27612111 visions of the apocalypse beatus manuscripts and 13th century apocalypse manuscrips

7/30/2019 27612111 Visions of the Apocalypse Beatus Manuscripts and 13th Century Apocalypse Manuscrips

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Alice White EN646: Image, Vision & Dream Seminar Leader: Sarah James

Vision and the Medieval

Apocalypse

The Book of Revelation contains some of the most vivid images in the Bible, and

provided illuminators with rich subject material to create vibrant manuscripts.

This may be a factor which explains the popularity of illustrated apocalypse

manuscripts during the Middle Ages.

In this essay I will explore the idea of seeing and vision, and different concepts of

the role of the image and illustration.

The Book of Revelation is excellent material for examining textual and visual

representations of the same concept, since during the Middle Ages apocalypse

manuscripts frequently included both a commentary and illustrations. The

collection of manuscripts which have come to be known the Beatus manuscripts

contain a commentary assembled by Beatus of Libana, and most 13th century

English apocalypses contain a version of the Berengaudus commentary.

Similarly, most examples of the above manuscripts also carry a set ofaccompanying illustrations. This demonstrates how far the illuminations were

considered an integral part of the manuscript as a whole just as much as the

commentaries. Like the commentaries, the illustrations were there to advance

the readers understanding of the text of the Book of Revelation, and yet the use

of images has proved far more contentious than that of the commentary. Both

during the Middle Ages and today, the role of images is controversial; the very

fact that the role of the image was such a significant point of debate indicates its

importance and the value accorded to the image.

The relationship between text and image is not a straightforward one. A modern

suspicion of the image may stem from a vague conception of the image as an

area of resistance to meaning1, whereas words are considered to impart

meaning. Similarly, those who argued against the use of images during the many

heated debates over the role of image in the Middle Ages proposed that they

confused the viewer, suggesting that they caused idol worship because the

1 Roland Barthes, Image Music Text, trans. Stephen Heath (Fontana, 1977), p. 32

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viewer misunderstood the meaning behind the image and worshiped the image

rather than what it represented.

The concept of representation is particularly crucial to an understanding of the

role of the image, and this can be seen in regard to images in apocalypsemanuscripts. Barthes has put it that the image is re-presentation, which is to say

resurrection.2 This implies that it is a copy of a real original, however medieval

understanding of image was linked with entomology; image was understood in

terms of the Latin similitude as being a species or likeness.3 In the Middle

Ages, popular theories of vision suggested that everything which was seen was a

copy of a real original, as intromission theories of vision suggested that seeing

occurred when a ray or species (likeness) was transmitted from an object to the

eye.

If what is seen is merely a likeness of the original object that it represents,

images in manuscripts arguably played a similar role to text. Foucault writes that

when it was given to men by God himself, language was an absolutely certain

and transparent sign for things, because it resembled them.4 Images in the

Middle Ages are like language following the fall of Babel and the loss of this

original transparent language: both are a species or likeness and not an exact

representation of the original.

The original text was the literary creation of the scripture which was created

by God and passed to man. Creative representation of the originals such as that

seen in the apocalypse commentaries or illustrations were secondary creations.

Both re-present an original which cannot be replicated exactly and therefore

seek to express its essence to the reader; only God had the ability to create,

man could merely imitate. The Book of Revelation even contains the warning

that if anyone adds anything to [the words in this book], God will add to himevery plague in the book; if anyone cuts anything out of the prophecies in this

book, God will cut off his share of the tree of life and of the holy city.5

2 Roland Barthes, Image Music Text, trans. Stephen Heath (Fontana, 1977), p. 32

3 Bernard McGinn, Johns Apocalypse and the Apocalyptic Mentality, Reading images :narrative discourse and reception in the thirteenth-century illuminated Apocalypse, Ed.Suzanne Lewis (Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 6

4 Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: an Archaeology of the Human Sciences(Routledge, 2002), p. 40

5 Revelation 22: 18-19

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The Beatus Apocalypses and the 13th Century English Apocalypses both utilise an

unrealistic image style, but the medieval attitude towards images as suggested

in the concept ofspecies may help to explain why colours in the Beatus

manuscripts have no relationship to the natural world6 and why perspective is

not important in 13th century apocalypse images; it is not important for the

image to be realistic, only that it expresses the likeness of what is described.

Since Revelation does not depict a world which resembles the natural world, but

instead one filled with monsters and miracles and fantastical occurrences, the

vivid colours and the sizing of characters by importance and not perspective are

perhaps more suitable than any attempts at realism in the representation of

something dramatic and almost beyond the imagination.

During the Middle Ages, sight was considered to be the most important of the

senses, following from Aristotelian thinking that it provided the greatest

understanding of the world: sight is per se more valuable [in terms of the

senses] so far as the needs of life are concerned.7 It would follow, therefore, that

the image is used as an aid to understanding of the Book of Revelation.

The Beatus Apocalypses generally contain around 90 images which vary only a

little from book to book in terms of what they depict, and often take up whole

pages. The images almost act as cartoon strips do today in terms of conveyingthe narrative, for instance in the Morgan Beatus the Revelation to Saint John is

depicted in two stages, first with Christ talking to the angels and then with John

approached to write (see Fig. 1). The Beatus manuscripts are written in an older

style of Latin and perhaps the images closely following the narrative aided

translation. It has been suggested that in northern Spain the Beatus Apocalypse

text was memorised by monks and nuns, and so the images could have acted as

a mnemonic device. Although not illiterate, the reader would then no longer

require the text in order to elucidate the meaning of the Book of Revelation.

Elizabeth Bolman suggests that colour changes in images of the plague bearing

angels are one example of images being

6 MireilleMentr and Peter Klein as quoted in Elizabeth S. Bolman, De coloribus: TheMeanings of Color in Beatus Manuscripts, Gesta (International Center of Medieval Art,1999), p.26

7 Aristotle, De Sensu and De Memoria: Text and Translation with Introduction andCommentary, Edited by G. R. T. Ross (Cambridge University Press, 1906), p. 48

3

Figure 1 God sends the Angel with theBook to John, Morgan Beatus, MS M.429(Fol. 19v)


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used as a mnemonic device, by variation

in the colouring of the angels clothes.8

This adherence to a conventional

organisation of images also occurred inthe 13th century English Apocalypses, to

the extent that by the time the Angers

Tapestries were being produced in 1373,

the images became autonomous from

text or commentary.

The Apocalypse manuscript images

perhaps suggest therefore that images

could be used autonomously from the

text as aids to spiritual reflection or meditation. Boethius Consolation of

Philosophy, which was extremely popular and influential in the Middle Ages,

argued the importance of cultivating the interior through piousness and spiritual

reflection or meditation, as this was the only route to true happiness. Since most

medieval readers would not be able to make a physical pilgrimage to Jerusalem,

they are in the Apocalypse manuscripts provided with the opportunity to make a

spiritual pilgrimage to the New Jerusalem by following the textual and pictorialjourney of St. John.

Both Beatus and English manuscripts

refer to St. Johns presence on Patmos

before the vision occurs; in presenting

this the images demonstrate that

although Johns physical comfort has

been lost and his earthly statusdiminished with his exile from society,

he grows spiritually and develops his

interior life by becoming close to God.

The images in the Apocalypse

manuscripts depict John on an island,

which is almost cartographic in

8 Elizabeth S. Bolman , De coloribus: The Meanings of Color in Beatus Manuscripts,Gesta (International Center of Medieval Art, 1999), p. 25

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Figure 2 The angel appears to St. John onthe Island of Patmos, The AbingdonApocaylpse, MS 42555 (Fol. 5r)


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representation, emphasising distance from society and physical comfort which

suggests that the central life is the interior, spiritual life not the physical

existence. It is because of his piousness that St. John is chosen to receive Gods

vision.

There were considered to have been three types of vision: corporeal, spiritual

(ghostly) and intellectual. St. Johns vision is corporeal in that he perceives with

his senses, and spiritual in that it is holy and issuing from God, and thus external,

as seen in both the original text and the accompanying images. However, it is

also internal in that it issued from the intellect of a visionary9, hence

intellectual.

John experiences his vision in a form of vision not accessible to most mortal men,

and so the way in which this should be depicted is not immediately obvious. The

Book of Revelation states that the Spirit possessed [St. John],10 but how John

achieves this spiritual form of vision is represented in very different ways by

different illustrators and over different times. For instance, in the Beatus

manuscripts this has been suggested through the use of a line rising from the

figure of John which lies prostrated at the base of the image, which culminates in

a bird within the mandorla containing Christ.

Since the author of the Book of

Revelation was often

considered to be the same

John as John the Evangelist of

the Gospel of John, this bird is

perhaps the eagle which was

the symbol used to represent

John. An eagle is thought to beused because of the elevated

style of St. Johns gospel which

differs from the synoptic

gospels in its discussion of the

9 Michael Camille, Visionary Perception and Images of the Apocalypse in the LaterMiddle Ages, Reading images : narrative discourse and reception in the thirteenth-century illuminated Apocalypse, Ed. Suzanne Lewis, (Cambridge University Press, 1995)p. 287

10 Revelation 4: 2

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Figure 3 In the Spirit, Gerona Beatus, Archivo de lacatedral I (Fol. 107) Highlighting added by me to


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nature of Christ, for instance as the word;11 St. John is able to see more highly

than the other evangelists. In the visual representation of the Book of Revelation

this symbol works both because of the original assumptions about authorship but

also because it deals with the exalted theme of the last events on earth,

judgement and the afterlife.

John is told in the Book of Revelation Come up here: I will show you what is to

come in the future.12 In the later manuscripts, including the Las Huelgas

Apocalypse (dated 1220), St. Johns movement from earthly to spiritual vision is

demonstrated through a physical movement from Patmos to the celestial court.

In the Selden Supra Apocalypse, this is achieved by climbing a

ladder up to an angel in the clouds. In the Douce Apocalypse,

this is shown by an angel carrying St. John upon his back up

some stairs towards the

turreted celestial kingdom. In

both of these examples St. Johns eyes

are focussed closely upon his

destination and the angel points towards

it, indicating its importance and the

emphasising the move from terrestrial to

heavenly.

By suggesting the

spiritual nature of the

vision in this way, the

later English manuscripts express a

physical boundary between heaven and

earth. St. John physically traverses this

boundary and thus continues to be bodily

represented in the majority of images from

the English Apocalypses. In the Beatus

Manuscripts, by contrast, St. John no longer

appears after he has been represented moving from his bodily form to the

11 John 1:1

12 Revelation 4:1

6

ure 4 John receiving bookd entering celestial vision, Huelgas Apocalypse, MS

429 (Fol. 146v)

Figure 5 John ascending to witnesscelestial vision, MS Selden Supra 38(Fol. 49r)

Figure 6 - John ascending to witnesscelestial vision, Douce Apocalypse, MSDouce 180 (p. 92)


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celestial. The earlier manuscripts represent what St. John saw, the later depcit St.

John seeing what he saw.

In English Apocalypses, the frequency of representations of St. John may have

been because of the popularity of the hagiographical libellus, which hadincreased since they were introduced with the reformation of Benedictine abbeys

in the 12th Century. Alternatively, St. Johns presence indicates not only that it is

a vision, but that it is his vision and his intellect which has made the

supernatural attainable to the readers humble human perception. His role is

shown to be primarily that of visionary who has been selected by God, not

merely a storyteller, imbuing him with a greater authority. St. John is then able to

direct the vision of the reader to the important aspects of the text.

This is instead done by the gaze of

the angels and other characters in

the Beatus Apocalypses. Their eyes

are particularly noticeable, as the

stark white of the eyes contrasts

with the bold, bright colours used

for the rest of the image. Because

of this, the reader cannot help butbe drawn to these contrasting

areas and visually engage with the

eyes of the characters depicted.

This allows the image to be used as

a mnemonic or aid to meditation,

as it allows the viewer to connect

with each character described in

turn. For instance, in images of

Christ in majesty, the Christ figure

is usually central, staring out at the

viewer and the first thing to be considered, worthy oflatria, and following that

the figures of the 24 Elders (the Prophets of the Old Testament and the Apostles

of the New Testament) who only warrant dulia. This is sometimes indicated by

the Elders eyes all being focussed upon Christ, as in the Saint-Sever Beatus (BN

lat. 8878, fol. 121v-122r).

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Figure 7 - Facundus Beatus, Biblioteca Nacional,MS Vit. 14-2 (Fol. 117v)


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In the Beatus of Libana, Christs importance is further demonstrated as he is

placed beneath a horseshoe arch on a throne, with two angels brightly adorned

in red at either side. Their gaze is directed outwards, thus the reader of the

image connects first with Christ and only then moves to the angels, indicating

the order of precedence. Vision is similarly used elsewhere to direct meditation.

The four Living Beings, which are commonly

represented as a man or angel, an ox, an eagle

and a lion (the symbols of the four evangelists),

are described as with many eyes, in front and

behind.13 In many images in Beatus

Apocalypses, they are depicted as covered in

eyes all over their bodies or wings, which stare

out at the reader, which focus attention on the

characters of the four evangelists. In the case

of the locust creatures sent to torture those

without the mark of God, the victims are

depicted with their eyes closed or averted,

perhaps in order that the reader does not

imagine a person but themselves in the place

of the figure, and also in order to emphasise the pain being experienced.

The gaze was considered extremely powerful in the Middle Ages, and this can be

seen in the depiction of St. John reacting to seeing the Whore of Babylon. He

collects his robes

about him as closely

as possible and even

pulls up his cloak to

form a hood to protect

his eyes further from

the sight of her, an

action which is not

taken elsewhere even

in the face of the

beasts. Women were

considered to be

13 Revelations 4: 7

8

Figure 8 - The Army Of HorsemenOver Lion-Headed Horses, LasHuelgas Apocalypse, MS M.429(Fol. 94)

Figure 9 - The Great Harlot of Babylon, Dyson Perrins Apocalypse,

MS. Ludwig III 1, (Fol. 35v)


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objects of temptation, like Eve to Adam, and thus very dangerous to look upon,

therefore St. John demonstrates his piousness and the correct way to avoid the

temptation of lust in averting his eyes. The gaze of the woman is depicted as

focussed upon her mirror, thus demonstrating her vanity and lust, which are

commented upon in both text and commentary.

There are instances of the defacing of Satan in the Beatus Apocalypses, which

Williams suggests indicate the individuals close contact with the book and the

power of the image as a pictorial gloss or commentary.14 But I would argue that

an alternative theory is that the fear of the power of the image caused the

reader to deface it. Intromission theories of vision imply that seeing an object

involves a part of or likeness of that image being transmitted to the viewer.

Suzanne Lewis suggests that this may contribute an explanation as to why

religious images were so important in the Middle Ages; the icon of a saint

created a visible species, the power of which could influence the viewer, such as

the icon of St. Christopher giving the viewer protection. 15 It follows,

therefore, that images of Satan would be erased or defaced in order

to reduce their power over the viewer.

Lewis suggests that the move from oral tradition to visual created a

privacy which engendered mind wandering and speculation... nolonger controlled by instant correction and that this caused the need

to insulate the reader from such temptations to independently

interpret the text by providing an accompanying textual and pictorial

gloss.16 This glossing would be especially important in the 13th

Century English Apocalypses, since they are thought to have been

more a creation for the lay nobility (although some later Apocalypses

belonged to nuns17). St. Johns journey through his apocalyptic vision

to the end of the world and the triumph of God is accompanied by

14 John Williams, Purpose and Imagery in the Apocalypse Commentary of Beatus ofLibana, The Apocalypse in the Middle Ages (Cornell University Press, 1992), p. 225

15 Suzanne Lewis, Reading images : narrative discourse and reception in the thirteenth-century illuminated Apocalypse (Cambridge University Press, 1995) p. 8


17 Neil Morgan, Illustrated Apocalypses of Mid-thirteenth-century England: Historical

Context, Patronage and Readership, The Trinity Apocalypse, Ed. David McKitterick(British Library, 2005) p. 13

9

ure 10 St.n with Staff,m The HarvestGrapes MS.dwig III 1, (Fol.v)


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commentaries adapted from the Berengaudus commentary, which provides the

reader with a textual spiritual guide. The pictorial gloss, I would argue, is often

provided in St. Johns reaction to his sights. He acts as a guiding figure, not only

leading the reader through a spiritual pilgrimage of the journey to the New

Jerusalem, but also guiding them on the route in life that they must take to

achieve a place in the New Jerusalem at the end of time. In some images, St.

John carries a pilgrims staff to demonstrate this aspect of his role.

In the image of the Whore of Babylon above, for instance, St. John demonstrates

how to prevent the mind wandering to lustful thoughts when looking upon

women, one should avert the eyes.

The only real example of this in the Beatus

Apocalypses is when St. John prostrates himself when

in the presence of the Lamb of God, demonstrating

the suitable way to worship him. God, and therefore

the Trinity which represents God including the Lamb,

is accorded the highest form of worship, called latria.

This is demonstrated by St. John in his bowing down

before God in this image. This is possibly because the

Beatus manuscripts are thought to be a monasticartefact, created to stimulate the intellect for the

spiritual development of the reader. They contain

extensive glosses, demonstrative of the seriousness

attributed to the texts. The reader would already

therefore be accustomed to the correct way to

worship, but perhaps desire more close analysis of

the meaning behind the analogous text. In many of

the Beatus manuscripts, the images take up whole pages or even double page

spreads (such as in the case of the miniature 47 in the Beatus of La Seu

d'Urgell18), perhaps in order to provide pictorial glosses or focuses for meditation.

Just as the British Library MS Egerton 1821 provided the reader with visual cues

to contemplating the Passion, the Beatus apocalypse provided the reader with

visual cues to contemplate the end of the world.

18 The Seven Headed Beast pursuing the Woman Clothed in the Sun and then beinglocked away.

10

Figure 11 Detail ofFacundus Beatus, BibliotecaNacional, MS Vit. 14-2 (Fol.
http://casal.upc.es/~ramon25/beatus/beat_47.jpghttp://casal.upc.es/~ramon25/beatus/beat_47.jpg


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Evidence of depictions of how to worship can be seen more frequently in English

apocalypses, where St. John, the four creatures and the angels and Elders are

depicted performing gestures and acts of reverence towards Christ, such as

bowing or raising their hands. This reflects the text in which reference is made to

such reverence as well as verbal expressions such as signing praises of God,

which cannot easily be visually depicted. Text and image work together in such

representations to reinforce the devotion which should be shown to God by

suggesting the many forms in which it can be expressed.

As well as being

shown bowed before

God, in the English

Apocalypses, St.

John is also depicted

being corrected for

wrongly worshiping

an angel who is not

due the same

reverence as God.

The angel here

raises St. Johns

bowed head and

indicates towards

the mandorla containing Christ in order to demonstrate where his worship should

be directed instead. This provides a pictorial representation of the concept that

there are different levels of worship; latria and dulia, and that only God is

deserving of the true devotion expressed by latria. Furthermore, it is suggestive

of the concern that worship may be directed towards idols and visual

representatives of God such as images of saints in churches, rather than to the

divine figure who has imbued them with their power: God. The image acts as a

corrective to any tendency to worship the image or one of Gods representatives

instead of the Lord himself, which may even arise as a result of the images

included in the book. The images thus provide the reader with a guide of how to

read and interpret them.

Another example of St. John providing a guide to suitably pious behaviour can be

seen in the image of St. John in which he is depicted with his fingers in his ears

11

Figure 12 - The angel refuses St. John's homage and tells him toworship God, MS. Auct. D. 4. 17 (Fol. 22r)


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because of the beasts blaspheming.19 He demonstrates to the reader the

appropriate response to blasphemy, and also makes the text more pronounced

in demonstrating how awful the things said by the beast are in his shocked

reaction. The illustrator furthermore demonstrates how terrible the beast is, and

similarly his followers must be in order to listen to him, reaffirming the

boundaries of acceptable behaviour with those who listen to the beast and deny

Christianity located outside.

The reason that St. John guides the reader on a spiritual pilgrimage is to help

them ensure their place in Heaven at the time of judgement. With the short life

expectancy and high possibility of violent death during the Middle Ages, people

were encouraged to think on their physical demise in order to secure a place in

Heaven at Judgement. The illustrated Apocalypse acted as a way to reinforce

church teachings via powerful iconography such as the weighing of souls, an

image which is frequently found in medieval church images.20 Christ or St.

Michael are usually depicted at the weighing of souls as gazing directly out at the

reader, this gaze suggesting that they too look to themselves and ensure that

when their judgement comes that they will have done enough to ensure their

place in the New Jerusalem. The meaning of the text is delivered immediately

through the medium of image, and the suggestion of judgement is in the

readers mind throughout their consideration of the text.

St. John occupies a place in

many manuscripts which lies

between text and image,

outside the frame but an

image himself nonetheless. As

the author of the work and a

figure of the text he is both

real and imagined. As Gods

chosen messenger to the

mortal world, he acts as an

intermediary between heaven and earth. The images themselves from all of the


20 Ann Marshall, The Doom, or Last Judgement, and the Weighing of Souls: an

Introduction, (2000) accessed10/12/2009

12

Figure 13 John watches through border as theTwenty-Four Elders Pay Homage to the Throne ofGod MS. Ludwig III 1, (Fol. 4v)
http://www.paintedchurch.org/doomcon.htmhttp://www.paintedchurch.org/doomcon.htm


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Apocalypse manuscripts are similarly between heaven and earth, depicting

spiritual visions from one but actually extant in the other. Because of this, they

are suggestive of many different possibilities of vision and image, more than

could be considered in this essay. In conveying a likeness of the text, I would

argue that the images provide the reader far more information, from how to

worship to ideas to focus meditation upon, as well as suggesting the route to the

spiritual true happiness that Boethius propounds. They even advise the reader

on how to read them, and the danger of misinterpreting the deified

representatives and representations of God for the deity. Since the original

wisdom of the Book of Revelation had been passed down by God, and God is the

highest being, no human interpretation be it textual or image can present the

same thing, but merely re-present in order to convey meaning derived from the

original. Both text and image thus provide the reader with glosses for this highly

allegorical text, and the value of the image in relation to the Book of Revelation

in medieval manuscripts must not be underestimated.

13


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Bibliography

Aristotle, De Sensu and De Memoria: Text and Translation with Introduction and

Commentary, Edited by G. R. T. Ross (Cambridge University Press, 1906)

Roland Barthes, Image Music Text, trans. Stephen Heath (Fontana, 1977)

Elizabeth S. Bolman, De coloribus: The Meanings of Color in Beatus

Manuscripts, Gesta (International Center of Medieval Art, 1999)

Camille, Michael, Image on the Edge; The Margins of Medieval Art(Reaktion

Books, 1992)

Emmerson, Richard K., and McGinn, Bernard ed., The Apocalypse in the MiddleAges (Cornell University Press, 1992)

Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: an Archaeology of the Human Sciences

(Routledge, 2002)

Harrington, W.J., The Apocalypse of St John: A Commentary(Chapman 1969)

Jones, Alexander, Ed. The Jerusalem Bible: New Testament with abridged

introductions and notes (Darton, Longman & Todd, 1967)

Lewis, Suzanne ed. Reading images : narrative discourse and reception in thethirteenth-century illuminated Apocalypse (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Ann Marshall, The Doom, or Last Judgement, and the Weighing of Souls: an

Introduction, (2000) accessed

10/12/2009

McKitterick, David, Ed. The Trinity Apocalypse, (British Library, 2005)

Meer, F. van der,Apocalypse, Visions for the Book of Revelation, (Thames &

Hudson, 1978)

Williams, John, The illustrated Beatus : a corpus of the illustrations of theCommentary on the Apocalypse, (Harvey Miller, 1994 2003

The British Library Online, accessed 01/12/2009

The Beatus of La Seu dUrgell

accessed 01/12/2009

Dyson Perrins Apocalypse at the Getty Museum

accessed

01/12/2009

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http://www.paintedchurch.org/doomcon.htmhttp://www.bl.uk/http://casal.upc.es/~ramon25/beatus/index_eg.htmhttp://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=1574http://www.paintedchurch.org/doomcon.htmhttp://www.bl.uk/http://casal.upc.es/~ramon25/beatus/index_eg.htmhttp://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=1574


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The Morgan Beatus,MSM.644, Pierpont Morgan Library.

accessed 01/12/2009

The Tapestries of the Apocalypse,

accessed 01/12/2009

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http://utu.morganlibrary.org/medren/pass_page_through_images_initial.cfm?ms_letter=msm&ms_number=0644&totalcount=1http://utu.morganlibrary.org/medren/pass_page_through_images_initial.cfm?ms_letter=msm&ms_number=0644&totalcount=1http://sourcebook.fsc.edu/history/apocalypse.htmlhttp://utu.morganlibrary.org/medren/pass_page_through_images_initial.cfm?ms_letter=msm&ms_number=0644&totalcount=1http://utu.morganlibrary.org/medren/pass_page_through_images_initial.cfm?ms_letter=msm&ms_number=0644&totalcount=1http://sourcebook.fsc.edu/history/apocalypse.html

27612111 visions of the apocalypse beatus manuscripts and 13th century apocalypse manuscrips

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