used for doping germanium, this results in the production of holes. Since the

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holes so created accept electrons, the dopant is called an acceptor type and the resul-

tant semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor.

Holes are the majority carriers and the electrons are the minority carriers in P-

type semiconductors. At room temperature, almost all acceptor atoms get ionized and

the number of mobile holes equals the number of acceptor atoms.

Pn Junction Diodes Pn Junctions

When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to an n-type semiconductor, the

contact surface is called pn junction.

The pn junction is of great importance because it is the control element for semi-

conductor devices. A thorough knowledge of the formation and properties of pn junction

can enable you to understand the semiconductor devices.

Formation of Pn Junction

Pn junction is fabricated by special techniques. One common method is alloying.

In this method, a small block of indium (impurity) is placed on an n-type germanium

slab. The system is then heated to a temperature of about 500°C. The indium and some

of the germanium melt to form a small puddle of molten germanium-indium mixture.

The temperature is then lowered and the puddle begins to solidify. Under proper condi-

tions, the atoms of indium impurity will be suitably adjusted in the germanium slab to

form a single crystal. The addition of indium overcomes the excess of electrons in the n-

type germanium to such an extent that it creates a p-type region.

As the process goes on, the remaining molten mixture becomes increasingly rich

in indium. When all germanium has been re-deposited, the remaining material appears

as indium button, which is frozen on to the outer surface of the crystallized portion. This

button serves as a suitable base for soldering on leads.

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“More and more of our imports are coming from overseas.”~ George W. Bush, president

Properties of Pn Junction

Consider a p-type semiconductor having negative acceptor ions and positively

charged holes and an n-type semiconductor having positive donor ions and free elec-

trons.

If both are made to form a junction, which is a perfect joint, (on atomic state) then

n-type material has a high concentration of free electrons while p- type material has a

high concentration of holes. Therefore, at the junction, there is a tendency for the free

electrons to diffuse over to the p-side and holes to the n-side. This process is called dif-

fusion. As the free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, positive

donor ions are uncovered and are robbed of free electrons. Hence, a positive charge is

built on the n-side of the junction. At the same time, the free holes cross the junction

and uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling in the holes. Therefore, a net negative

charge is established on the p-side of the junction. When a sufficient number of donor

and acceptor ions are uncovered, further diffusion is prevented. It is because now posi-

tive charge on n-side repels holes to cross from p-type to n-type and negative charge on

p-side repels free electrons to enter from n-type to p-type. Thus a barrier is set up

against further movement of charge carriers (holes and electrons). This is called poten-

tial barrier or junction barrier Vo. This field sets up a drift of charge carriers, which op-

poses the diffusion of holes or electron current. The net charge flow across the open

circuited junction is zero. Thus the positive ions and negative ions are not neutralized

over a region. Since this region is depleted of mobile charges, this region is called the

depletion region.

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Transistors

Transistor is actually a term to describe “transfer resistance.” The device consists

of a silicon or germanium single crystal containing two p-n junctions. They are formed

between the following layers of the semiconductor.

Base -- a very thin layer forming the central region.

Emitter and collector layers -- These two are on the opposite sides on the B layer and

are of the same type. An ohmic or non-rectifying contact is made to each of the layers.

The junction between the base and emitter is called the emitter junction and the junction

between the base and collector is called the collector junction. The device is classified

into two main types – PNP or NPN depending on whether the base material is N or P.

Vacuum Tubes

In electronics, there are a lot of devices in which a stream of electrons is con-

trolled by electric and magnetic fields. Since a vacuum is required in the form of an

evacuated enclosure in which the electrons can move without collisions with gas mole-

cules. These devices, called vacuum tubes or electron tubes in the U.S., are known as

thermionic valves in Britain. These devices have been completely replaced by semicon-

ductors in current practice. They are also called "receiving" valves, which comes from

their use in radio receivers.

In vacuum tubes, the electrons shift from the cathode (K), the negative electrode,

to the anode or plate (P), the positive electrode. But, conventional current flows in the

opposite direction. At the cathode, the electrons are liberated either by heat (thermionic

emission) or by the bombardment of positive ions. This causes emission of electrons.

As a result, some gas molecules may become ionized by collision with speedy elec-

trons.

When an electron is knocked off, a positive ion is left off. The positive ions move

in the opposite direction of the electrons. However, their current is in the same direction,

since they have opposite charges. Due to the usage of a very high vacuum, the effect of

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positive ions in a receiving tube is very small. The electrons released by the thermionic

cathode accumulate to form a negative space charge cloud around the cathode. It is so

dense that if no electron is removed by attraction to the anode, the rate of emission is

equal to the rate of return. As soon as the anode is made positive, some of the electrons

are attracted to it out of the space-charge cloud, and a thermionic current results. A third

electrode, the grid, placed between the cathode and the anode, closer to the cathode

has also some part in the electric field at the space charge that controls the current. The

grid is made of a spiral of fine wire and electrons can pass through without hindrance.

When it is negative, it opposes the effect of the anode in creating an electric field, but

does not attract any electron, and draws no current. If it is made positive, it increases

the plate current, but draws some grid current to itself. The grid provides a sensitive

control thus making the vacuum tube a powerful amplifying device.

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Chapter 9Magnetism and Basic Electric Devices

“Now they show you how detergents take out bloodstains, a pretty violent image there. I think if you've got a T-shirt with a bloodstain all over it, maybe laundry isn't your biggest problem. Maybe you should get rid of the body before you do the wash.”

~ Jerry Seinfeld, comedian

Electric Potential

When a body is charged, work has been done. This work is stored in the body in

the form of potential energy. The charged body has the capacity to do work by moving

other charges either by attraction or repulsion. This ability of the charged body to do

work is called electric potential.

Electric potential= work done/ charge

Potential Difference

The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called the potential dif-

ference between them. Current will flow if potential difference exists. No potential differ-

ence means there is no current flow. It may be noted that potential difference is some-

times called voltage. The potential difference between two points is 1 volt.

Resistance

The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called re-

sistance. Since current is the flow of electrons, resistance is the opposition offered by

the substance to the flow of free electrons. This opposition occurs because the atoms

and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of these electrons. It may be noted

that resistance is electric friction offered by the substance and causes the production of

heat with the flow of electric current. The unit of resistance is ohm.

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Capacitors

Capacitors can simply be defined as the circuit element, which stores electrons. Mostly they are used as rechargeable batteries to provide stable voltage. Other than this function, capacitors have many other uses in an electrical circuit. Capacitors are comprised of aluminum electrolytic, ceramic disk, tantalum electrolytic, ceramic disc, mica, and polypropylene.

A capacitor mainly functions as:

• � Dc blocking devices -- When a capacitor functions as a dc blocking device, it

allows ac to flow, while blocking the dc.

• � Supply by-pass capacitor -- This capacitor, when used on a dc supply line,

shunts (shorts) to ground any unwanted ac.

• � Reservoir bypass capacitor -- A capacitor, used in the output of a dc rectifier, is

called a reservoir bypass capacitor when it smoothes out the power line ac pulses and acts as a reservoir between the charging pulses.

• � Emitter bypass capacitor -- Considered a combination of two models. Under the dc conditions, it operates as a transistor. Under ac conditions, it functions as an amplifier.

When a battery of certain voltage is connected to a capacitor, the capacitor gets charged depending upon the voltage and the value of the capacitance.

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With reference to the above figure, there is a flow of negative charges to the

lower plate, thereby making the upper plate positively charged. The voltage of the fully

charged capacitor will be equal to that of its source. The charged capacitor stores en-

ergy in the form of an electric field.

A capacitor is comprised of two plates separated by an insulator. The value of the

capacitance mostly depends on the total surface area of the plates as well as the dis-

tance between the plates. The unit of capacitance is farad. Farad is a large quantity and

the unit of microfarad is used in most of the cases. If the value of the capacitor is high,

then the stored energy will be large.

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Schematic Symbol for a Capacitor

Different types of capacitors are shown below - Capacitors from left to

right: polypropylene, adjustable trimmer cap, polyester, ceramic radial capacitor,

and ceramic axial capacitor.

Equivalent Series Resistance of a Capacitor (ESR)

Ideally a capacitor should have only capacitance. But practically all conductors

will have some resistance. All conductors contribute a certain amount of resistance can

be represented by a resistor in series with the capacitor. Capacitors of higher ESR val-

ues will allow only a lesser quantity of current to pass to the external circuit. Similarly

equivalent series inductance (ESL) is the value of inductance connected in series with

the capacitor. As the electrolytic capacitors consist of a large coil of flat wire, it will have

some inductance.

“I want to have children, but my friends scare me. One of my friends told me she was in labor for 36 hours. I don't even want to do anything that feels good for 36 hours.”

~ Rita Rudner, comedian

Film Capacitors

Capacitors less than one microfarad usually contain a plastic type of insulator. They can also be metallized material bonded on to the plastic material. Film capacitors are illustrated below.

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Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are used for capacitance values higher then 0.47 micro

farad. They consist of a paper material between two layers of aluminum foil. The below

figure illustrates an electrolytic capacitor.

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Capacitor and Voltage

A capacitor may have a surge voltage and a working voltage. Working voltage

provides the value of the voltage the capacitor can withstand over time. A surge voltage

depicts the value, which it can withstand for a shorter duration of time. Application of too

much voltage can fail a capacitor.

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Electric Field

An electrically charged object induces a force field around it, which can be de-

tected and measured. These electric charges are capable of moving the electric

charges in the field. An electrically charged object will have either a greater or smaller

concentration of electrons than normal. This guarantees the existence of a difference of

potential between a charged object and an uncharged object. This difference of poten-

tial produces an electric field. This field of force is normally represented by lines, which

depict the paths along which the force acts. A large concentration of lines demonstrates

a large electric force. Similarly lesser number of lines indicates a weak force.

“Charlie Brown is the one person I identify with. C.B. is such a loser. He wasn't even the star of his own Halloween special.”~ Chris Rock

Alternating Current

In a power station, the conventional method of producing electricity is by using a

motor to spin magnetic wire coils. The electricity, thus produced will be fluctuating in na-

ture by virtue of motor’s rotation. This is known as alternating current. As discussed

earlier, the electric current can be transmitted, more effectively in the form of alternating

current. Hence the electricity that arrives in homes is ac.

One complete cycle of the signal occupies 360 degrees irrespective of the ampli-

tude. The number of cycles-per-second is the frequency of the signal. This cycle is de-

picted using a sine wave. A signal may start at zero degrees and then reach its most

positive value at 90 degrees, then come back to zero value at 180 degrees and con-

tinue to its most negative value at 270 degrees. It can then return to zero again at 360

degrees. This is one complete cycle.

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The frequency of the domestic supply in the U.S. is 60 cycles/second or 60 Hz. If

the frequency is 50 Hz as in Australia, one cycle occupies 1/50th of a second or 20 milli-

seconds. Here the signal reaches its maximum positive value after five milliseconds,

then goes down to its maximum negative value in the next five milliseconds. This com-

plete cycle takes almost 20 milliseconds and repeats 50 times a second. In the case of

a 60 Hz frequency, one cycle occupies 1/60th of a second or 16.67 milliseconds.

Magnetism

Magnetism is a natural phenomenon that acts as a force to attract or repel spe-

cific substances, particularly metals. It is displayed by magnets and electric currents.

Magnetism is ultimately a creation of electric charges and their movements.

Types of Magnets

Any mass that produces an external magnetic field is called a magnet. A mag-

net’s force affects other magnets, electric currents and materials exhibiting magnetic

properties. Magnets occur mainly in two varieties: permanent and excited.

A permanent magnet is one in which the magnetic field is always on, and the

possessing material is always magnetized. Permanent magnets are often made of fer-

romagnetic material; ferro refers to iron, which is a material that responds strongly to

magnetism and is easily magnetized. However, not all ferromagnetic materials are iron.

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Some alloys and ceramics actually produce better permanent magnets than iron. Per-

manent magnets may lose their magnetism if they are heated to an extreme, are subject

to a demagnetizing field, or are exposed to shock.

A temporary magnet (also known as an excited or induced magnet) is one in

which the magnetic field may be turned on and off through an electric current from an

outside source. Temporary magnets can be made from materials that do not respond

strongly to magnetism by running electric current through a conductor to construct an

electromagnet. Electric currents may also be used to supplement the magnetic power

of a permanent magnet.

Magnetic Poles and Forces

All magnets have two poles, which is where the majority of their magnetic force

is. Like electric charges, there are positive and negative poles, and similar poles repel

one another while dissimilar poles attract one another. The north or north-seeking pole

of a magnet is called so because it is attracted to the Earth’s North Pole. A magnet’s

south or south-seeking pole is attracted to the South Pole. The Earth is itself a large,

permanent magnet resulting from the molten iron core that creates an electric current

with its movement. Because the Earth is a magnet, it is possible to detect its magnetic

field using a compass, or a thin, rotating magnet. The compass magnet will rotate so

that its poles are aligned in the opposite direction of the Earth’s, as similar poles repel

one another.

Magnetic Fields

Like electric charges, magnets create a field of magnetic force around their

poles. These magnetic fields contain the kinetic energy of the poles’ charges that can

be applied to other objects as they approach the magnet and enter its magnetic field.

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Figure shows the B-H characteristics for a ferromagnetic material where B is the mag-

netic flux density and H is the magnetic field. Operation follows the line, in the direction

indicated by the arrow.

A magnetic field follows a path around the magnet according to certain lines of

force, called lines of induction. The lines of induction appear similar to the electric field

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surrounding a dipole, circling the magnet to connect its north and south poles. A mag-

netic field is formed around a conductor, whenever a current flows through the conduc-

tor. Unlike the electrical lines, magnetic lines are not drawn between the rods. The

magnetic lines of force are drawn at right angles to the direction of current flow.

The left hand rule is used to determine the direction of magnetic line of force.

When one holds the conductor in the left hand as shown in the figure, the fingers will

point in the direction of magnetic line of force.

A magnetic field is not easily measured quantitatively. The easiest way to identify

a magnetic field is to observe whether certain metals are attracted to a particular object

or medium. However, a weak magnetic field may not be visible this way. One way to

identify even a weak magnetic field involves iron filings, a sheet of paper and the object

believed to be a magnet. If the iron filings are spread on the paper and a magnet is

placed underneath the paper, the filings will arrange themselves in a pattern that out-

lines the magnet’s lines of induction.

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Circuit Theory

A circuit is a corridor through which an electric or magnetic current travels, or is

anticipated to travel. The essential components of a circuit include a power source, two

connecting wires to conduct the current, and a load to receive the energy. If the con-

nections between the power source and the load are complete and correct, the current

will flow, creating a closed circuit.

Types of Circuits

Most circuits occur as series or parallel circuits. Series circuits connect all com-

ponents using a single length of wire, and are of the simplest circuit construction. In a

series circuit, the power source and load follow one another in a series, so that the elec-

tric current must travel through the first component before it can be passed on to the

second and successive components. The string of Christmas tree lights that refuses to

work if one bulb fails is an example of a series circuit. This demonstrates one of the pit-

falls of a series circuit: that the circuit as a whole will not function if a single component

fails. Another problem is that resistance increases as the number of components on the

circuit increases. In a parallel circuit, the components are connected individually to the

power source by lengths of wire that mirror one another, or are parallel to one another.

Each component in a parallel circuit receives the same amount of voltage independent

of the other components. The disadvantages of series circuits reflect the advantages of

parallel circuits. Parallel circuits do not fail as a whole if a single component in the circuit

fails, and the amount of resistance on a parallel circuit does not increase as compo-

nents are added.

Circuit Components

Circuits can contain many different components besides the essential power

source, wires and load. If a circuit’s power source is a direct current, a battery will be a

major component.

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• � Battery -- Batteries produce electric current through a chemical reaction that

generates an excess of electrons at one terminal (pole), while creating a defi-

ciency of electrons at the second terminal (pole). As a result, a battery con-

nected to a closed circuit will attempt to equalize this imbalance by sending an

electric charge through the connecting wires to the deficient terminal.

• � Switch -- A circuit must be closed in order for its electric current to flow; to exer-

cise control over the electric current, a switch may be introduced into the circuit.

A switch is an opening in the circuit that can be opened to prevent a flow of elec-

tricity, or closed to enable an electric flow. Switches are useful in conservation of

energy, since they permit the flow to be broken, preventing unnecessary energy

use.

"Adults are always asking kids what they want to be when they grow up because they are looking for ideas.”~ Paula Poundstone, comedian

Sometimes, a power source in a circuit provides more energy than the load requires.

To decrease the amount of electrical current, a resistor may be added to the circuit.

• � Resistor -- A resistor introduces additional resistance to an electric flow by con-

verting electricity into heat. Some resistors are variable, which means the amount

of resistance they introduce to a circuit can be changed.

The Objective of a Resistor

The duty of the resistor is to limit the flow of current. Normally a resistor is

connected in a series with a light emitting diode.

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Symbols used to denote resistors vary by continent. A zigzag symbol is found in

both the U.S. and Japan while a box symbol is popular in the UK and Europe.

A carbon film resistor is shown below.

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The advantages of carbon film resistors are that they are easily available and are

quite inexpensive. Their accuracy ranges are within ± five percent to ±10 percent of their

marked values. Metal oxide resistors have a better accuracy within ± one percent of

their nominal value.

Light Dependent Resistor

A light dependent resistor together with its circuit symbol is demonstrated below.

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A cadmium sulfide track functions as the light sensitive part of the LDR. As the

light energy falls on the light sensitive part, extra charge carriers are released in this

material thus causing the resistance to decrease. This induces an increase in the level

of illumination.

Capacitor

We have already dealt with capacitors in detail. Here is a brief explanation of the

capacitor.

A capacitor is a component that can be added to a circuit to regulate voltage by

storing a charge in an electric field between two plates or surfaces that are positioned

close together, but do not touch. A capacitor will store electricity in its field until the

opening between the two plates is closed and the capacitor is allowed to discharge the

energy it has stored. The storage of energy in an electric field allows the capacitor to

discharge, even if a switch disconnects the power source.

A diode is a circuit component that permits an electrical current to flow in a single

direction only. On one end, the diode has a high resistance to an electrical current, and

on the other end, has a low resistance to an electrical current.

Consequently, a diode is often used to convert alternating current into direct cur-

rent. Light-emitting diodes (LED) produce light when an electrical current is flowing in

the right direction. The light of an LED is used for entertainment, but also provides a

useful source of information about circuits.

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Different components in a PCB

An inductor is a coil of wire added to a circuit to create a magnetic field. The

magnetic field stores energy by resisting voltage changes, much like a capacitor.

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A transformer is used with alternating current to vary the current’s voltage

through electromagnetic induction, or the change in electric potential achieved by alter-

ing a surrounding magnetic field. The difference between the voltage supplied to the

transformer and the voltage produced by the transformer is directly related to the num-

ber of coils belonging to the inductor. If the primary or initial winding of the inductor has

more coils than the secondary, the transformer will produce less voltage than was sup-

plied to it. Conversely, if the primary or initial winding of the inductor has fewer coils than

the secondary, the transformer will produce more voltage than was supplied to it.

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Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors are sensitive to temperature. When the resistance of a re-sistor decreases with the rise in temperature, it is called a negative temperature coeffi-cient thermistors or an ntc thermistor. A positive temperature coefficient thermistor or a ptc thermistor shows an increase in resistance with temperature.

Microphone

A microphone is also termed as sound sensor. The figure given below shows a cermet microphone. Cermet is a combination of both ceramic and metal. The sound sensitive part is produced using a mixture of these materials.

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Switch

When a switch is pressed, a voltage signal is usually generated. This voltage

signal sets off the circuit in to action. This can be accomplished in two different ways.

The pull down resistor makes the output voltage, Vout, to be of a low value, ex-

cept when the switch functions. When the switch is pressed, a high voltage is delivered.

The pull up resistor makes the output voltage of a high value, except when the

switch functions. When the switch is pressed, a low voltage is delivered.

"Outside of the killings, Washington has one of the lowest crime rates in the country."

~ Marion Barry, former Washington D.C. mayor

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Fuse A fuse is a protection device used in a circuit. If there is any malfunction in the

equipment, the fuse burns and melts, thus cutting off the power to the circuit. After cor-

recting this problem, the device can be again put into operation. Special care should be taken while fixing a new fuse. The fuse must have the same current ratings. When re-

placing a fuse with one of lower rating, the fuse will be blown off as soon as it is re-placed. If the fuse is of higher rating, it can cause an accident.

Voltmeter

Voltmeter is a device used to measure the voltage of a portion of a circuit. When

measuring, the voltmeters are connected “parallel” across the circuit.

Ammeter Ammeter is used to measure current in a circuit. Ammeter shows the current

flowing in amperes through the circuit. The ammeter is placed in series with the circuit.

Multimeter

A multimeter is considered multipurpose equipment, which can be used to meas-

ure the current, voltage as well as resistance.

Generally used electrical symbols are given below.

ac supply aerial ammeter

amplifier battery

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Capacitor cell

d c supply diode

earth fuse

led loud speaker

mic motor

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ohmmeter photodiode

! ! !

transformer npn transistor

Circuit Equations

Ohm’s law explains the relationship between a current, its voltage, and resis-

tance, stating that a circuit’s current is directly proportional to its voltage and inversely

proportional to its resistance. This relationship can be described with the following

equation:

E = (I) R

Where E represents voltage, I is the amount of current and R is equivalent to the

amount of resistance in a circuit.

Joule’s law explains the relationship between heat and electricity as one converts

to the other. It states that the amount of heat created by an electrical conductor holding

a current is directly proportional to the amount of the conductor’s resistance, multiplied

by the square of the current itself, illustrated by the following equation:

P = I2 (R)

Where P is equivalent to the amount of heat, I represents the circuit’s current and

R is the amount of resistance.

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Kirchhoff’s laws describe energy requirements for circuits, specifically voltage

and circuit requirements. They are the Law of Voltage and the Law of Currents. The Law

of Voltage states that all voltages in any closed circuit must equal zero. The Law of Cur-

rents states that at any node, or current junction, the sum of currents entering must

equal the sum of currents exiting.

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Chapter 10

Transmission of Electricity

"I tell you, that Michael Jackson is unbelievable! Isn't he? He's just unbelievable. Three plays in twenty seconds."

~ Al Gore, former vice president, commenting on Michael Jordan

Structure of Electric Power Systems

Generating stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems are the main

components of an electric power system. Generating stations and a distribution system

are connected through transmission lines, which also links one power system (grid

area) to another. A distribution system connects all the loads in a particular area to the

transmission lines.

A Power Transmission Line

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For economical and technological reasons, individual power systems are organ-

ized in the form of electrically connected areas or regional grids (also called power

pools). Each area or regional grid operates technically and economically independently,

but these are eventually interconnected to form a national grid (which may even form an

international grid) so that each area is contractually tied to other areas in respect to cer-

tain generation and scheduling features.

Electric power is generated at a voltage of 11 to 25 KV, which then is stepped up

to the transmission levels in the range of 66 to 400 KV (or higher). As the transmission

capability of a line is proportional to the square of its voltage, research is continuously

being carried out to raise transmission voltages. Some countries are already employing

765 KV.

For very long distances (over 400 miles), it is economical to transmit bulk power

by DC transmission. It also offers obvious technical problems associated with very long

distance AC transmission. The DC voltages used are 400 KV and above, and the line is

connected to the AC systems at the two ends through a transformer and converting/

inverting equipment (silicon controlled rectifiers are employed for this purpose). Several

DC transmission lines have been constructed in Europe and the U.S.

The conductor system by means of which electric power is conveyed from a

generating station to the consumer’s premises may, in general be divided into two dis-

tinct parts (i.e. transmission system and distribution system). Each part can again be

sub-divided into two primary transmission and secondary transmission, and similarly,

primary distribution and secondary distribution, and then finally the systems of supply to

individual consumers.

It is a common practice nowadays to interconnect many types of generating sta-

tions by means of a common electrical network and operate them all in parallel.

This combination of generating stations forms what is known as a power system.

The various elements of such systems like generating stations, transmission lines, the

substations, feeders, and distributors become tied into a whole by the integrated proc-

ess of continuous generation and consumption of electric energy. A system network (or

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grid) is the name given to the part of the power system that consists of the substations

and transmission lines of various voltage rating.

Distribution

The distribution system may be divided into feeders, distributors, sub-distributors

and service mains. As already explained, feeders are the conductors, which connect

the sub-station (in some cases the generating station) to the distributors serving a cer-

tain allotted area. Various tappings are taken from distributors. The connecting link be-

tween the distributors and the consumer terminals are the service mains. There is an

essential difference between a feeder and a distributor. The current loading of a feeder

is the same throughout its length, but the distributor has a distributed loading which re-

sults in variations of current along its entire length. No direct tappings are taken from a

feeder to a consumer’s premises.

Transmission and Distribution

Today, all production of power is AC power, and nearly all DC power is obtained

from large AC power systems by using converting machinery like synchronous or rotary

converters, solid-state converters and motor-generator sets. There are many sound

reasons for producing power in the form of alternating current rather than direct current.

1. It is possible, in practice to construct large high-speed AC generators of

capacities up to 500 MW. Such generators are economical both in the matter of cost

per kWh of electric energy produced as well as in operation. Unfortunately, DC genera-

tors cannot be built of ratings higher than 5 MW because of commutation trouble.

Moreover, since they must operate at low speeds, it necessitates large and heavy ma-

chines.

2. AC voltage can be efficiently and conveniently raised or lowered for eco-

nomic transmission and distribution of electric power respectively. On the other hand,

DC power has to be generated at comparatively low voltages by units of relatively low

power ratings. There is no economical method of raising the DC voltage for transmis-

sion and lowering it for distribution.

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Chapter 11

Electromagnetic Waves and Radio Waves

"You teach a child to read, and he or her will be able to pass a literacy test.'' ~ George W. Bush, president

Electromagnetic Waves

The main constituents of an electromagnetic wave are an electric field and a

magnetic field. Generally, electromagnetic fields are an orientation of horizontal and ver-

tical line of force at right angles to each other. The electromagnetic field (E) and the

magnetic field (H) together form these lines of force, which in turn constitute the elec-

tromagnetic force. It is this electromagnetic field that makes the groundwork for the

transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves through space. We have already

dealt with the basics of electric and magnetic fields.

Basics of Wave Motion

When referring to the wave in the figure, one complete cycle of the wave is rep-

resented by points ABCDE. As evident from the figure, this wave has maximum points

on both sides of the reference line. The combination of the area covered by the portion

above the reference line (ABC), and one portion below the reference line (CDE), com-

pletes one cycle of the wave. The peak of the positive part is sometimes called the top

or the crest. The peak of the negative part is the bottom or the trough.

Wavelength

A wavelength is the distance traversed by one cycle of a wave. Wavelength is

inversely proportional to the frequency. Hence, at extremely high frequencies, wave-

length will be very small, and at extremely low frequencies, wavelength will be very

large (can extend to many miles). The Greek letter lambda () is used to denote wave-

length.

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Amplitude

The altitude of the peak above the reference line is known as the amplitude of

the wave. It is possible for two waves to have the same wavelength, but different ampli-

tudes.

Frequency

The number of cycles of a wave train in a unit of time is called the frequency of

the wave train. The unit of frequency is cycles/second or hertz. Consider that 10 waves

pass a point in one second. The frequency of the wave is 10 cycles/second.

If we know the velocity and frequency of a wave, we can determine the wave-

length of the wave using the following equation: = v/ f, where is the wavelength, v the

velocity of propagation and f the frequency of the wave.

Radio Waves

A radio wave is an energy wave generated by a transmitter. It is a combination of

both electrical field and magnetic field, better known as electromagnetic field.

The standard shape of the wave generated by a transmitter is that of a sine

wave. The frequency of a sine wave is the number of cycles that are completed in one

second. The frequencies between 3,000 hertz (3 kHz) and 300,000,000,000 hertz (300

GHz) are called radio frequencies. For convenience, the radio frequencies are divided

into bands. One band is 10 times higher in frequency than the preceding one.

Units of Frequency

Frequencies of the amateur radio are always expressed in kilo (thousand), mega

(million) or giga (billion) hertz.

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Bandwidth

Bandwidth explains how much space a specific signal takes up. The unit used for

measuring bandwidth is kilohertz. A large bandwidth denotes that it contains more in-

formation and occupies more room in an amateur radio band. The frequency band is

tabulated below.

FREQUENCY DESCRIPTION TERMINOLOGY3 to 30 KHz Very low VLF 30 to 300 KHz Low LF300 to 3000 KHz Medium MF3 to 30 MHz High HF 30 to 300 MHz Very high VHF300 to 3000 MHz Ultra high UHF3 to 30 GHz Super high SHF30 to 300 GHz Extremely high EHF

If a particular frequency is the whole number multiple of a smaller basic fre-

quency, then that frequency is referred to as the harmonic of the basic frequency. The

basic frequency is often called the first harmonic or fundamental frequency. A second

harmonic is the frequency which is twice as great as the fundamental frequency and the

terminology repeats for the third, fourth, etc.

The time required for one complete cycle is known as the period of a radio wave.

For a sine wave of frequency of four hertz, each cycle has a period of one-fourth of a

second. The frequency of a radio wave is inversely proportional to the period. A wave-

length is horizontal distance transposed by one full cycle of a radio wave at any given

instant. The velocity of a radio wave is equivalent to the speed of light (186,000 miles

per second). The speed of the radio wave is independent of the frequency. A two mega-

hertz wave travels through the space with the same velocity as a six megahertz wave.

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The plane in which the E field propagates with respect to the Earth is the plane of polarization of radio wave. If the E field component of the radio wave propagates in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's surface (vertical), the radiation is said to be vertically polarized. If the E field radiates in a plane parallel to the Earth's surface (horizontal), the radiation is said to be horizontally polarized.

In order to maximize the quantum of energy absorbed from the electromagnetic fields, the antenna at the receiving end must be located in the plane of polarization. This explains the placement of the conductor at the antenna at right angles to the magnetic line of force moving through the antenna and parallel to the electric lines effectuating maximum induction. The right hand rule is used to determine the direction of wave propagation. The rule states that if the thumb, forefinger and the middle finger of the right hand are extended so that they are mutually perpendicular, the middle finger will point in the direction of the wave propagation, if the thumb points in the direction of the E field and forefinger points in the direction of H field. The wave always propagates in the direction away from the antenna.

In the atmosphere, radio waves can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.

Depending upon the obstructing object, the radio waves can be reflected to a dif-ferent extent. The earth’s surface is an excellent reflector of radio waves. Metals with good electrical conductivity are excellent reflectors.

When the radio waves move from one medium to another, with differing velocity of propagation, the bending of this wave occurs. This is known as refraction. When a radio wave enters a highly charged area of the atmosphere, refraction will take place. The part of the wave that enters first will travel at a greater speed than that which has not yet entered. This sudden change of velocity causes the wave to bend towards the earth, which is called refraction.

The Factors Affecting Radio Waves

The characteristic of the medium in between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna often affects the propagation of radio waves in one way or another. The atmospheric condition varies with height, changes in geographic locations, and with the changes with respect to day/night and seasons. The information on basic division of the earth’s atmosphere is always helpful for an amateur radio enthusiast.

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Chapter 12

A Peep into the Atmosphere

"Whenever I watch TV and see those poor starving kids all over the world, I can't help but cry. I mean I'd love to be skinny like that but not with all those flies and death and stuff." ~ Mariah Carey

What Is Atmosphere?

We live at the bottom of an ocean – an ocean of air. All around us this ocean,

called the atmosphere, presses in upon us and affects us in everything we do. We

breathe its gases and they keep us alive. We communicate by speech. Fuels burn

through vibrations. Particular layers shield us from harmful radiations from the sun.

Even at heights of tens of kilometers, it is thick enough to arrest the flight of meteorites

and cause them to burn up before reaching the earth’s surface. It is colorless, tasteless

and odorless, but it enables us to exist. This vast ocean reaches several hundred kilo-

meters above our heads, but on a world scale, it is like a thin envelope.

The earth’s atmosphere is divided into three regions: troposphere, stratosphere,

and ionosphere.

Troposphere.

The troposphere, the region in contact with the earth’s surface and where

weather occurs, is characterized by a decrease of temperature with increasing altitude.

The troposphere extends from the surface of the earth to a height of about 3.7 miles (6

km) at the North Pole or the South Pole and 11.2 miles (18 km) at the equator. It is the

layer in which we live and function. It contains more than 75 percent of the earth’s at-

mosphere. Nearly all of the earth’s weather conditions – including most clouds, rain, and

snow – occur in this layer. Thus scientists forecast the most aerosols and water vapor in

the air. Jet streams blow in the upper part of the troposphere. The temperature of the

troposphere decreases about 6.5 0C for every kilometer of increase in altitude.

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The temperature stops decreasing at the tropopause, the upper boundary of the tropo-sphere. The temperature in this region decreases rapidly with altitude. Clouds form, and there may be much turbulence because of variations in temperature, density, and pres-sure. These conditions have a great effect on the propagation of radio waves.

Stratosphere

Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The troposphere and the stratosphere

show distinct circulating systems. Whereas vertical motions prevail in the former, mo-

tions in the latter are largely confined to the horizontal. Very little moisture enters the

stratosphere and clouds are rare. Airline pilots prefer to fly in the stratosphere to stay

above the weather disturbances that occur in the troposphere. The stratosphere usually

has a lower layer of nearly steady temperature and an upper layer in which the tem-

perature increases with altitude. The upper layer contains most of the atmosphere’s

ozone. The ozone heats the air thereby absorbing ultraviolet rays from the sun. The

temperature throughout this region is almost constant and there is little water vapor pre-

sent. The stratosphere has relatively little effect on radio waves because it is a relatively

calm region with little or no temperature changes.

Ionosphere

The ionosphere extends upward from about 31.1 miles (50 km) to a height of

about 250 miles (402 km). The air in the ionosphere is extremely thin. More than 99.99

percent of the atmosphere lies below it. The chemical composition of the thermosphere

differs from that of the other atmospheric layers. In the lower regions of the thermo-

sphere, many of the oxygen molecules in the air are broken into oxygen atoms. The

outer layer of the thermosphere consists chiefly of hydrogen and helium. Ionosphere is

completely exposed to the sun’s radiation, which heats the thin air to extremely high

temperatures – attaining a maximum value of more than 1,000 degree Celsius at about

250 miles. This usually happens during solar storms when more radiation and particles

strike the atmosphere. When this happens, the radiation ionizes some of the molecules

and atoms of the air. This is why this region is known as ionosphere. The ionosphere

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plays an important part in long distance radio communication. It reflects back to the

earth radio waves that would otherwise travel into space.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ### ---

This concludes Ham Radio In Plain English. I hope you found the information helpful and I wish you many hours of happy broadcasting!

Randy Pryor

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