3. science and industrialization
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Theories of Science and Research. 3. Science and Industrialization. Andrew Jamison. What was/is Industrialization?. An economic and technical revolution the growth of modern industry, or mechanization A process of social change the coming of industrial society and its institutions - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
3. Science and Industrialization
Andrew Jamison
Theories of Science and Research
What was/is Industrialization?
An economic and technical revolutionthe growth of modern industry, or mechanization
A process of social change
the coming of industrial society and its institutions
Cultural, or human transformations from rural communities to an industrial way of life
mechanization
socialization
modernization scientification globalization
socialism populism
modernism anticolonialism
environmentalismfeminism
1800 1850 1950 20001900
Cultural and Social Movements
”Long Waves” of Industrialization
enlightenment romanticism cooperation
IT, biotechtechnoscience
telegraph railroads
atomic energy”big science”
textile machinesfactories
Cycles of Creative Reconstruction
electrificationIndustrial R&D
The First Cycle
”the industrial revolution” (ca 1780-1830)
iron, textile machines, and steam engines
technologies of mechanization
the factory as an organizational innovation
social and cultural movements:• ”machine-storming” and romanticism• cooperation and polytechnics
James Watt
The Iron Bridge
The Spinning Jenny
Industrialization as hubris
Manchester in the 1830s
The Luddites
Mary Shelley:Challenging the hubris
”Learn from me, if not by my precepts, at least
by my example, how dangerous is the
acquirement of knowledge, and how much
happier that man is who believed his native
town to be the world, than he who aspires to
become greater than his nature will allow...”
• mixed Naturphilosophie with experimentation
• to look for the ”spirit in nature”...
• discovered electromagnetism (1820)
• and founded DTU in 1829
The Hybrid Imagination:Hans Christian Ørsted (1777-1851)
The Hybrid Imagination: Samuel Morse (1791-1872)
• the scientist-artist who invented the telegraph (1832)
• made a machine that could communicate
• devised a new technical language, Morse code (1838)
A Hybrid Imagination:NFS Grundtvig (1783-1872) and the folk high schools
”The theories of the natural scientists do not, of course
appeal to me when they try to make history unnecessary, but
there is no one more willing to sing the praises of their praxis
than me.”
Af udkast til tale om historiens forhold til livet, 1839
”Learning for life”
The Hybrid Imagination: Henry David Thoreau (1817-62)
• a ”romantic” scientist, author of Walden
• one of the founders of environmentalism
• also wrote On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1849)
From Walden
”I went to the woods because I wished to live
deliberately, to front only the essential facts of
life, and see if I could not learn what it had to
teach, and not, when I came to die, discover
that I had not lived...”
Thoreau’s theory of science
”The true man of science will know nature
better by his finer organization; he will smell,
taste, see, hear, feel better than other men. His
will be a deeper and finer experience. We do
not learn by inference and deduction, and the
application of mathematics to philosophy, but
by direct intercourse and sympathy...”
The Second Cycle
”the age of capital” (ca 1830-1880)
railroads, telegraph, and steel
technologies of socialization
the rise of the corporation (Carnegie, Krupp)
social and cultural movements:• socialism and populism • science fiction and arts and crafts
George Inness, 1851
”The machine in the garden”
George Inness, 1851
The industrial society
Claude Monet
A hybrid imagination: Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Philosophy (Hegel) meets economics (Ricardo)
Positivism (Comte) meets socialism (Owen)
Idealism (Kant) meets materialism (Bentham)
Theory of science meets the industrial society
A theory of industrial science
”Modern industry never views or treats the existing form of
a production process as the definitive one. Its technical
basis is therefore revolutionary, whereas all earlier modes
of production were essentially conservative. By means of
machinery, chemical processes and other methods, it is
continually transforming not only the technical basis of
production but also the functions of the worker and the
social combinations of the labour process.”
From Das Kapital, 1867
”Darwin has directed attention to the history of
natural technology, i.e. the formation of the organs
of plants and animals, which serve as the
instruments of production for sustaining their life.
Does not the history of the productive organs of
man in society, of organs that are the matrial basis
of every particular organization of sciety, deserve
equal attention?... ”
Science as technology
”...Technology reveals the active relation of
man to nature, the direct process of the
production of his life, and thereby it also
lays bare the process of the production of
the social relations of his life, and of the
mental conceptions that flow from those
relations.”
A Hybrid Imagination: William Morris (1834-1896)
A romantic poet turned designer
Combined artistry and business
Mixed tradition and innovation
A utopian who was also practical
From ”Useful Work versus Useless Toil”:
”Our epoch has invented machines which would have
appeared wild dreams to the men of past ages, and of
those machines we have as yet made no use. They are
called ”labor-saving” machines – a commonly used
phrase which implies what we expect of them; but we do
not get what we expect. What they really do is to reduce
the skilled labourer to the ranks of the unskilled.”
”
A major influence on…
Arts and crafts movements, garden cities
Interior and industrial design
Architecture: Wright, Gehry, Utzon
Art Nouveau and functionalism
Socialist politics and fantasy literature
The ”education of desire”
A Hybrid Imagination:Poul La Cour (1846-1908)
- a ”populist” scientist-engineer
- taught physics at Askov folk high school
- wrote Historisk Mathematik and Historisk Fysik
- built laboratory for wind energy experimentation
- founded Danish Wind Electricity Society in 1903
The Poul La Cour Museum, Askov
Industrialization and science
New technological, and science-based universities
New fields of social and human sciences
Professional science and engineering societies
Research laboratories in education and industry
”science as a vocation” (Max Weber)
Justus Liebig and his laboratoryat the University in Giessen, 1840s
The Carlsberg Laboratory in Valby, founded 1872, one of the first industrial research laboratories in the world
Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)and his ”electrical speech machine”
Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931)
The laboratory at Menlo Park
Edison’s ”Kinetoscope”
I am experimenting upon
an instrument which does
for the eye what the
phonograph does for the
ear, which is the recording
and reproduction of things
in motion ...."
--Thomas A. Edison, 1888
4. Science and Modernization
Andrew Jamison
Theories of Science and Research
The Third Cycle
”the age of empire” (ca 1880-1930)
Electricity, automobiles, and airplanes
Technologies of modernization
Research becomes incorporated (GM, GE, AT&T, etc)
Social and cultural movements:
• modernism and anticolonialism
• cultural and human sciences
Henry Ford with his 10 millionth car
An Age of Hubris
”Natural science gives us an answer to the
question of what we must do if we wish to
master life technically. It leaves quite aside,
or assumes for its purposes, whether we
should and do wish to master life
technically and whether it ultimately makes
sense to do so.”
Max Weber, Science as a Vocation, 1918
”The whole industrial world – and
instrumentalism is only its highest
conscious expression - has taken
values for granted...An instrumental
philosophy which was oriented
toward a whole life would begin...by a
criticism of this one-sided
idealization of practical contrivance.”
Lewis Mumford, 1926
National Styles of Science
empiricism and economics in UK Smith and Ricardo to Mill and Russell
positivism and sociology in France Condorcet and Comte to Durkheim and Bergson
historicism and humanities in Germany Kant and Hegel to Weber and Dilthey
pragmatism and planning/management in US Franklin and Emerson to Dewey and Taylor
Theoretical Tensions
In terms of the logic of explanationinduction versus deduction, facts versus concepts
In terms of the logic of discovery experiments versus mathematics, data versus models
In terms of the logic of justification, or verificationempiricism versus rationalism, practice versus theory
Competing Traditions
empiricism – largely a British, and then American ”style” closely connected to the economyobservations and data are central
rationalism –largely a French ”style” closely connected to the state and religionbeliefs and concepts are central
A Synthetic, or Hybrid Tradition
largely a German-dominated ”style”
Combining empiricism and rationalism
Emphasis on systems, wholes
Often connected to social, or political change
Characterized by hybrid identities
”Imagination is more important than knowledge”
A Hybrid Imagination: Albert Einstein (1878-1955)
Principles of Empiricism
An emphasis on observation and data collection
Observations provide basis for generalizations
A preference for quantitative methods
Science a search for law-like regularities, for facts
and for theories that can be tested empirically
The Empirical Tradition
17th century: Francis Bacon, John Locke
18th century: Hume’s skepticism
19th century: Bentham, Mill & utilitarianism
20th century: Russell, Dewey & pragmatism
Principles of Rationalism
An emphasis on concepts and rational thought
Concepts the basis for exemplification
A preference for qualitative methods
Science a search for logical truths, for insights
and for theories that can be applied to reality
The Rational Tradition
17th century: Descartes & the analytical method
18th century: Diderot, Condorcet & enlightenment
19th century: Comte & positivism
20th century: Merleau-Ponty & phenomenology
Principles of Synthesis
Truth a matter of combining opposites
A ”dialectical” view of nature, or reality
A preference for systematizing methods
Science a search for a unified theory
and for a deeper, more ”holistic” understanding
The Synthetic Tradition
17th century: Leibniz’s logic, Spinoza’s ethics
18th century: Goethe’s holism, Kant’s idealism
19th century: Marx, Weber and human sciences
20th century: Carnap, Popper, and systems theory
”Imagination is more important than knowledge”
A Hybrid Imagination: Albert Einstein (1878-1955)
Logical Empiricism
about verification, the justification of truth claims
focus on coherence of scientific statements
theories seen to provide causal explanations
stress the importance of ”thought experiments” science is a matter of logical rules, or ”language
games” (Wittgenstein)
Popper’s Falsificationism
an individual model of science as a”logic of discovery”
negativism, rather than positivism
theories are conjectures, hypotheses
experiments seen as attempts to refute theories
truth is a goal rather than a result
science is a continuous, cumulative process
Thomas Kuhn’s Revolution
a collective, ”big science” model of science
research guided by paradigms, or disciplinary matrices
”normal” science as a form of puzzle-solving
disrupted by periodic revolutions: paradigm conflicts
science is a discontinuous process
pre-paradigmstage
paradigmatic, or normal science
new paradigm
different ideas disciplinary disciplinary coexist formation restructuring
an exemplary anomalies thatexplanation, or theory lead to revolution
Kuhn’s Model
The Popper-Kuhn Debate
Methodologically: how science worksA debate between a normative, or philosophical, and a
descriptive, or historical approach
Ontologically: what science is
A debate about whether science is about reality or about perceptions of reality
Epistemologically: how science growsA debate about how scientific knowledge develops over
time
Recent Developments
the concept of research programs (Lakatos)
finalization and post-normal science
methodological pluralism: ”anything goes” (Feyerabend)
constructivism and situated knowledge (Latour, Haraway)
transdisciplinarity and mode 2 (Gibbons et al)
social epistemology, social theories of science
The Idea of a Research Program
The research front
The researchfield
A ”hard core”
pre-paradigmstage
paradigmatic, or normal science
finalized, or post-normal science
different ideas disciplinary transdisciplinarycoexist science science
anomalies that external interestslead to revolution that need science
The Finalization Thesis
Principles of Constructivism
Science a kind of ”situated knowledge”
Importance of tacit knowledge and intuition
Scientists ”construct” facts and theories
Science a search for ”socially robust” knowledge
A relative, or relativist notion of truth