2 and 3 wheelers in india

8/6/2019 2 and 3 Wheelers in India

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F i n a l R e p o r t P a g e | 2

Innovat ive Transport Solut ions Pvt . Ltd .

TableofContents

1 Background...................................................................................................................7

2 AnIndustryOverview.................................................................................................12

2.1 Driving

Forces

of

Two

and

Three

Wheeler

Industries

........................................

143 GovernmentPoliciesTowardsTwoandThreeWheelers..........................................16

3.1 GovernmentIncentivePolicy..............................................................................17

3.2 TaxPoliciestowardsTwoandThreeWheelers.................................................18

4 RegulatoryFrameworkatPolicyandIndividualLevels..............................................19

4.1 RegulationsRelatedtoUsers.............................................................................19

4.2 RegulationsRelatedtoEmissions.......................................................................22

4.3 MethodstoEnforcetheEmissionRegulations...................................................25

4.4 CurrentFuelUsageandEmissions.....................................................................28

4.5 AlternativeFuelTechnologiesAvailable............................................................30

5 TrafficFlowsandCongestionData................................Error!Bookmarknotdefined.

5.1 TrafficFlows.......................................................................................................31

5.2 CongestionData.................................................................................................32

5.3 MeasuringTrafficFlows.....................................................................................33

5.4 RoadSpaceRequirementsandTravelTimeforDifferentModesofTrafficin

DifferentTypesofLocations...........................................................................................39

6 TrafficDemandModelingMethodsSpecifictoTwoandThreeWheelersand

HeterogeneousTraffic........................................................................................................46

6.1 CurrentModellingPracticesFollowedinIndia...................................................46

6.2 ErrorsinCurrentModelling,ApplicableforTwoandThreeWheelerTraffic....47

7 Road/IntersectionDesignGuidelines........................................................................49

8 ConflictswithOtherVehicles,BicyclesandPedestrians............................................53

9 SafetyDataandPreventionMeasures.......................................................................56

9.1 IndiainComparisonwithDevelopedCountries.................................................56

9.2 SituationinIndia................................................................................................57

9.3 FatalityIndexforVariousCities.........................................................................58

9.4 PreventionMeasures..........................................................................................60

10 ModeShareandModePreference............................................................................63


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10.1 ModeSharesofDifferentCategoryCities..........................................................63

10.2 TripLengthsofVariousCities.............................................................................64

10.3 AdvantagesProvidedbytheTwoWheelers......................................................64

10.4 ThreewheelerModeShareandThreewheelerIndexinVariousCities............65

10.5 TimeSeriesDataonTwoWheelerandThreeWheelerModeShare.................68

10.6 PurposeWiseTripsforVariousModes...............................................................73

11 Parking........................................................................................................................75

11.1 ParkingPolicy(NUTP).........................................................................................75

11.2 CityParkingPolicy..............................................................................................75

11.3 NewVehicleParkingSchemes............................................................................76

11.4 ExistingPracticesandDrawbacks......................................................................79

11.5 RecommendationsforFutureParkingStudies...................................................80

12 NoisePollutionandControlTechnologies..................................................................81

12.1 LegislationsonNoiseControlinIndia................................................................81

12.2 AmbientNoiseStandards(NoiseRules,2000anditsAmendments).................81

12.3 NoiseControlandRegulationProcedures..........................................................83

13 PolicyRecommendations............................................................................................85

13.1 SafeandEfficientUseofTwoWheelers............................................................85

13.2 SafeandEfficientuseofThreeWheelers...........................................................90

14 References..................................................................................................................91


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ListofFigures

Figure1PercentDistributionofUrbanTripsbyMeansofTravelforSelectedIndian

Cities,2006...........................................................................................................................9

Figure2GrowthofIndia'sMotorVehicleFleetbyTypeofVehicle,19812002(inMillions)................................................................................................................................9

Figure3SalesTrendsofDifferentVehicleTypes..............................................................13

Figure4VehicleCategoryWiseMarketShare(200708)..................................................14

Figure5RegulatoryFrameworkforAutomobilesinIndia.................................................20

Figure6TypicalCertificateIssuedafterPollutionCheck...................................................28

Figure7HomogeneousTraffic...........................................................................................41

Figure8NonHomogeneousTraffic(Delhi,India).............................................................42

Figure9ProportionofRoadUsersKilledandImpactingVehiclesonSampledNational

Highways............................................................................................................................55

Figure10ProportionofVehiclesRegisteredinIndia,Germany,JapanandUSA..............56

Figure11ProportionofDifferentTypesofRoadUsersKilledinDelhi,Mumbai,National

HighwaysinIndiaandinHighlyMotorisedCountries.......................................................57

Figure12ComparisonofThreeWheelerIndexofVariousCities......................................67

Figure13PeakHour,TwoWheelerVolumesatFiveIntersectionsSelectedinDelhi69

Figure14PeakHour,ThreeWheelerVolumesatFiveIntersectionsSelectedinDelhi....70

Figure15TwoWheelerModalSharesatFiveIntersectionsforFiveYearsinDelhi.........71

Figure16ThreeWheelerModalSharesatFiveIntersectionsforFiveYearsinDelhi.......72


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ListofTables

Table1AutomobileProductionTrends............................................................................12

Table2AutomobileDomesticSalesTrends.......................................................................12

Table3DomesticMarketSharefor200708forVariousVehicles....................................13

Table4RoadUserTaxinDifferentStates(AsaPercentageofVehicleCost)...................19

Table5EmissionNormsforTwoandThreeWheelersinIndia(FuelPetrol)................23

Table6EmissionNormsforTwoandThreeWheelersinIndia(FuelDiesel)................23

Table7EmissionStandardsforinusePetrol/CNG/LPGDrivenvehicles...........................24

Table8EmissionStandardsforInUseDieselVehicles......................................................24

Table9CategoryWiseFuelConsumption/Day(inKiloLitres)..........................................29

Table10CategoryWiseEmissions/Day(inTons)..............................................................29

Table11TrafficFlowsandVehicularModalSplitsofSelectedCities................................31

Table12ExpectedAveragePeakhourVolumeCapacityRatioforCitiesbyCategory

UnderDoNothingScenario...............................................................................................32

Table13PCUValuesatIntersections(IRCSP41:1994).....................................................34

Table14PCUValuesforMidBlocks(IRC106:1990).........................................................34

Table15ModalShareofTraffic(Chennai,2006)..............................................................35

Table16PCUValuesObservedatVariousVolumeLevels.................................................35

Table17PCUValuesDevelopedforTwoandThreeWheelersUnderVariousRoad

Conditions..........................................................................................................................36

Table18PCUValuesofTwoWheelersatDifferentAreaOccupancyValues...................38

Table19PCUValuesfromIRC106:1990...........................................................................39

Table20CapacitiesofRoadsofVariousWidths................................................................40

Table21CapacityVsFlowObservedinDelhi....................................................................42

Table22PCUValuesfromIRC86:1983.............................................................................50

Table23PCUValues(IRCSP41:1994)..............................................................................51

Table24ConflictsofTwoandThreeWheelerswithOtherVehiclesisDelhi...................53

Table25ShareofMotorisedTwoWheelers(MTW)andThreeWheeledScooter

Rickshaw(TSR)inIndianCities(14)....................................................................................58

Table26ProportionofRoadUsersKilledatDifferentLocationsinIndia.........................58

Table27AverageFatalitiesPerMillionPopulationPerYearinVariousCitiesinIndia...59


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Table28ModeShare(%)2007(WithWalk)...................................................................63

Table29ModeShare(%)2007(WithoutWalk)................................................................63

Table30AverageTripLengthsofDifferentCategoryCities..............................................64

Table31NumberofAutoRickshawsintheSelectedCities..............................................66

Table32AverageModalShareofTwoandThreeWheelersattheFiveIntersections

0bserved.............................................................................................................................72

Table33ModeSplitfortheWorkTripsofVariousCities..................................................73

Table34ModeSplitfortheEducationTripsofVariousCities..........................................73

Table35ModeSplitfortheSocialandRecreationTripsofVariousCities........................74

Table36EquivalentCarSpace(ECS)byTypeofVehicle...................................................76

Table37NoiseLimitsforVariousLandUsePatterns........................................................82

Table38NoiseLimitsforTwoandThreeWheelersofDifferentEngineTypes...............82

Table39NoiseLevelsNearHospitalsinDelhi...................................................................83


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longer, walking and cycling

account for about half of all

trips in mediumsized cities

and about a third in the

largest cities. There is

considerable variation,

however, even within city

sizecategories.Amongmega

cities, for example, walking

and cycling are much less

common in Mumbai than in

Delhi, perhaps due to

Mumbai's superior public

transport system. Among

smaller cities, Kanpur and

Lucknow have much higher

proportions of walking and

cycling than Pune, whichhas

a very high level of

motorcycle ownership and

TrafficCongestioninanIndianCity

useduetoitslargemiddleclass,aswellasanextensivecharterbusservicesorganizedby

Pune's industrial firms for their employees. By comparison, residents of Kanpur and

Lucknowhave lower incomesanda resultantmuch lower levelofmotorcycleuseand

minimal bus service. Instead, they rely on a mix of paratransit modes such as auto

rickshaws,cyclerickshaws,jeeptaxis,andtempos (largeautorickshaws). ( J.Pucheret

al.,2005).

Asof2006,privatemotorizedtransport(mainlycarsandmotorcycles)accounted

forasmallbutrapidlygrowingpercentageoftravel,about1020%ofalltrips(seeFigure

1).Figure2dramatizestherapid16foldgrowthofmotorcycleownershipbetween1981

and 2002. Private car ownership increased almost sevenfold during the same period.

The sprawling, lowdensity development around Indian cities makes cars and

motorcycles increasingly necessary, especially given the unsatisfactory alternative of

slow,overcrowded,undependable,anddangerouspublictransportservices.Atthesame


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Figure1PercentDistributionofUrbanTripsbyMeansofTravelforSelectedIndianCities,2006.

Source:VariousCDPSfromhttp://www.jnnurm.nic.in/nurmudweb/missioncities.htm

time,rising incomesamong Indiasmiddleandupperclassesmakecarandmotorcycle

ownership increasinglyaffordable. Carswhichcostupwardof$6,000andmotorcycles

whichrequireanoutlayofaround$1,000arethetwomajorchoicesforprivatevehicle

ownershipandservetwodifferentsectionsofthemarket.Levelofservice(comfort)and

travel time are the principal priorities for those in the high income population group,

while initial capital investment and operating costs are the major deciding factors for

thoseinthemiddleincomeclass.Becauseofthis,carsandtwowheelershaveseparate

nichemarketsand,ingeneral,theyarenotcompetitors.TheTataNano,thenew$2,500

car launched by Tata, aims to capture some of the twowheel market. However, its

success will hinge on whether consumers are willing to pay its operational and

maintenancecoststhataregreaterthanthoseofatwowheeler.

Thethreewheelersontheotherhandprovideforthemobilityneedsofpeople

notowningaprivate transportmodeand inadequately servedby thepublic transport

system.Theyarediscussedindetailinthefollowingsection.

Threewheeled scooter rickshaws (TSR) play an important role as paratransit

modes inmostcities in India.According toofficial statistics,86,185were registered in

Delhiin2001.Thenumberregisteredin1996was80,208and87,785in1999

Modal Split of various cities

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Delhi(12.9)

Kolkata(13.2)

Mumbai(16

.4)

Ahmedabad(5.41)

Bangalore(5.70)

Chennai(6.56)

Hyderabad(6.38)

Pune(3.76)

Kanpur(2.72)

Lucknow(2.24)

IPT

Car

Public transport

2-Wheeler

NMT

Walk


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Figure2GrowthofIndia'sMotorVehicleFleetbyTypeofVehicle,19812002(InMillions).

(Source:J.Pucheretal.,TransportPolicy12(2005)185198)

Note:OtherMotorizedincludestractors,trailers,motorizedthreewheelers(passenger

vehicles)suchasautorickshawsandothermiscellaneousvehiclesthatarenotseparately

classified.

(Mohan et. al. 2003). It is estimated that the population of Delhi increased by 20%

between 1996 and 2001, but the above statistics show that the availability of TSRs

increasedbyonly7% in the same period.Also, theyhaveunique safetyandpollutionproblems.Theyhavehighemission levelsbut cannotbe substitutedeasilybymodern

vans or buses because of economic and financial constraints. However, the three

wheeledscootertaxisarenowcomingequippedwithfourstrokepetrolenginesorCNG

engineswhichmakeemissionsperpassenger lessthanthoseofcars.Yet,research into

safety, efficiency and environment friendly technologies for these vehicles is not a

priorityinIndiaoranyothercountry.

According to Mohan and Roy (2003), TSRs should be the preferred personal

transportation mode and should be encouraged in urban areas provided they run on

LPG/CNG or fourstroke petrol engines equipped with catalytic converters. Ample

availabilityofTSRs(andtaxis):

Encouragespublictransportusewhichcaneasilygetpassengersfrompointtopoint

inahurry

Encouragesnonownershipofprivatevehiclesbecausepointtopointtransportation

iseasilyavailableforspecialoccasions.


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AThreeWheelRickshawinNewDelhi

TSR/taxi drivers do not cheat when supply is abundant and fare structure is

reasonable,sopassengersarenotscaredofhasslesandarguments.

GreateruseofTSRsreducestheneedforparkingplaces.Aprivatecarneedsaminimum

of two parking places one at home and one at its destination. Whereas, a TSRjust

needsoneparkingplace inthecityandif itdoes10tripsaday, itreducestheneedfor

nineparkingplacesathomeandthedestination.

ATSR ispreferable toacar,cancarry the samenumberofpeopleonaverage,

takes onethird the parking area and one half of the space on the roadway. Since its

weight isonethirdof thatofacar, it is responsible for lessdeterioration to the road,

requires lesstire/rubberuse,andtakesonethirdthenationalresourcestoproduce.All

this reduces indirect pollution. Since TSRs have a small engine (175 cc vs. 800 cc for

Maruti), they pollutemuch lessper passenger than most cars.Their smallengine size

holds speeds to roughly 50 km/h, in keeping with urban speed limits. This also helps

control the speeds ofothers.Becauseof lower speedsand lighter weights, they cant

easily produce fatal accidents among pedestrians and bicyclists. Therefore, TSR use

shouldbeencouragedasmuchaspossibleinurbanareasofIndia.


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2 AnIndustryOverviewThemotorvehicleindustryinIndiaunderwentaseaofchangeduring19851991

wheneconomicreformsaimedatencouragingcompetitionwereintroduced.Duringthis

period,thetwowheelerindustrysawthelargestproliferationofbrandsintheconsumer

durables industry.From thenon the rateofgrowthof twowheelers increased rapidly

overthenexttwodecades.(Pucheretal,2005).

Thefollowingtablesshowtheproductionandsalestrendsofvariousautomobiles

inIndia.

Table1AutomobileProductionTrends

YearofObservation,(NumberofVehicles)

Category 200203 200304 200405 200506 200607 200708

PassengerVehicles

723,330 989,560 1,209,876 1,309,300 1,545,223 1,762,131

Commercial

Vehicles

203,697 275,040 353,703 391,083 519,982 545,176

Three

wheelers

276,719 356,223 374,445 434,423 556,126 500,592

Two

wheelers

5,076,221 5,622,741 6,529,829 7,608,697 8,466,666 8,026,049

GrandTotal 6,279,967 7,243,564 8,467,853 9,743,503 11,087,997 10,833,948Source:http://www.siamindia.com/

Table2AutomobileDomesticSalesTrends

YearofObservation,(NumberofVehicles)

Category 200203 200304 200405 200506 200607 200708

PassengerVehicles 707,198 902,096 1,061,572 1,143,076 1,379,979 1,547,985

CommercialVehicles 190,682 260,114 318,430 351,041 467,765 486,817

Threewheelers 231,529 284,078 307,862 359,920 403,910 364,703

Twowheelers 4,812,126 5,364,249 6,209,765 7,052,391 7,872,334 7,248,589

GrandTotal 5,941,535 6,810,537 7,897,629 8,906,428 10,123,988 9,648,094

Source:http://www.siamindia.com/

Thesalestrendsshownabovehavebeenrepresentedinthefollowingfigure.


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Figure3SalesTrendsofDifferentVehicleTypes

From the total numbers, thepercentage share of each vehicle type is calculated and

presentedinthefollowingtable.

Table3DomesticMarketSharefor200708forVariousVehicles

VehicleTypeMarketShare

CVs 5.05%

TotalPassengerVehicles 16.4%

TotalTwowheelers 75.13%

Threewheelers 3.78%

Source:http://www.siamindia.com/

Thefollowingfiguregivestheabovedataasapiechart.


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Figure4VehicleCategoryWiseMarketShare(200708)

DomesticSales

ThecumulativegrowthofthepassengervehiclesegmentbetweenMarchandApril2007

was 20.70%. Passenger cars grew by 22.01%, utility vehicles by 13.21% and multi

purposevehiclesby25.20%infiscalyear200607.

Thecommercialvehiclessegmentgrewby33.28%.Growthofmediumandheavy

commercial vehicles was 32.84% and light commercial vehicles recorded a growth of

33.93%.

Threewheelerssalesgrewby12.22%withsalesofgoodscarriers increasingby

13.52%andpassengercarriersby11.33%duringMarchandApril2007comparedtothe

correspondingperiodthepreviousyear.

Thetwowheelermarketgrewby11.42%duringMarchandApril2007overthe

same period last year. Motorcycles grew by 12.79%, scooters by 3.48%, and mopeds

registeredagrowthof6.95%.

(Source:www.siamindia.com)

2.1 DrivingforcesofTwoandThreeWheelerIndustriesThemarketfactorsthatdrivedemandandinfluencecustomerpreferencesfortwoand

threewheelersarediscussedbelow.


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TwoWheelers

Three major forces have bearing on this industry: the manufacturers, financial

institutionsand the regulators (MinistryofEnvironmentalRegulationsandcivil society

groups).

Manufacturers: Producers launch various models and lobby government to provide

betterfacilitiesfortwowheelers.

FinancialInstitutions:Thesefirmsdrivethemarketbycreatinglowinterestloanswhich

inturnallowmorepeopletopurchasetwowheelers.

MinistryofEnvironmentRegulationsandCivilSocietyGroups:Therearenoregulations

on twowheeler ownership/sales in a city with the exception of rules governing

emissions.Indiasemissionnormsareamongthemoststringentintheworld(Iyer,BAQ,

2008).Therefore,theMinistryofEnvironmentalRegulations,whichsetsemissionnorms,

andcivilgroupslikeCentreforScienceandEnvironmentandothersuchNGOsthatlobby

forstricternormsalsoadduptothedrivingforcesoftheindustry.

ThreeWheelers

Thethreewheelerscatertothemobilityneedsofthosenotusingprivatetransportand

not being served by the existing public transport system. In this way, they serve the

needs of a section of the society by acting as cheap taxis. They have smaller engine

capacitiesandhighermileageratesthantheregularcartaxis.

Themajordrivingforcebehindthethreewheelers isthepolicymakerswhodecide

various issues, such as the total number allowable in the cities and fare policies, etc.

There isageneral tendencyamongpolicymakers invarious Indiancities tophaseout

threewheelerswhichtheyseeascompetitiontopublictransport,airpolluters,slowand

unsafe. This informal transport alternative is not always backed by sufficient data to

counter these claims. Also, the fact that threewheelers cater towards mobility of a

particularsectionofthepopulation(i.e.,thosenotusingprivatetransportortheexisting

publictransportsystem)isalsoignoredwhileformingthepolicies.


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3.1 GovernmentIncentivePolicyIncentives are provided in the form of low interest loans to buy new vehicles. The

government,throughvariouspublicsectorbanks,givesloanstopeopleatinterestrates

abouthalf toonethird less than thatof private financiers.Thevariouspoliciesof the

governmenttowardthevehicleloansareexplainedbelow.

TwowheelerLoans

Aloanofupto90%oftheonroadpriceofthevehicleorRs.60,000,whicheveris

less,canbereceivedataninterestrateof13.25to16.25%.Therepaymentperiodvaries

from1to5years,basedonthe interestrate.Theeligibilitycriterionforthis isthatthe

grossannualincomeofthepersongettingtheloanshouldnotbelessthanRs.60,000/.

FourwheelerLoans

A loan of up to 90% of the onroad price of the vehicle or three years gross

incomeof the loan seeker,whichever is less,canbeborrowed frombanks at interest

ratesof11.75to13.5%,dependinguponthebank.Thelifeoftheloanvariousfrom1to

6yearsbasedonthe interestrate.Theeligibilitycriterion isagrossannual incomenot

lessthanRs.1,00,000/andalso,thepersonclaimingtheloanshouldhavearesidential

telephoneintheirname.

Inthecaseofsecondhand fourwheelers, loansaregivenonly forvehicles less

thanthreeyearsold.Themaximumamountoftheloan isRs.5.00 lakhs.Themaximum

repaymentperiodisfiveyears.

ThreewheelerLoans

The loan policies for threewheelers are similar to the ones for two and four

wheelers.However,asameasureofpovertyalleviationandemploymentgeneration,the

governmenthaswaivedtherequirementofsecuritydepositsfortheunemployedpoor,if

theyprovidetheappropriateincomecertificate.Thishasleadtoanincreaseinthethree

wheelerownershipofpeoplewithlowincomes.

IncentivestoWomen

To improvethestandardof lifeforwomen,thegovernmentprovides loansata

special interest rate1% less than that chargedmen.The restof the requirementsare

identical.


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AFourWheelRickshaw

PrivateFinanciersandGrievancesofThreeWheelerOwners

The interestrateson loansreceivedfromprivatefinanciersis intherangeof30

to40%,buttherequirementsforobtainingaloanarelessstringentthanthatofferedby

publicsectorbanks.Also,publicsectorbanksdonotloanmoneyforsecondhandthree

wheelers.Therefore,anyonewantingtobuyanewthreewheelershouldfirstbuyanold

oneandexchangeitforanewone.Ingeneralthesecondhandortheoldvehiclecosts

aroundRs.100,000/andanewonecostsaroundRs.300,000/.Also,thistransactionis

done through private dealers who charge around Rs.25,000 to Rs. 50,000. Hence the

totalcosttobuyanewthreewheeleraddsuptoaboutRs.450,000.Outofthis, loans

fromthepublicsectorbanksaregivenonlyforthenewvehicle,i.e.,Rs.100,000/.This

practice forcespeoplebuyingthreewheelerstoobtain loans fromprivate financiersat

high interest rates.Asa result,operatorswhoowna fleetof threewheelersand rent

themeverydayfinditeasiertobuynewthreewheelersthanindividualswantingtobuy

theirown.

3.2 TaxPoliciesTowardsTwoandThreeWheelersTheroadusertaxontwoandthreewheelersiscontrolledbystategovernmentswhich

eachhavedifferentrates.Statescollecttheroadusertaxfortwowheelersasalump

sumforaperiodof15yearsatthetimeanewvehicleisregistered.Somestatescollect


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Table4RoadUserTaxinDifferentStates(AsaPercentageoftheVehicleCost)

State 2WheelerTax 3WheelerTax

AndhraPradesh 9% 9%

Delhi 2% 2%

Karnataka 9% 9%

MadhyaPradesh 5% 6%

Orissa 5% 5%

Punjab50cc 3%

UttarPradesh Rs1600(around4%) Rs380/Yr

TamilNadu 6% Rs280/Yr

Bihar Rs9001500* Rs9901920*

*Exactamountdependsontheweightofthevehicle

Source:http://www.morth.nic.in/related_catmain.asp?rellinkid=27&langid=2

taxonthreewheelersonayearlyorquarterlybasis.Thefollowingtablegivesthetaxin

someselectedstates,togetanideaofthevariationsintaxcollectedindifferentstates.

A vehicle registered in one state which later needs to operate in a different state is

subjecttothatstatesregistrationandroadusertax.

4

Regulatory

Framework

at

Policy

and

Individual

Levels

Theregulatorypoliciesdevelopedbythecentralgovernmentwillbediscussedin

section4.1.Theremainingsectionsdiscusstheireffectonindividualusers.

4.1 RegulationsRelatedtoUsersInIndia,therulesandregulationsrelatedtodrivinglicenses,motorvehicleregistration,

traffic control, constructionandmaintenanceofmotorvehicles,etc.,aregovernedby

theMotorVehiclesAct1988(MVA)andtheCentralMotorVehiclesRules1989(CMVR).

The Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways (MoSRT&H) acts as a nodalagencytodeviseandimplementprovisionsoftheMotorVehicleActandCMVR.


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Figure5RegulatoryFrameworkforAutomobilesinIndia

Source:http://www.siamindia.com/scripts/regulatoryframework.aspx

Inordertoinvolveallstakeholders,MoSRT&Hhasestablishedtwocommitteestoadvise

onissuesofsafetyandemissions,namely:

CMVRTechnicalStandingCommittee(CMVRTSC)

StandingCommitteeonImplementationofEmissionLegislation(SCOE)

CMVRTechnicalStandingCommittee(CMVRTSC)

ThiscommitteeadvisesMoSRT&HontechnicalaspectsrelatedtoCMVR.Itiscomprised

ofrepresentativesfromvariousorganizations,includingtheMinistryofHeavyIndustries

and Public Enterprises (MoHI&PE), MoSRT&H, Bureau Indian Standards (BIS); testing

agencies such as Automotive Researchof India (ARAI), Vehicle Research Development

and Establishment (VRDE), Central Institute of Road Transport (CIRT); industry

representatives from Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), Automotive

ComponentManufacturersAssociation (ACMA)andTractorManufacturersAssociation

(TMA); and representatives from state transport departments. Major functions of the

committeeare:

To provide clarity and interpret the central motor vehicle rules which have

technicalbearingonMoRT&H.


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To recommend international/foreign standards that thegovernmentcanuse in

lieu of those set out under the CMVR permit use guidelines for

components/parts/assemblies.

Tomakerecommendationsonanyothertechnicalissueshavingdirectrelevance

totheimplementationoftheCentralMotorVehicleRules. To recommend new safety standards for components for notification and

implementationunderCentralMotorVehiclesRules.

Tomakerecommendationsonleadtimeforimplementingsafetystandards.

TorecommendchangesinCentralMotorVehicleRulesinviewofmodificationsin

automobiletechnologies.

CMVRTSC isassistedbyanother committee called theAutomobile IndustryStandards

Committee (AISC), comprised of members from various stakeholders, in drafting

technicalstandardsrelatedtosafety.Thecommitteesmajorfunctionsare:

Preparenewsafetystandardsforautomotiveitems

Reviewandrecommendamendmentstoexistingstandards

RecommendadoptionofsuchstandardstoCMVRTechnicalStandingCommittee

Recommendcommissioningoftestingfacilitiesatappropriatestages

Recommend the necessary funding of such facilities to the CMVR Technical

StandingCommittee,and

AdviseCMVRTechnicalStandingCommitteeonanyotherreferredissues

The National Standards for Automotive Industry are prepared by Bureau of Indian

Standards (BIS). The standards formulated by AISC are also converted into Indian

Standards by BIS. The standards formulated by both BIS and AISC are considered by

CMVRTSCforimplementation.

(http://www.morth.nic.in/index2.asp?langid=2&sublinkid=204)

StandingCommitteeonImplementationofEmissionLegislation(SCOE)

Thiscommitteeconsidersissuesrelatedtoemissionregulations.Itsmajorfunctionsare:

Todiscussfutureemissionnorms

TorecommendnormsforinusevehiclestoMoSRT&H

Tofinalizethetestproceduresandtheexecutionstrategyforemissionnorms

AdviseMoSRT&Honanyissuerelatingtoimplementingemissionregulations.

BasedontherecommendationsfromCMVRTSCandSCOE,MoSRT&Hissuesnotification

fornecessaryamendments/modificationsintheCentralMotorVehicleRules.


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Inaddition,otherministries,includingMinistryofEnvironment&Forest(MoEF),Ministry

ofPetroleum&NaturalGas(MoPNG)andMinistryofNonconventionalEnergySources,

arealsoinvolvedinshapingregulationsgoverningemissions,noise,fuelsandalternative

fuelvehicles.

Thesearepoliciesof thegovernmentandhenceaffectusersataggregate levels.

Regulations related to individual users are explained in following sections. Emission

regulations on new and in use vehicles are detailed initially, followed by methods of

enforcement.Theactualemissionsareexplainedinsection4.4.Aftertheregulationsare

inplaceand iftheemissionscannotbeadequatelycontrolled,alternativetechnologies

mustbeexplained.Thoseavailabletechnologiesarediscussedinsection4.5.

4.2 RegulationsRelatedtoEmissionsSince the twowheelers (75% in 200708) and threewheelers (4% in 200708)

constituteabout80%ofthetotalnumberofvehiclesinIndia,theiremissionsalsoforma

significant proportion of total vehicle pollution.The primary pollutants are particulate

matter,hydrocarbonsandnitrogenoxide.Leftunchecked,thesepollutantscanproduce

serioushealthconsequences.

EmissionStandardsbytheGovernment

The emission standards were first adopted in 1991 and have been continuously

upgradedsincethen.Thefirstmajorrevisionoccurred in1996,thesecond in2000,the

thirdin2005andthenextin2010.

The following tableprovides thechronologicalorderofemission standardsand

alsovariouspollutants.Thesenormsarefornewvehicles.


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Table5EmissionNormsforTwoandThreeWheelersinIndia(FuelPetrol)

YEAR PETROL2W PETROL3W

CO HC+Nox CO HC+Nox

1991 12to15 8to9 30 12

1996 4.5 3.6 6.75 5.4

2000 2 2 4 2

2005* 1.5 1.5 2.25 2

2010* 1 1 1.25 1.25

*DF 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

DF*:DeteriorationFactor,Note:Allunitsareingm/km

(Source:N.V.Iyer,ManagingTwoandThreeWheelerEmissionsNationalWorkshopontheImprovement

ofUrbanAirQualityofPakistan,1315December,2004,Lahore,Pakistan)

Table6EmissionNormsforTwoandThreeWheelersinIndia(FuelDiesel)

YEAR DIESEL2and3Wheelers

COHC+NoxPM

1991 14.3 20

1996 5 2

2000 2.75 0.97 0.14

2005* 1 0.85 0.1

2010* 0.5 0.5 0.05

*DF 1.1 1 1.2

DF*:DeteriorationFactor

(Source:N.V.Iyer,ManagingTwoandthreewheelerEmissionsNationalWorkshopontheImprovement

ofUrbanAirQualityofPakistan,1315December,2004,Lahore,Pakistan)


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Thefollowingtablesgivethestandardstobefollowedbyvehiclesalreadyinuse.

Table7EmissionStandardsforInUsePetrol/CNG/LPGDrivenVehicles

VEHICLETYPE CO,%vol HC,ppm

2&3 wheelers (2/4stroke),pre2000

4.5 9000

2&3 wheelers (2stroke),

post2000

3.5 6000

2&3 wheelers (4stroke),

post2000

3.5 4500

Bharat Stage II compliant 4

wheelers

0.5 750

4wheelers other than

BharatStageIIcompliant

3 1500

(Source:N.V.Iyer,EnvironmentFriendlyVehiclestheIndianExperience,NationalWorkshoponUrban

Air Quality Management and Integrated Traffic Management for Karachi, September 13 14, 2006,

Karachi.)

Table8EmissionStandardsforInUseDieselVehicles

Methodoftest Maximumsmokedensity

Lightabsorptioncoefficient,

(1/m)HartridgeUnits

Freeaccelerationtestfor

turbochargedengineand

naturallyaspiratedengine

2.45 65

(Source:N.V.Iyer,EnvironmentFriendlyVehiclestheIndianExperience,NationalWorkshoponUrban

Air Quality Management and Integrated Traffic Management for Karachi, September 13 14, 2006,

Karachi.)

Maximumlimitsforcritical ingredientslikebenzeneinpetrolhavebeenspecifiedat5%

m/minthecountryand3%inthemetropolitanareas.Toaddresstheexcessivepollution

inthefourmetrocitiesofDelhi,Mumbai,KolkataandChennai,0.05%sulfurcontent in

petrolanddieselhasbeensetsince20002001.Thebenzenecontenthasbeenfurther

reducedto1%inDelhiandMumbai.

Theseprogressivelyrigidstandardsresultedinsignificanttechnologicaladvancesandthe

introductionofexceedinglylowemissionvehicles.Thisarrestedfurtherdeteriorationof


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airquality,but resulted in insignificant reductions inambientpollution levelsofPM10

andCO.(Note:SignificantcontributionsofPM10comefromdieselvehiclesandCOfrom

passengercars)

Also, the benefits obtained from cleaner, new vehicles are negated by the pollution

contributedby largenumbersofoldervehiclesthatarepoorlymaintainedandhaveno

emissioncontrols(Source:N.V.IYER,2001).

4.3 MethodstoenforcetheemissionregulationsTwolevelsofchecksareneededtoensurethattheabovementionedstandardsaremet:

1. Verifythatvehiclemanufacturersarecomplyingwithemissionstandards

2. Confirmthatownersaremaintainingtheirvehiclesuptotherequiredstandards

Theenforcementmethodologyisexplainedinthissection.

1. Checkonthemanufacturers:

Thisisgenerallydoneinthefollowingways:

TypeApprovalandConformityofProduction(COP)Tests

Thesetestsaredoneoneachvehiclecomingoutofthemanufacturingplanttoensure

tailpipeemissionstandardsarebeingmet.Oncenewvehiclesaresold,emission tests

arenotrequiredforthefirstyear.

TypeApprovalTests

Allnewvehiclesneedatypeapprovalcertificatestatingthatthemodel isamongthose

listedinRule126(A)oftheCentralMotorVehicleRules(CMVR),1993.Thistestneedsto

be carried out by a governmentrecognized testing agency (eg iCAT in Manesar,

Haryana).

ConformityofProduction(COP)Test

ThesameagencythatdoesthetypeapprovalgenerallydoestheCOPtest.However,the

manufacturercangotoanotheragency ifdesired.TheCOPperiodforavehicle/engine

modeliseverysixmonthsfromApriltoSeptemberandOctobertoMarch,orproduction

of 25,000 vehicles/engines if the vehicles are anything other than twoandthree

wheelers. However, if production of a model including its variants in a year (i.e. two

consecutive COP periods of six months each) is less than 5,000 in the case of other

vehicles(otherthantwoorthreewheelers)theCOPintervalshallbeoneyear.


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The sampling size is one days average production, subject to a minimum of 10 and

maximum of 100. For lowvolume production vehicles (


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authorizedtocarryoutthesetestsandonly labelingdonethere isvalid (MarutiSuzuki

IndiaLimited,2008).

2. CheckontheUsersThe following measures have been adopted for the inuse vehicles. (Source: N. V.

Iyer,2006,Karachi)

SoundInspection&MaintenanceProgram

TocheckthatthevehiclesareobservingtheprescribednormsthePUC(Pollutionunder

Control)certificateismandatoryforallthevehicles.Allvehiclesarerequiredtopassan

emissioninspectioneveryyearandobtainacertificatethatstatesallemissionstandards

arebeingmet.

ThePUCcertificateisissuedafterthefollowingprocedure:

Statetransportdepartmentsauthorizesomeemissionscheckingcentersinvariouscities.

Thesearegenerallyplacedinfuelfillingstationsormobilevansthatcontaintherequired

equipmentfortesting.ThepricechargedforthisisnominalatRs.35/(lessthan$1U.S.).

Figure6showsanexampleofatypicalPUCcertificate issued inDelhi.Eventhoughthe

certificate is for 2004, the same procedure is still followed even with exceptions for

changesintheprescribedstandards.

Thiscertificateisvalidforoneyear.Adatedphotographofthevehiclesnumberplate

is placed on the certificate as a benchmark for calculating the mandatory oneyear

period.Ifthemeasuredlevelofpollutionfromthevehicleisgreaterthantheprescribed

limit, the owner is supposed to get the vehicle repaired and apply for a new PUC

certificate.

However, the present system has the following failings and hence needs to be

improved:

o No government supervision of the large number of privately owned

centers

o Noqualityassurancetoverifycorrectnessofcertificates,testequipment

notcalibratedperiodically

o Certificateissuingsystemnotfoolproof

o Fraudulentpracticesfollowedbymanycenters,certificatesissuedwithout

testing

o Testcentersareallowedtocarryoutrepairs;thiscreatesvestedinterests

o Noisepollutioncausedbythevehiclesisuncheckedduringthetest.


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Figure6TypicalcertificateIssuedAfterPollutionCheck

IntroductionofPreMixedTwoStroke(2T)Oil

AtpresentonlythecityofDelhihasmadethismandatory.Othercitiesneedto

followtheexampletoachievelesseremissions.

PhasingOutOldVehicles

Replacingthesewithnewonesmeetinglatestemissionstandardsor

Replacingbythoserunningonalternatefuels

Upgradingoldvehicles

Retrofitwithcatalyticconverters(effectiveonlyonpost1996vehicles)

4.4 CurrentFuelUsageandEmissionsThe following tables give the total fuel being consumed in various cities in India. The

citiesarecategorizedaccordingtotheirpopulation.


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Table9CategoryWiseFuelConsumption/Day(InKiloLitres)

City

Category

Population

(inlakhs)Car 2W 3W Bus Total

1 80 4,782 1,605 2,869 7,442 16,697

Source:MoUDreport,2008

Table10CategoryWiseEmissions/Day(inTons)

City

Category

Population

(inlakhs)Car 2W 3W Bus Total

1 80 556 365 451 375 1747

(MoUDreport,2008)

Carsandtwowheelersconsumethemajorityofthefuelforallcities inCategory1to5andaccountforapproximately65to90%ofthetotalemissionsproducedbyallmodesof

transport.InCategory6cities,whilecarsandtwowheelersaccountforlessthan50%of

the total fuel consumption by all modes, the total emission produced by these two

modesismorethan60%.Thisisduetohighlevelsofcongestionresultinginslowspeeds

andthushigheremissions.

InCategory5and6cities, intermediatepublictransportvehiclesaccountfor18to23%

of the fuel consumption, respectively, while they contribute to approximately one

quarterofthetotalemissionsbyallvehicles.

It is expected that mandatory fuel economy standards and an official fuel economy

labeling program will help in reducing these emissions (Centre for Science and

Environment,2008).


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4.5 AlternativefueltechnologiesavailableAdopting strong emission standards and enforcing them is one way of controlling air

quality.Anotherway is toexplore thepossibilityofalternative fuelsand technologies.

Thissectiondiscussesthevariousoptionsavailableintermsoffueltechnologies.

Twowheelersarenotattractivecandidatesforfuelchanges.However,thethree

wheelerscanbesuccessfullyconvertedtoCNG(India)andLPG(IndiaandThailand).The

followingarethefeaturesoftheseconversions:

CNGAutoRickshaw:

Usesafourstroke,aircooled,sparkignitedengine

HasaCNGcylinder(22literwatercapacity)abletohold~3.5kgofCNGat200bar

pressure

Deliversafuelefficiencyof~45kmperkgofCNG Complieswithallnotifiedsafetystandards

Isprovidedwithathreeliterlimphomepetroltank

PricedatUS$2,000,about25%higherthanthecorrespondingpetrolversion(12,5%

higherwithDelhiincentives)

LPGautorickshaw:

Opinion is divided on whether LPG is a truly environment friendly alternative to

advancedenginetechnologyandcleanfuels.Thisisbecausethetotalhydrocarbon(THC)

emission of an LPG vehicle is higher (~15 to 30%) than that of corresponding petrol

vehicleandalsothecarbonmonoxide,nitrogendioxideandnitricoxideemission levels

are comparable to those of corresponding petrol versions. Users also may not be

attractedtoLPGifthefueleconomybenefitistoosmall.Theotherdangerofpromoting

LPG in India is that LPG for kitchen use attracts a subsidy (price ~Rs. 24/kgUS$ 0.60,

subsidy~Rs.17/kgUS$0.42/kg).SincetheautoLPGpricewouldbebasedonmarket

forces,itspriceislikelytobehigherandvariable.

TheotheralternativesavailableintermsofthefueltechnologyareElectricthreewheelerautorickshawprogram

Electrictwowheelerscooterprogram

However, largescale commercial production and usage is yet to be achieved in this

segmentandhencenoconclusionscanbedrawn.

(IYER,2001;Georgeetal.,2002)


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4.6 TrafficFlowsandCongestionDataTrafficFlowsVehiculartrafficflowsandtheirmodalsplitsobservedintheCBDareasofsomeselected

cities are presented in this section. The ranges given here are collected from traffic

volumecountsurveysdone in thesecitiesasapartofvariouscomprehensivemobility

plans,BRTfeasibilityplansandotherstudies.Sinceavarietyofvehicletypesmakeupthe

totaltraffic,themodalsplitisalsopresentedtogetanideaofwhichvehiclesareactually

contributing to the flows mentioned. Since this study is specific to twoandthree

wheelers,only theirmodalsplitsand thatofcars, theothermajorpersonalizedmode,

arepresentedseparately.Allothervehiclesareputtogetherintheotherscolumn.

Table11TrafficFlowsandVehicularModalSplitsofSelectedCities

City Population

(inmillions)

CBDMidblock

Flow(pcu/day)

2W 3W Car Others* Total

Delhi >10 50,00060,000 6 8 18 86 100

Hyderabad 510 50,00060,000 24 9 12 67 100

Pune 25 40,00050,000 45 9 15 46 100

Jabalpur 12 30,00040,000 37 2 2 59 100

Rajkot 12 30,00040,000 35 1 16 64 100

Patna 12 30,00040,000 20 10 12 70 100

Vijayawada 12 30,00040,000 29 25 7 46 100

*Othersincludepublictransport,nonmotorizedtransport,andothermodeslike

tractors,goodsvehicles,etc.

Sources:TRIPPReport,2008

As a citys population increases, the traffic in the CBD also swells because a large

populationmeansalargercityandmorebusinessactivity,leadingtomoretrips.Also,for

thefourcitiesinthesamepopulationrangeofone totwomillion,theflowsarealsoin

thesamerange, i.e.30,000to40,000PCU/day.Thissuggeststhatthetrafficpattern in

cities with similar populations is comparable. Also, apart from Rajkot, with a three

wheeleruseof1%,andVijayawada,havingahigh threewheelerusageof25%,all theother cities have a similar threewheeler modal share between 810%, which is also

observedinthemodalsharesection10.1.

TwoWheelerModalShareTrends

Inthecaseoftwowheelers,eventhoughthereisnoexacttrend,thegeneralinclination

isthattwowheelermodalsharesgrowwithcitysizebutafteracertainpointdecreaseas


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citysizeincreases.Thiscanbeattributedtoshorttriplengths(DiscussedinSection10.2)

in smaller cities that grow as the citysize increases, resulting in longer trips that

encourage people to shift to motorized transport. Since twowheelers are more

affordable to middle income Indians (which constitute a high proportion of the

population)peopleshiftfromNMTtotwowheelers.Asthecitysizeand,hence,thetrip

lengths increase more people prefer the comfort cars provide in the tropical Indian

conditionsandhigherspeedsthatleadtolessertraveltimes.Section10.3presentssome

otheraspectsregardingthetwowheelermodalshares.

4.7 TrafficFlowsandCongestionDataCongestionDataThe volume/capacity (V/C) ratio measures congestion in various cities. For 2007, it is

calculatedbytakingpeakhourvolumecounts(fourhoursinthemorningpeakandfour

hours in the evening peak) at screen line (imaginary lines cutting across the major

arterialsconnectingtheCBD)pointsofvariouscities.

The following table gives the average V/C ratios in the arterials of cities

categorizedaccordingtotheirpopulation.ThefutureV/Cratiosofthesecitieshavealso

beenestimated for adonothing scenario, i.e. assuming that the vehiclesgrowat the

samerateandtheroadinfrastructureremainsthesame.

Table12ExpectedAveragePeakHourVolumeCapacityRatioforCitiesbyCategoryUnderDo

NothingScenario

City

Category

Population

(inmillions) 2007 2011 2021 2031

Category1 8 1.21 1.79 2.4 2.9

Source:MoUDreport,2008

Itcanbeobserved that in somecities theV/C ratiosaregreater than1,whichmeans

vehiclesexceedtheroadcapacity.Thismaybeduetotworeasons.

i) Roadsoperatingatlevelofservice(LOS)F:IRC106definesthisasthestateof

forced or breakdown flow. This state occurs when the amount of traffic

approachingapointexceeds theamount that can pass through it.Queues,


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which operate in extremely unstable, stopandgo waves, form in such

locations.Vehiclesmayprogressata reasonable speed for severalhundred

meters and may then be required to stop in a cyclic fashion. Due to high

volumes,breakdownsoccurandlongqueuesanddelaysresult.Theaverage

travelspeedsarebetween25and33%offreeflowspeed.

ii) Useofincorrectcapacityvalues:Thecapacitiesofvariousroadsarespecified

in terms of pcus/hr/lane. However, the PCU values adopted are static

throughoutthenetworkandthereforemightnotberepresentingthearterial

trafficcompletely.IfthePCUvaluesareincorrect,thecapacityvalueswillbe

wronglyestimatedandthisleadstoincorrectV/Cvaluesincreasingmorethan

1 in largecitiesandV/Cs insmallcities intherangeof1.24.Thistranslates

intoacalculationthat76%percentofroadspaceisunused

4.8 MeasuringTrafficFlowsAppropriatemethodologiesmustbeadoptedbeforeaccuratemeasuresoftrafficvolume

can be obtained when planning, designing and operating a road system. Expressing

trafficvolumeasthenumberofvehiclespassingagivensectionofroadperunitoftime

is inappropriatewhenseveral typesofvehicleswithwidelyvaryingstaticanddynamic

characteristics are present in the traffic stream. This problem can be addressed by

convertingthedifferenttypesofvehicles intoequivalentpassengercarsandexpressing

thevolumeaspassengercarunit(PCU)perhour.

PCUvalues:

The PCU has been defined by the United Kingdom Transport and Road Research

Laboratoryasfollows:

Onanyparticularsectionofroadunderparticulartrafficconditions,iftheaddition

ofonevehicleofaparticulartypeperhourwillreducetheaveragespeedofthe

remainingvehiclesbythesameamountastheadditionof,sayxcarsofaverage

sizeperhour,thenonevehicleofthistypeisequivalenttoxPCU.(Arasanetal.,

2008)

TheIndianRoadCongress(IRC)setstheparametersrelatedtoroadsandpublishesthem

ascodesofpracticeintwoofitscodebooksIRCSP41andIRC106.IRCSP41givesthe

PCU values of atgrade intersections and IRC 106 gives the PCU values at midblock

sections.Inbothcases,therecommendedPCUvaluesaretentative.Thefollowingtables

givethevaluesinthesecodes.


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Table13PCUValuesatIntersections(IRCSP41:1994)

VehicleType PCUvalue

Twowheelers 0.5

Threewheelers 1

Table14PCUValuesforMidBlocks(IRC106:1990)

%Modeshare Lessthan5% 10%andabove

Twowheelers 0.5 0.75

Threewheelers 1.2 2.0

Thevaluesforpercentagetrafficcompositionbetween5%and10%willbeinterpolatedtheabovevalues.

Also, these code books state that the PCU value varies as a function of the physical

dimensionsandoperationalspeedsofthatparticularvehicleclasses.Speeddifferentials

inurbanareasaregenerally lowandhencePCUvaluesarepredominantly functionsof

thephysicaldimensionsofvehicles.However,empiricalevidenceshowsthat thereare

other factors influencing the PCU value of a vehicle. Research done in India on PCU

valuesandextractsfromthepaperspublishedinpeerreviewedjournalsarediscussedin

thefollowingsection.

FactorsInfluencingPCUValue

i. EffectofRoadWidthSikdar et al.(2000) found that road width influences the PCU values. If traffic

volume and its composition remain unaltered, an increase in road width will provide

more freedom for vehicles to choose their speed. By the same logic, the PCU for

individualvehicleswillincreasewithroadwidth.

Also,PCUforavehicledecreaseswithan increase in itsproportioninthetraffic

stream.Foragivenroadwidth,increaseinvolumewillcausemoredensity.Duetothis,

vehicles will move at reduced but uniform speed resulting in lower speed differences

betweenacarandavehicletype.ItwillresultinasmallerPCUvalueforthevehicletype.

ii. EffectofTrafficVolume

Arasanetal.(2008)foundthatthePCUvalueofavehicletypevariessignificantly

withvariation in trafficvolume.Theirpaperproposes that thePCUvalueofanymode

increaseswitha rise in the total trafficvolumeandaftera certain level, reduceswith

further increase involume.Hence, it isappropriatetotreatthePCUvalueofavehicle

typeasadynamicquantityinsteadofconsideringitasafixedone.


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The authors also found that PCU values can be accurately estimated through

comprehensive studyof the interactionbetween vehicles in traffic.Study of vehicular

interactionunderheterogeneoustrafficconditionsinvolvesmodellingthetrafficflowat

the microlevel, over a wide range of roadway and traffic conditions, as well as the

collection of extensive traffic data in the field. A study was carried out in the city of

Chennaiandtheresultsobtainedareexplainedbelow.

Table15ModalShareofTraffic(Chennai,2006)

Mode %Volume

BusesandTrucks 3

Bicycles 10

MotorizedTwowheelers 41

MotorizedThreewheelers 16

Cars 28

LightCommercialvehicles 3

Source:Arasanetal.,RoadandTransportResearch,March2008.

Table16PCUValuesObservedatVariousVolumeLevels

Volume

(veh/hr)

PCUValue

M3W M2W

500 1.1 0.29

1000 1.4 0.431500 2.07 0.55

2000 1.55 0.53

2500 1.07 0.52

3000 0.79 0.42

3500 0.7 0.38

4000 0.58 0.36

Source:Arasanetal.,RoadandTransportResearch,March2008.

ThestudyshowsthatthePCUvalues increasewithan increase intrafficvolume

and,afteracertainlevelisreached,reduceswiththeincreaseinvolume.Atlowvolume,

spacing (both longitudinaland lateral)betweenvehicles isgreater;cars (the reference

vehicles)are able tomaneuver through thegapseasily facilitating fastmovement.An

increase intrafficvolumeatthisstagesignificantlyreducesspacingresulting inasteep

reduction inspeed.Thistrendcontinuesuptoacertainvolumeatwhich thespeedof


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thetrafficasawholedropsand,consequently,thespeeddifferencebetweencarsand

other vehicle types narrows. At this stage, a further increase in volume results in a

relativelylowerrateofchange(decreases)inthespeedofcarsandinarelativelylesser

impact, due to the introduction of the subject vehicle. This results in the decreasing

trendofthePCUvalueofthesubjectvehicleathighervolumelevels.

iii. EffectofTrafficDensity,ModalSplitandLaneWidthIn a separate study carried out in Delhi by Tiwari et al. (2008), traffic density,

modalsplitandlanewidthwerefoundouttobeaffectingthePCUvalueandPCUvalues

forIndianhighwaysbasedonempiricaldataaredeveloped.Trafficdataiscollectedand

analyzed for various locations, traffic densities and lane widths and PCU values for

modesarederived.ThePCUvalues fortwowheelersandthreewheelersdeveloped in

this study, along with the average percentage composition of these modes, are

presentedinthefollowingtable:

Table17PCUValuesDevelopedforTwoWheelersandThreeWheelersinVariousRoad

Conditions

RoadType%2W

Composition

2W

PCU

%3W

Composition

3W

PCU

Singlelane 43 025 6 134

Intermediatelane 23 051 7 131

Twolaneswithoutpaved

shoulders 18 091 2 916

Twolaneswith15mshoulders 10 281 15 215

Twolaneswith25mshoulders 24 229 3 1866

Fourlanesdivided 20 199 4 1144

Source:Tiwarietal.,2008.

Thestudysauthors foundthatPCUvaluesofmotorizedthreewheelershaveveryhigh

valueswhenthemodalshareofthreewheelersbecomes lessthan5%.Thisshowsthat

vehicleshavingmuchloweraveragespeedsthantheothervehiclesinthetrafficstream,

affectthecapacityoftheroadevenatlowdensities.Also,observersfoundthatthe85th

percentileroadwidthoccupiedbyeachmodevariesbasedonthewidthoftheroadand,

hence,thePCUvalue isdifferentfordifferentroadwidths, i.e. lesserroadwidthsforce

vehiclestoformtighter85thpercentilewidthsandhenceoccupylessspaceandvehicles


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occupymoreareaonwiderhighwaysas isevidentfromthehigherPCUvalueonwider

highwaysascomparedtosinglelanehighways.

Theabovevaluesarederivedfromthedataatruralandsuburbanhighways,where

freeflowhighspeedtrafficexists.Thereforeinatypicalurbanscenario,wherethetraffic

isof the forcedflow, lowspeed type, thesevaluesmaynotbeapplicabledirectlyand

somecorrectionsaretobemadetogetthecorrectvalues.

iv. EffectofAreaOccupancyMallikarjuna et al. (2006) studied traffic behavior as a threedimensional

phenomenon, including twodimensional for the roadway (longitudinaland transverse)

andonedimensionforthetimeandfoundthattheareaoccupancyofavehiclehasan

effect on the PCU value.Area occupancy expresses how long a particular size of the

vehicle is moving on a section of the road. It is measured over time and over space

(lengthandwidthof the road). In thisstudy theentire roadwidth, irrespectiveof the

number of lanes is considered as well as different sizes of vehicles. The following

equationhasbeenusedtocalculatetheareaoccupancyofavehicle.

Where,

Aisareaoccupancymeasuredoverspaceandtimeacrosstheentireroadwidth

Listhelengthoftheroadsectionunderconsiderationxi denotes the distance between the vehicle and any of the two reference lines,

measuredalongtheroadlength

Lxidenotestheactualdistancetraveledbythe ith

vehicleovertheobservedroad

section

wiisthewidthoftheith

vehicle

W is the width of the road and it is assumed to be constant for the entire road

section

Tisthetimeperiodofobservation

Cellular Automatamodelshave been developed for modeling trafficbecause theyare

more representative of mixed traffic than regular car following and lane changing

models. In thismodel thegapacceptanceparametersand speedvariationparameters

aretakeninsuchawaythattheyrepresentmixedtrafficconditions.Fromthesemodels,

thePCUvalues for trucks,busesand twowheelersatdifferentareaoccupancyvalues


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have been developed. The PCU values for twowheelers at various modal shares are

presentedinthefollowingtable.

Table18PCUValuesofTwoWheelersatDifferentAreaOccupancyValues

%No.of

2W

Area

OccupancyPCE(max) PCE(Min)

10

0.036 0.1 0.1

0.038 0.44 0.1

0.05 1 0.52

20

0.029 0.1 0.1

0.038 0.76 0.1

0.05 0.79 0.53

40

0.028 0.1 0.1

0.038 0.46 0.1

0.05 0.46 0.34

60

0.025 0.1 0.1

0.038 0.48 0.12

0.05 0.88 0.12

80

0.021 0.22 0.22

0.038 0.6 0.25

0.05 0.87 0.25

1000.021 0.26 0.26

0.038 0.45 0.36

0.05 0.6 0.36

Source:Mallikarjunaetal.

Observersreportthat,dependinguponthetrafficconditions,thetwowheelerPCUvalue

rangesfrom0.36toeven1insomeinstancesandhenceastandardvalue,asadoptedin

the current code books, will not be correct. Also, the PCU value decreases with the

increaseinproportionoftwowheelersinthetrafficstream.

FromalltheabovestudiesitcanbeconcludedthatthecurrentlyadoptedPCUvalues

do not represent the actual situation in the field and, hence, a more robust way of

estimatingthePCUvaluesneedtobedeveloped.However,thefactorslistedabovemay

notbeallinclusiveandtheremaybeotherfactorsaffectingthePCUvalue.Thisrequires

extensivestudiestofindtheexactfactors influencingthePCUvaluesandbasedonthe


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findingsofthestudy,PCUvaluesofvariousvehiclesundervariouscircumstancesneedto

bedeveloped.

4.9 RoadSpaceRequirementsandTravelTimeforDifferentModesofTrafficinDifferentTypesofLocations

Theroadspacerequirementsarecalculatedintermsofthepassengercarunits(PCU)of

vehicles. IRC106states theGuidelines for theCapacityofUrbanRoads inPlainAreas.

ThisdiscussesthebasisofthePCUvaluesadoptedtofindthecapacitiesofurbanroads.

ItstatesthatthePCUvalueisafunctionofphysicaldimensionsandoperationalspeeds

of respective vehicle classes. In urban situations the speed differential among various

classesisgenerallylow,andassuchthePCUfactorsarepredominantlyafunctionofthe

physicaldimensionsofthevariousvehicles.Nonetheless,therelativePCUofaparticular

vehicletypewillbeaffectedtoacertainextentbyincreaseinitsproportioninthetotal

trafficanditrecommendsthefollowingPCUvaluesbeadopted.

Table19PCUValuesFromIRC106:1990

Vehicletype

Percentagecompositionof

vehicletypeintrafficstream

Lessthan5% 10%andabove

Twowheelers

(Motorcycleorscooteretc.)0.5 0.75

Threewheeler

(Autorickshaw)1.2 2.0

PassengerCar

1.0 1.0

LightCommercialvehicle

1.4 2

TruckorBus

2.2 3.7

Cycle

0.4 0.5

CycleRickshaw

1.5 2

HandCart

2 3

Thevaluesforpercentagetrafficcompositionbetween5%and10%willbeinterpolatedtheabovevalues.


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However thismaynotbe trueall the time.Theassumption that speeddifferentials in

urbanareasareminimalisquestionable.Also,variousresearchershaveshownthatthe

PCU value depends on many other factors apart from the physical dimensions and

proportionofvariousvehicleclasses.Thereforetheroadspacerequirementsvaryfrom

onelocationtoanother.Extensiveempiricaldataneedstobecollectedandmodeledto

knowtheroadspacerequirements.

CapacitiesofRoadswithStandardLaneWidths

IRC 106 guidelines, Table 33, states the capacities of various types of roads specified

here.Allthecapacitiesgivenareintermsofthenumberoflanesinaparticularroad.The

standard lane widths followed are 3.75m for single lane roads and 3.5m per lane for

roadswithtwoormorelanes.

Table20CapacitiesofRoadsofVariousWidths

RoadType

(BothdirectionsCombined)

Capacity

(PCU/hr/direction)

1Lane 350

2LanesUndivided 750

2LanesDivided 750

3lanes 1000

4LanesUndivided 1500

4LanesDivided 1800

6LanesUndivided 2400

6LanesDivided 2700

(Source:IRC106)

However,theactualcapacitiesinthefieldcanbedifferent,mainlyfortworeasons.First,

atmanylocationsinIndia,thelanewidthspecificationsarenotfollowedandmanyroads

withwidthsnotconformingtothe3.5mperlanestandardareconstructed.Second,the

capacitieslistedaboveassumethatvehiclesobservethelanedisciplines.Duetomixed/

nonhomogeneoustrafficconditions,asexplainedinthefollowingfigures,lanediscipline

israrelyfollowedinIndiaandsotheactualcapacitiescanbedifferenttothose

mentionedinTable33.


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Figure8NonHomogeneousTraffic(Delhi,India)

Source:Tiwarietal.,2007.

ActualCapacitiesObservedonIndianRoadswithNonStandardLaneWidths

TocomparetheactualflowandthecapacityvaluesgiveninIRC106,observationsfroma

studydoneontwointersectionsonthearterialsofDelhiareselectedandthepeakhour

volumecountsonthefourapproachesofeachofthesetwointersections.Thefollowing

tablegivestheroadwidths,actualflowandthecapacitiesofeachoftheroadsaccording

toIRC106.

Table21CapacityVs.FlowObservedinDelhi

Nameofthe

Intersection

Approach

Nos.

Approachroad

width(m)

No.ofLanes

marked

Capacity

(pcu/hr)

Totalincoming

flow(pcu/hr)

IIT

Intersection

1 7 2 1800 1430

2 10 2 1800 2593

3 14 3 2700 4200

4 14.5 3 2700 4018

NehruPlace

Intersection

1 9.5 2 1800 1561

2 11 2 1800 2121

3 11.5 3 2700 4049

4 11 3 2700 2598

Source:TRIPP,IITDelhi.


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Outoftheeightapproaches,onlyonehaslanewidthsmarkedaccordingtotheIRC

guidelineof3.5mperlane.Atalltheotherlocationsthemarkedlanewidthsdonot

conformtostandardspecifications.Also,convertingthetrafficintoPCUsandcomparing

theactualtrafficwiththeroadcapacities,accordingtoIRC106,showsthatinsevenof

theeightapproaches,thevolumeoftrafficisexceedingcapacity.Thisclearly

demonstratesthefactthewithinthe2/3lanesprovidedmorethan2/3vehiclesare

passingbecausevehiclesarefailingtofollowinglanedisciplineswhichleadsto,better

useofavailableroadspace.

Theproblemofunmarkedstandardlanewidthsisnotaseriousonebecause

peoplearenotgoinginthemarkedlanesanyway.However,incorrectcapacity

standards,ifany,needtobecorrectedbecausepeoplemayoverestimatetherequired

roadspacebecauseofthelessercapacitiesgiveninthecodebooks.

Suggestionsforcorrectpredictionofcapacities:

Thecontinuityequationoftrafficflowforhomogeneoustrafficis

k=q/us

whereq=trafficflowacrossalaneorlanes(vehicles/h)

us=spacemeanspeed(km/h)

k=trafficdensityinalaneorlanes(vehicles/km)

The above equation assumes constant spacing and constant speed, i.e., under

uncongestedconditionswithmoderatetoslightlyhightrafficvolume.

Sincemaximum flow inany sectiongives thecapacityof thatparticular section, if the

aboveequationisvalidatedfornonhomogeneousconditions,byvaryingkandusbased

ontheactualroadconditions,capacityofaparticularroadcanbeascertained.However,

the equation is for homogeneous traffic and the capacity is to be found for non

homogeneoustraffic.Thisneedstobedonebyfindingcommonalitiesexistingbetween

theories of homogeneous and nonhomogeneous traffic and deriving the required

parametersfromthosecommonalities.

Tiwarietal.(2008)presentonesuchstudydoneonthevalidationofcontinuityequation

fornonhomogeneoustraffic.Inthisstudy,thevalidationisdonetakingtrafficdensity(k)

as the parameter. Amodified continuityequation isused in this study to reflect non

homogeneous traffic in such a way that the parameters are adjusted but the traffic

characteristicsmaintainthebasicrelationshipasintheoriginalequation.

Herethetotaldensity istaken intermsofsumof individualdensities,where individual

densitiesarevehiclesofaparticulartype(mode)perunitarea.Flowistakenintermsof


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numberofvehiclesof themode considered fordensityand speedas the spacemean

speedofthesamemodeofvehicles,whichcrossthetotallengthoftheareaconsidered

indensity.

Theequationsusedhereare:

ForIndividualModeDensities:

Kj=(qj/W)/us,j

Where,

j=trafficentitytype,e.g.,2=heavyvehicle,3=motorizedthreewheeler

kj=averagenumberoftrafficentitiesoftypejperunitareaofhighway,e.g.,motorized

twowheelers/(kmm)

W=crosssectionalwidthformeasuringflow,e.g.,m

Flowqj=NumberoftrafficentitiesoftypejcrossingthecrosssectionallineofwidthW

duringatimeinterval,e.g.,nonmotorizedtwowheelers/h;and

Speedus,j=space mean speed of traffic entities of typej that completely traverse the

lengthofthehighwayarea(km/h)(thespacemeanspeedofnonhomogeneoustrafficis

theweightedharmonicspeedofeachtraffictypesspacemeanspeed)

AnassumptionhereisthatWisconstantthroughoutthehighwaysegmentforalltraffic

entitytypes.

TotalDensityofallmodes,i.e.sumofdensitiesofindividualmodes,sinceallthemodes

usethesameavailableroadspace.

1

N

nt j

j

k k

Where,

knt=averagenumberofnonhomogeneoustrafficentitiesperunitareaofhighway,e.g.,

entities/(kmm)

andN=totalnumberofentitytypesinthenonhomogeneoustrafficstream.

Theaveragedensityfromactualdensitiesobservedonamidblocksectioninthefieldis

comparedtothedensityderivedfromflowsandspacemeanspeeds.Itwasfoundthat

thesetwomatcheachotherfortheaboveequations.Therefore,byusingtheabove

modifiedequations,continuityequationisalsovalidundernonhomogeneous

conditions.


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Theactualconcernhereistofindoutthecapacity,whichisthemaximumtotalflowina

section.Theflowequationtobeusedis:

1

Nnt j

j

q q

W W

Where,qnt=Totalnonhomogeneoustrafficflow.

qnt/W=flowperunitwidth

Themaximumtotalflowisthesumofmaximumflowsofeachmodederivedby

maximizingtheflowequation.Inthiswaymaximumflowperunitwidthisderivedwhich

givesthecapacityperunitwidth.

Thisgivesonemethodoffindingthecapacitiesoflaneswithnonstandardlanewidthsin

nonhomogeneoustrafficconditions.


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5.2 ErrorsinCurrentModeling,ApplicableforTwoandThreeWheelerTraffic

1. PCU Value Constant for the Entire Network: For traffic assignment, origin

destination(OD)matricesofvariousmodesaccordingtotheirmodalsharesare

preparedandwhileassigning thematrix to thenetwork, thePCUvaluesof the

modesarespecified.Therefore,thePCUvaluesgivenherearestaticthroughout

thenetwork.Asspecifiedinsection5.2.2,thePCUvaluesneedtobedynamicfor

themtoberepresentativeoftheactualconditions.This impliesthatthecorrect

PCUvaluescannotbeincorporatedinthepresentmodelingprocedures.

ProbableSolution:Ifmodelingsoftwareacceptsaprogramwhichtakesdynamic

PCU values as a function of the different variables on which it depends, this

problemcanbeovercome.However,thecurrentmodelingpackageslikeEmme3,

TransCAD(whichareamongthemostusedsoftwaresinIndia)donothavesuch

features and hence more research needs to be done before a solution can be

found.

2. ModalShareConstantfortheEntireNetwork:Themodalsharespecified inthe

ODmatrix isgenerallycalculatedattheaggregate levelfortheentirenetwork.

However, this might not be true under actual conditions where there is an

elevatedchance that themodal split isdifferent indifferent locations. In some

areas, the proportion of cars may be more and in some other areas, the

proportionoftwowheelersandthreewheelersmaybemore.

ProbableSolution:To counter this, from thedata collected throughhousehold

interviews,separatemodesharesforallthezonesshouldbecalculatedandmode

choice modeling carried out. This must be used while forming the OD matrix.

However,thereisnoreportofsuchworkdoneinIndiaasperthedataavailable

forthecurrentstudy.

3. LinkSpeedsbutnotVehicleSpeedsareConsidered:Thespeedofthevehiclesis

taken in terms of link speeds. This assumes that the speed differential amongvariousvehiclesisnegligibleandhencethelinkspeedwillbethespeedofallthe

vehicles.Thismaybetrueforhomogeneoustrafficconditionswherethenumber

ofmodesinthetrafficisfew.Butinmixedtrafficconditions,withthepresenceof

twowheelers, threewheelers and cars which have different engine capacities

andalsowiththepresenceofnonmotorizedtransportontheroad,thismaynot


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betrueallthetimeand,hence,givinglinkspeedsinsteadofvehiclespeedsleads

toerrorsinthemodelingresults.

ProbableSolutions:

i. Ifsegregated lanesfordifferentvehiclesareprovided(eg:BRTsystems),the

error isminimizedtosomeextentbecauseheavyvehiclesusethebus lanes,

NMTusesthebicycle lanesandsoon. Inthiscase,thespeedsofcars,two

wheelers,threewheelersandothermotorizedmodes, ifanyaresharingthe

roadmightnotbehighlydifferenttoeachother.

ii. Even though macroscopic modeling software does not have the option of

modewise speeds, microscopic simulation software like VISSIM, AIMSUN

havethisoption.Thereforemacroscopicmodelingcanbeusedfortheentire

network to get a general idea of traffic loads at various points and at the

critical locations; microscopic simulation can be carried out to get accurate

results.

4. PeopleDoNotUsetheShortestPathAvailable:Thealgorithmsused invarious

modeling software assign the OD matrix to the network based on the

assumption that people use the shortest path to reach their destinations.

However, research shows that people do not always use the shortest path

availableandtheyarelikelytousesomemajorcorridorsalongtheirrouteevenif

this increases their trip lengths. This may be due to reasons such as lack of

knowledgeoffamiliaritywithshorterrouteswhichmaypassthroughunpopular

areas, superior LevelofService (LOS)on themajor corridor,presence ofgated

communitieswhichdonotallowexternaltraffictopassthrough.Ideally,tosolve

thisproblem,thelinksofthenetworkneedtobegivenpriority.

ProbableSolution:Therearenoconclusivemethod fornullifying thiserrorand

furtherresearchneedstobedoneouttodiscoverasolution.

Even though the problems mentioned are faced in some other countries where

solutionshavebeenfound,thosesolutionsneedtobeadaptedtoIndianconditions

and incorporated inthedesignstandardssothattheyareavailabletopeopledoing

macroscopicmodelingforcities.


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6 Road/IntersectionDesignGuidelines

ThedesignguidelinesforroadsinIndiaareformulatedbytheIndianRoadsCongress

(IRC). The following four codes are found to be giving the road/intersection design

guidelinesspecifictotwoandthreewheelers.

i. IRC31983givesthedimensionsandweightsofroaddesignvehicles

ii. IRC 86: 1983 gives the geometric design standards for midblocks or through

sections

iii. IRCSP41:1994givesthedesignguidelinesforatgradeintersections

iv. IRC921985givestheguidelinesforthedesignofinterchangesinurbanareas

The salient features in these guidelines, which are applicable to twoandthree

wheelersarediscussedbelow.

i. IRC31983,givesthedimensionsandweightsofroaddesignvehicles.

Threevehiclestakenasastandardfordesignare:

i) Singleunit(meaningonepassengercarunit)

ii) Semitrailer

iii) Trucktrailercombination

Twoandthreewheelersarenotmentionedamongthedesignvehicles.ThePCUvalueis

assumedtobetakingthemintoaccount.However,asexplainedinthePCUsectionthese

valuescanbewrong insomecircumstancesthereby implyingthattheguidelinesmight

notbeaccurateinallthecases.

ii. IRC 86: 1983 gives thegeometricdesign standardsformidblocksor through

sections:

Forthispurposealltheurbanroadshavebeendividedintofourcategories:

1. Arterial:Ageneraltermdenotingastreetprimarilyforthroughtraffic,usuallyon

acontinuousroute.

2. Subarterial:Ageneraltermdenotingastreetprimarilyforthroughtraffic,usually

onacontinuousroutebutofferingsomewhatlower leveloftrafficmobilitythanthearterial.

3. Collectorstreet:Astreetforcollectinganddistributingthetrafficfromandtothe

localstreetandprovidingaccesstothearterialstreets.

4. Localstreet:Astreetprimarilyforaccesstoresidence,businessorotherabutting

property.


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Based on these road classifications, parameters like the design speed, right of way

(ROW), sight distance, and horizontal and vertical alignment parameters are

recommended.Also,thecrosssectionalelementsofroads liketheroadwidths,design

trafficvolume, carriage width, footpathand bicycle trackprovisionsare specified.The

designtrafficvolumeismentionedintermsofPCUandthePCUvaluesfortwowheelers

andthreewheelersareasmentionedbelow.AsexplainedinthePCUsection5.2.2,these

valuesmightnotbecorrectunderallcircumstancesandhenceneedtoberevised.

Table22PCUValuesFromIRC86:1983

Threewheeler(Autorickshaw) 1.00

Twowheeler(Motor/Scooter) 0.50

Thedesignspeedistheprimarycriterionforallthestandardsdevelopedandthedesigns

will comprise all vehicle types, thereby implying that the twowheelers and three

wheelers are also taken into account. Also, whenever the length of wheel base of a

vehicle isrequired, it isnormallytakenas6.1mor6.0m forcommercialvehicles.Since

the lengths in case of twoandthreewheelers are less than this, they are being

accommodatedinthedesign.

In all the cases,no separate design standards for twoandthreewheelers specific

environmentsaredeveloped.Atentativepassengercarunit(PCU)valueisdevelopedfor

variousvehicles(inallthecasesandtheyusethesamePCUvalues)andthetrafficfrom

allthemodes isconvertedtotheseunits.Therestofthedesign isdevelopedassuming

that a certain number of cars use the road and a certain level of service (LOS) and

dimensionsareavailable.SincethePCUvalue itselfcanbewrong (explained insection

5.2.2),thewholedesignprocessislikelytobeinaccurate.

iii. IRCSP41:1994takesthefollowingasdesignparameters:

- Designspeed

- Designtrafficvolume

- Designvehicle

- Designradiusofcurvesatintersection

- Widthofturninglanesatintersection

- Acceleration/decelerationlanes

- Superelevationandcrossslope

- Visibilityatintersections

- ChannelizingIsland


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- Curb

- Trafficrotary

Amongall theparameters, thedesignvehicle,designspeedandthetrafficvolumeare

the central parameters and, based on their values, the other parameters values are

specified.Theseparametersarediscussedindetailinthissection.

DesignVehicle

Thecodespecifiesthattheintersectionsalongthearterialsandsubarterialsintheurban

areasandthose in theCentralBusinessDistrict (CBD)needtobedesigned forasingle

unit truck (with allowance for turning vehicles encroaching on the other lanes in the

CBD).A singleunit truckhas thedimensionsof2.58mwidthand9m length.Since the

twowheelers and threewheelers have lesser dimensions compared to a single unit

truck,an intersectiondesignedforsuchavehicle isassumedtobeabletoaccomodate

thetwoandthreewheelers

DesignSpeed

Adesignspeedof80kmphforarterials,60kmphforsubarterials,50kmphforcollector

streetsand30kmphforlocalstreetsarerecommended.Sincethedesiredspeedsoftwo

wheelersandthreewheelersare lessthan60kmpheven inarterials,thedesignspeed

specifiedinthecodescatertothemalso.

TrafficVolume

AsexplainedintheTrafficFlowsandCongestionDataSection,thetrafficvolumeshould

notbetalliedasthetotalnumberofvehiclespassingapoint,butshouldbecountedas

totalPCUspassingthroughapoint.ThismakesthePCUvaluesvery importantandthe

accuracyofthePCUvaluesdeterminestheaccuracyoftheintersectiondesign.ThePCU

valuesrecommendedinthecodearegiveninthetablebelow.

Table23PCUValues(IRCSP41:1994)

Threewheeler(Autorickshaw) 1.00

Twowheeler(Motor/Scooter) 0.50

iv. IRC921985givestheGuidelinesfortheDesignofInterchangesinUrbanAreas

In this book, various guidelines on when to construct an interchange and what

factorstoconsiderterrain,trafficcomingin,importanceoftheintersection,etc.are


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7 ConflictswithOtherVehicles,BicyclesandPedestrians

A traffic conflict is defined as a situation in which two road users approacheach

other in such directions and with such speeds as to producea collision unless oneof

them performs an emergency evasive maneuver. More rarely, a traffic conflict may

involveasingleroaduseronacollisioncoursewitha fixedobstacleorananimal.(The

WayForward,2005)

Thenormallanewidthsare3.5mperlaneandthemaximumwidthofanyvehicleis

2.4m.Alsotypicalurbantrafficisdistinguishedbymixeduse,inclusiveoftwoandthree

wheelerswithwidthslessthanorequalto1.5m.Thisleadstomorevehiclesusingthe

road than there are available lanes during periods of heavy traffic. Because of this

phenomenon,vehiclestrytooutmaneuvereachother.

Alargeshareofnonmotorizedvehicles(NMVs)andmotorizedtwowheelers(MTW)make up the transport system of Indian cities. In such cities, 45% to 80% of the

registeredvehiclesareMTWs.Carsaccount for5% to20%of the totalvehicle fleet in

mostLMClargecities.Theroadnetworkisusedbyatleastsevencategoriesofmotorized

vehicles and NMVs. Public transport and paratransit are the predominant modes of

motorizedtravelinmegacitiesandcarry20%to65%ofthetotaltripsexcludingwalking

trips.Othermodesmakeupfortherestofthetrafficandsetthestageforconflict.

Astudydone inDelhiobservedtheconflictsbetweenvariousvehiclesundermixed

trafficconditionsandreportedtherelationshipbetweenfatalcrashesandconflictrates

atmidblock in14 locations inDelhi.Thedatarevealedthatthepresenceofonlyafew

nonmotorizedvehiclesisenoughtocauseconflictswithmotorized.Whilethestudydid

notprovideaconclusiverelationshipbetweenmidblockconflictsand fatalcrashsites,

animportantconclusionisthattrafficplanningemphasisonconflictratesmaynotresult

inreducingfatalitiesonurbanroadsalongmidblocksegments.

From the total conflict data, the conflicts involving twoandthreewheelers are

separatedandarepresentedinthetablebelow.

Table24ConflictsofTwoandThreeWheelerswithOtherVehiclesinDelhi

Car Bus 2W 3W Bicycle Total

3W 24% 17% 17% 25% 17% 100%

2W 22% 27% 18% 13% 20% 100%

Source:Tiwarietal,Accid.Anal.andPrev.,Vol.30,No.2,pp.207215,1998


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Theresultsshowthatmostconflicts involvethreewheelersengagedwithother

threewheelers,followedbythreewheelersinconflictwithcars.Twowheelersaremost

often involved in skirmishes with buses followed by cars, bicycles and other two

wheelers.Thiscanbeexplainedbythespeedsoftwowheelers,busesandcarsthatcalls

for segregation of this heavy traffic by methods like exclusive bus lanes. The

phenomenon of vehicles colliding most with like vehicles is thought to be due the

process of natural segregation. Even without segregated lanes for different modes,

vehicles are aligning themselves into clusters of their own. For example, all NMTs

operateintheleftmostlanes,busesintherightmostlanesandcarsandtwoandthree

wheelersinthemiddleisacommonphenomenon.

Figure9showstheconsolidatedresultsofadetailedstudydone in14 locations

onnationalhighwaysaround thecountry (Reference).Thisdemonstratesthatevenon

nationalhighwaystwowheelersconstituteover20%ofthefatalitiesandallvulnerable

roadusersputtogether,whichincludesthethreewheelers,constitutemorethan65%.

Figure 9 also indicates that trucks are involved in the vast majority of fatal

crashes. In the absence of detailed multidisciplinary crash inves

2 and 3 wheelers in india

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