n a t i o n a l a c a d e m y o f s c i e n c e s

Any opinions expressed in this memoir are those of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect the views of the

National Academy of Sciences.

h a n s p o p p e r

1903—1988

A Biographical Memoir by

rudi schmid

Biographical Memoir

Copyright 1994national aCademy of sCienCes

washington d.C.

HANS POPPER

November 24, 1903-May 6, 1988

BY RUDI SCHMID

HANS POPPER, THE founder and reigning monarch of mod-ern hepatology, died on May 6, 1988. He was a manof colossal intellect, boundless energy and encyclopedicknowledge who dominated the field of liver disease for nearlyhalf a century. His fertile imagination and intuition initi-ated or nurtured many of the field's major scientific ad-vances, and his contributions encompassed all aspects ofthe liver in health and disease. Investigators all over theworld sought his critical judgment because the Popper im-primatur, if granted, conferred scientific credibility to newfindings and concepts. As an inspiring and stimulating rolemodel, he endowed countless students, fellows and cowork-ers with the intellectual curiosity from which sprang newand, at times, unorthodox discoveries. Under the leader-ship of this grand master, hepatology developed from a pre-dominantly descriptive discipline to a science based on quan-titative assessment of function and structure. As we eulogizeHans Popper, let us ponder his roots and his exceptionalhuman and professional dimensions.

Reproduced from R. Schmid and S. Schenker, "Hans Popper, in Memoriam,'Hepatology 9(1989):669-79, with permission of Mosby-Year Book, Inc.

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292 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

VIENNA

Hans Popper was born on November 24, 1903, in themidst of the proud, glittering elegance of a decadent Vienna,which was then the capital of the faltering Austro-Hungar-ian Empire. His father was a prominent physician who hada decisive influence on Hans's professional career and movedeasily among the city's leading artistic, academic and aristo-cratic circles. As would be expected in an intellectual fam-ily in old Vienna, Hans received a classical education basedon the twin pillars of Greek and Latin, which he masteredso well that many years later he still was able to coauthorwith Hans Elias a scientific article written in Latin! Theyears before World War I were a happy and carefree timefor Europe's privileged—the Golden Times of Vienna, asHans nostalgically called them—and he thoroughly enjoyedboth his exclusive school and the luxury of his family'slifestyle. The Popper family originally came from Bohemiaand the young boy spent many happy holidays with his grand-parents in Kralovice, memories which he cherished all hislife. (In 1968, during the so-called Prague Spring, he took afew intimate friends on a sentimental visit to this charmingBohemian village, including the house where his grandpar-ents had lived.) But this life of plenty came to an abruptand dramatic end with the outbreak of World War I inAugust 1914, when Doctor Popper was called to active armyduty. When the war's fortunes turned against Austria, even-tually resulting in the disintegration of the Hapsburg Dy-nasty, life in Vienna rapidly became grim and the Popperfamily did not escape destitution and biting hunger. Fueledby calamitous inflation, the misery continued into the earlypostwar years, but after Doctor Popper's return to civilianlife and resumption of his practice, the family's fortune wasgradually turned around.

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Although the period's economic and political turmoiloften interfered with scholarly concerns, the young HansPopper clearly was one of his humanistic middle school's(Gymnasium) outstanding students, as he was expected tobe by his family. He was an intellectually restless young manin search of his personal identity. Toward the end of thewar, for example, he passed through a rebellious phase dur-ing which he actively fought at the barricades for the de-spised emperor's downfall, to the understandable horror ofhis family. His intellectual restlessness accounted for theunusually wide range of academic interests upon which hesuccessively focused attention during his formal education.He decidedly was not a collector or meditator, but rather adynamic man of vision and action who displayed an almostdeterministic attraction to, and fascination with, change,evolution and progress. It is not surprising that Darwin wasone of his lifelong heroes. He was a natural leader whoseintellectual dynamism and insatiable curiosity contributedmaterially to his charismatic personality; these personalitytraits, however, also explain an aspect of his professionalstyle of which he was quite conscious and which at timesbewildered him. As he said of himself, "I jumped too muchfrom one subject to another and thereby missed opportuni-ties which I should have pursued with more perseverance."True, perhaps, insofar as he never succeeded in making adramatic discovery or breakthrough; rather, his life's workconstitutes an almost legendary series of important scien-tific observations and the positing of novel relationshipsand challenging hypotheses, provocatively presented, oftendeeply probing, and always concluding with persuasive, plau-sible explanations. The total volume and significance of hispublished contributions are of a dimension and breadthrarely equaled in clinical investigation. And as he mock-

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ingly would have added, "Achieved with no other instru-ment than a light microscope."

In 1922, Hans Popper entered the renowned medicalschool of the University of Vienna and was instantly se-duced by the exciting intellectual environment in which hefound himself. His experiences during this time both vali-dated and encouraged his natural intellectual bent of search-ing curiosity. He was particularly captivated by biochemis-try which, during the postwar years, was emerging as a newand exceptionally promising discipline. As much time aspossible was spent in the biochemical laboratory at the ex-pense of attending what were to Hans the unrewarding tra-ditional magisterial lectures. His studies resulted in eightpublications in many of which the student Popper was thefirst author. Among these, two papers coauthored withZacharius Dische were particularly noteworthy because theyopened the way to quantitative determination of complextissue carbohydrates.

After graduation from medical school in 1928, the youngphysician spent his first five postgraduate years in anatomi-cal pathology, which then was the conventional path to anacademic career in medicine. But he soon became boredwith mere descriptive research and established a biochemi-cal laboratory within the pathology service which still existstoday, dedicated to Hans Popper. His burgeoning interestin dynamic approaches to pathogenesis naturally attractedhim to one of this emerging field's giants, Hans Eppinger,the director of the Allgemeine Krankenhaus' First MedicalClinic, which Popper joined in 1933. Eppinger, a toweringvisionary, soon became one of Hans' intellectual role mod-els and profoundly influenced his scientific growth and in-vestigative style. Among Hans Popper's most important con-tributions of this period was the development of thetime-honored creatinine clearance test for assessing kidney

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function. His concepts of renal physiology were quite unor-thodox and prompted Homer Smith to remark, "this crazyguy thinks sodium dances a minuet in the renal medulla," arebuke he later graciously withdrew.

The years at the First Medical Clinic were among themost formative and productive of Popper's academic ca-reer, but because of the deteriorating political situation alsohis most stressful. As Germany's might grew, the increas-ingly menacing Nazi ideology spilled over into Austria, spawn-ing widespread anti-Semitism and eventually leading to theannexation of this small country. In March 1938, when Hitlertriumphantly drove into Vienna, Hans was locked up in hisoffice by one of his clinic colleagues. (Ironically, this wasthe same physician, Lanier, who in 1940 published what heconsidered conclusive evidence refuting an infectious etiol-ogy of "catarrhal jaundice.") A few weeks later, forewarnedof the imminent danger by a friend, Hans successfully es-caped Austria and booked a ticket on the maiden voyage ofthe New Amsterdam to New York. Aboard ship he came downwith hepatitis, but fortunately his jaundice cleared beforedocking in New York.

CHICAGO

His ultimate destination was the Cook County Hospitalof Chicago, which a year earlier had offered him a researchposition carrying a stipend of $250 per month. Althoughhe had declined the earlier offer, now that he was a politi-cal refugee he was happy to accept a research fellowship atthis busy clinical center for a reduced stipend of $150. Hewasted no time in getting his investigations started and tookfull advantage of the abundant scientific and technical re-sources at Cook County Hospital. When Hans fled Vienna,Eppinger permitted his favorite student to take with him aused fluorescent microscope, an instrument which was car-

296 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

ried to America in Hans' suitcase. It now became a criticaltool for his pioneering studies of tissue vitamin A in hu-mans and animals. Andrew Ivy, one of the era's leadingexperimental pathologists, was so impressed with Hans' abilityto identify small amounts of vitamin A in kidney sectionsthat he became one of his closest friends and staunchestsupporters. Fluorescence microscopy logically led to the liver,and almost overnight Hans became captivated by liver dis-ease, a common ailment at the Cook County Hospital. Ashe later said, ". . . and suddenly I was in the liver," a fascina-tion which possessed him for the rest of his life.

The early years in Chicago were a busy time. Hans de-voted as many of his waking hours as possible to his newlove, investigation of liver injury—experimental, clinical andpathological. He was particularly intrigued by the patho-genic role of chemical toxins and nutritional deficiencies,such as fat-soluble vitamins and lipotropic substances, inboth patients and experimental animals. Among his manyscientific reports of this period, the classic observations onvitamin A deficiency-induced liver damage are especiallynoteworthy. He supplemented his meager stipend by a lim-ited practice of gastroenterology. He soon was joined inChicago by his father who, incredibly, at the age of 77 hadcompleted an internship, passed the Illinois State Boardexamination and started a practice devoted mainly to cardi-ology. In addition, Hans found time to enroll in the gradu-ate school of the University of Illinois, from which he earneda degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Pathology in 1944.

Hans was initially quite embarrassed that he spoke En-glish with a thick German accent, particularly after Decem-ber 6, 1941, when his Austrian passport technically madehim an enemy alien. Together with a Hungarian expatriateradiologist, he attempted to improve his English skills byenrolling in the drama department of the University of Chi-

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cago. These studies were abandoned after he heard a lec-ture by the famous Soma Weiss, professor of medicine atHarvard Medical School, whose strong Hungarian accentclearly had not impeded a brilliant academic career. ThePopper accent, both in English and German, became a life-long trademark about which he and his friends frequentlyjoked because at times it was unclear in which language hewas communicating. But communicate he did; his messagealways came through clear and compelling in any language.

His prolific research work soon resulted in wide scien-tific recognition and accelerated academic promotion. In1943 he was appointed director of the Cook County Hospi-tal pathology service and professor of pathology in its Gradu-ate School of Medicine. He also founded and directed theHektoen Institute for Medical Research, which became animportant scientific component of the Cook County Hospi-tal complex. These were exciting times in liver researchbecause fundamental problems of hepatic pathology wereat issue, such as the role of alcoholic hepatitis with or with-out Mallory bodies, and of malnutrition and choline defi-ciency on the evolution of cirrhosis. Always concerned withmechanisms of disease, Hans made innumerable importantcontributions to this controversial field, from which gradu-ally evolved the pathogenic concepts which, having stoodthe test of time, are currently accepted. The introductionof needle biopsy of the liver, and later of electron micros-copy, made it possible to correlate hepatic structure withclinical and laboratory parameters of liver disease. Theseinnovations allowed Hans to recognize and define the earlyevolutionary stages of hepatic fibrosis. His studies in pa-tients often were backed up by elegantly designed animalexperiments which served as models for human liver dis-ease and permitted the investigation of pathogenic rela-tionships under controlled experimental conditions. Under

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his imaginative and dynamic leadership, the Hektoen Insti-tute of Chicago soon emerged as a nationally and, afterWorld War II, an internationally recognized center of ex-cellence for research in liver disease, with its director HansPopper progressively rising to world prominence inhepatology.

Important events also occurred in Hans' personal lifeduring the early war years. On a blind date he met, andlater married, Lina Billig, another Viennese expatriate who,with her great emotional strength and sensitivity, exquisiteintellect and Old World charm, became a life-long partnerand compassionate supporter in all of his professional en-deavors. Their honeymoon took them to Atlantic City, whereHans had an exhibit at the annual convention of the Ameri-can Medical Association. Lina helped put up the postersand proudly shared the awarded honorable mention. Twosons, Frank and Charles, were born in Chicago and becamethe pride and joy of their parents. In late 1943 Hans be-came a naturalized American citizen and promptly enrolledfor active service in the U.S. Army. The Army service, hefelt, made him a true American by repaying in some mea-sure his debt to his adopted country. As a commissionedmedical officer, it also allowed him to consolidate and ex-pand his expertise in general pathology. He remained aconsultant pathologist to the Army until his death and servedin this capacity in many important assignments at homeand abroad.

After discharge from active duty in 1946, Hans returnedto Chicago but decided against resuming his private prac-tice in order to devote all his energy to the pursuit of hisscientific interests. True to his dynamic approach to pathol-ogy, he focused during these early postwar years primarilyon structural-functional relationships in various types of clini-cal and experimental liver dysfunction, studies which re-

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suited in a much improved appreciation of the values andlimitations of available diagnostic laboratory tests. He wasalso the driving spirit in the founding of the American As-sociation for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD), whichheld its first informal meeting in 1948 at the Hektoen Insti-tute. Attendance was by personal invitation to a small groupof Hans' friends who had made major contributions to thenascent field of hepatology. These included William Bean,Jesse Bollman, Richard Capps, Charlie Davidson, Paul Gyorgy,Franklin Hanger, Stanley Hartroft, Frederic Hoffbauer, RobertKark, Gerald Klatskin, Leon Schiff, Hans Smetana, FredSteigmann and Cecil Watson. This list is undoubtedly in-complete, because during the AASLD's initial years the an-nual meetings were quite spontaneous and no records werekept of participants and programs. Papers to be presentedwere selected by what Hans euphemistically described asdeliberate randomness; that is, names were placed in a hatand the requisite number selected in a quasi-blind drawing.Each speaker was allowed five minutes and a blackboardfor his presentations, which was followed by spirited andoften prolonged discussion. In the early years, the annualmeetings included a clinical-pathological conference fea-turing cases which had a direct bearing on a controversialaspect of liver disease. These sessions often led to poignantand at times argumentative discussions, including an in-stance in which the case of a protein-starved rat was pre-sented disguised as the clinical history and pathologicalfindings of a human patient who allegedly had died of se-vere nutritional liver disease. Hans took enormous pleasureand satisfaction in guiding these annually recurring rites,and under his leadership the AASLD gradually developedinto a formally incorporated organization whose annualmeetings in Chicago now attract over 2,000 liver expertsfrom all over the world.

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As the Western World gradually recovered from the rav-ages of World War II, Hans increasingly began to reach outto hepatologists in Europe, South America and the Far East.In the late 1940s at Yale he met Sheila Sherlock, whoseascendent academic career eventually made her the grandedame of hepatology and whose lifelong friendship with Hanscontributed much to the establishment of a worldwide net-work of hepatologists. In 1958, this led to the founding inWashington, D.C., of the International Association for theStudy of the Liver (IASL), with Sheila serving as its firstand Hans as its second president. Other major internationalmeetings took place at the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation inNew York; at the Ciba Foundation in London; in Havana,Cuba; and in Perugia, Italy, to name only a few of a seem-ingly endless series of worldwide gatherings of hepatologists,in all of which Hans' unique personal and intellectual qualitiesmade him a natural leader. It was 1957 in Perugia that hemet for the first time some of the continent's leading liverexperts, several of whom eventually became his close friends.A group of them, dubbed the gnomes of Zurich, later metunder Hans' leadership in an attempt to develop a unifyingclassification of chronic hepatitis. This endeavor, despite itsperhaps somewhat dogmatic recommendations, had a deci-sive worldwide influence on the interpretation of hepaticpathology. In 1965 at the Catholic University of Louvain,Hans was awarded the first of a countless series of honorsand special recognitions. This was followed by an honorarydoctorate from the University of Bologna, which was con-ferred three years after the 300th birthday of Morgagni,whose motto, Hie locus est ubi mors quadet succurere vitae ("Hereis the place where death pleases to aid life"), graced hisoffice in Chicago and later in New York. But a recognitionof special sentimental value to him was the degree of Doc-tor of Philosophy honoris causa which his alma mater, the

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University of Vienna, conferred on him on the 600th anni-versary of its founding. On that occasion he met anotherrenowned honoree, Ludwig Heilmeyer, who in turn intro-duced him to Herbert Falk, with whom Hans established adeep and mutually rewarding lifelong friendship. It was Hans'personal influence and spirit which persuaded him to spon-sor and organize the now famous, regularly recurring FalkLiver Weeks, which to this day have retained the imprint ofHans Popper's exquisite scientific taste. Over the past quar-ter of a century, Herbert Falk's generosity and largesse,together with Hans' vision and energy have contributedimmensely to worldwide scientific communication inhepatology.

But it was not all work and science: for example, Hanswas a founding member of Chicago's Playboy Club, and ina light moment he was appointed a Kentucky Colonel. Hewas a refined gourmet who enjoyed a good dinner or partyin the stimulating company of his many friends from allcorners of the world, and was always the gracious center ofthe event.

NEW YORK

In 1957, after Paul Klemperer had retired as chief ofpathology at New York's Mount Sinai Hospital, Hans Pop-per was recruited as his successor. His arrival in New Yorkhad a profound impact on the Mount Sinai Hospital as wellas on his personal goals and professional activities. As de-partment chairman in a large academically oriented teach-ing hospital, he was responsible for a highly rated, exten-sive teaching program and a demanding pathology service,both of which he directed with his usual brilliance anddynamic enthusiasm. But it soon was apparent to him thatto realize the hospital's full potential it needed its own medicalschool. With persuasive intellect, subtle charm and unre-

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lenting conviction he soon won most of his colleagues andthe hospital trustees to his plans, and in 1963 the MountSinai School of Medicine accepted its first class of medicalstudents. Hans was the architect of the school's curriculumand for years remained its guiding spirit, first as its deanfor Academic Affairs and later as dean and president. Hefelt that this new school should differ from conventionalacademic institutions by focusing on three divergent prin-ciples: quantitative biology, concern for the individual pa-tient and attention to community needs. Although somemeasure of success was achieved in each, integration of thistroika at times proved difficult, as might be expected whena new medical school is superimposed upon a hospital witha strong tradition of clinical excellence. Hans loved crisismanagement, and with a combination of diplomatic flex-ibility and authoritative firmness he usually succeeded inresolving what seemed unmanageable problems.

At the age of seventy, he retired from his administrativepositions in the medical school and was appointed for lifeas Mount Sinai's Gustave Levy Distinguished Service Profes-sor. With the reduction in administrative responsibilities,Hans once again was able to concentrate all his energy,curiosity and enthusiasm on his scientific work, which pro-gressively took on new dimensions, making the final fifteenyears the most productive period of his life. His stay at theNIH as a Fogarty Scholar brought him into close contactwith scientists interested in viral hepatitis. After the identi-fication of the hepatitis B virus in the late 1960s, he wasincreasingly captivated by the pathogenesis and highly vari-able morphological and clinical expression of this and otherviral infections of the liver. As he said, "In viral hepatitis,the defined factor is the viral exposure, but the completelydifferent outcomes must reflect decisive effects of geneticand/or environmental factors." He was one of the first to

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postulate the hepatitis B virus' oncogenic potential and torecognize the critical significance of this property for theseveral hundred millions of viral carriers worldwide. Of equalimportance was his realization that investigation and un-derstanding of these problems required familiarity with theconcepts and techniques of modern molecular biology, vi-rology, immunology and oncology. Incredibly for a "retired"professor in his eighth decade, through prodigious readinghe acquired this new knowledge with such proficiency thathe was able to easily converse and interact with experts inthese fields. Said Peter Scheuer, "Hans had the remarkableand genial gift of listening to information from a wide vari-ety of different scientific disciplines and immediately syn-thesizing it into an updated view of the subject, which hecould then transmit to those of us who could think neitherso fast nor so clearly." Indelible are the memories of HansPopper attentively sitting in the front row of internationalhepatology meetings, seldom leaving the proceedings, andalways asking conceptual questions. His comments usuallybegan with a gracious acknowledgment, followed by an analy-sis of the presented findings with an interpretation oftensuperior to that of the presenter, and at times recognizingthe significance of the new information before the authordid.

Most of Hans' important, multifaceted investigations ofviral hepatitis were carried out in cooperation with scien-tists of a much younger generation who had been trainedin the techniques of modern biology. But he commonly wasthe initiating and driving spirit of the projects, the one whoasked the crucial questions and integrated the new findingsinto a meaningful concept or hypothesis. Among these wereelegant studies of several naturally occurring hepadnavirusinfections in animals which provided conclusive evidencethat these hepatitis viruses are oncogenic in the liver in the

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absence of other environmental carcinogens. Other majorcontributions concerned the highly variable morphology ofnon-A, non-B hepatitis and the puzzling biology and patho-genesis of delta hepatitis. He also made the important ob-servation that occupational exposure to monovinylchlorideis hepatotoxic, frequently leading to the occurrence of he-patic angiosarcoma.

One of his incidental discoveries was that, unlike otherorgans, the human liver does not age. This quality ofagelessness is an appropriate symbol for the ageless scien-tist whose lifelong quest was to use current science to makethis fascinating organ surrender its secrets. It was this pas-sionate, restless search for new knowledge and his creativeimagination, already evident in his youth, which were citedin 1976 when his peers elected him to membership in theNational Academy of Sciences, an honor which was amonghis most cherished.

EPILOGUE

One may wonder what personal qualities made possiblea long life's work of such dimensions and depth. An impor-tant element clearly was a brilliant intellect which was shaped,focused and disciplined by a rigorous classical education inmiddle school and at the University of Vienna. This kindledhis intellectual search for truth and meaning, engenderinga lifelong crusade for excellence. He despised mediocrityand demanded from his associates and students long hoursof meticulous work, he himself routinely spending twelve tofifteen hours a day in the laboratory or library. He washonest with himself to a fault and expected the same fromhis coworkers. Although he had worked under or with manyoutstanding scientists and role models, one idol had a par-ticular influence on his scientific career. This was Sir FrancisBacon, from whose writings he learned the importance of

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the inductive method of science and whose Essays or Coun-sels—Civil and Moral, in its original 1639 edition, was of-fered to him as a gift in recognition of his outstandingservices to the Mount Sinai School of Medicine. He alsorespected his distant cousin, the philosopher Sir Karl Pop-per, who emphasized the value of formulating a hypothesiswhich experimentally can be proved right or wrong; anyhypothesis that cannot be so proven or which has morethan two possible answers was felt to be without merit. Hekept a picture of Bacon in his office as a constant reminderof his critical messages.

Decisive as these personal talents and educational expe-riences may have been for Hans' brilliant scientific career,he himself was fully aware of the old adage that chancefavors the prepared mind, and prepared his mind by anunrelenting enthusiasm for his work and an inexhaustibleenergy that persisted until a few weeks before his death.His life was work and work his life, a personal trait that wasgraciously accepted and supported by his understandingwife Lina. But despite his incomparable professional suc-cess, Hans remained a warm and generous individual, loyalto and loved by his countless friends, intolerant of arro-gance and always prepared to help and support those whowere less fortunate than he. Not surprisingly, one of hisparticular concerns was support of the students and youngscientific coworkers in whose intellectual development hetook profound interest, and whose stimulating company hegreatly enjoyed. There is no greater tribute to this outstandingscientist, teacher and academic leader than to conclude byquoting the 1974 students' yearbook of Mount Sinai Medi-cal School:

Few times in life is one fortunate enough to come to know a man as rare asDr. Popper. He is a kind and gentle individual, a scholar and teacher who

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loves learning and who delights in sharing his knowledge with others. Heloves life with an exuberance which he joyously imparts to those aroundhim. We feel privileged to dedicate the 1974 yearbook to Dr. Hans Popper.

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY*

1926

Dische, Z. and Popper, H. Ueber eine neue Microbestimmungsmethodeder Kohlehydrate in Organen und Koerpersaeften. Biochem. Ztschft.175:371.

1937

Boeck, J. and Popper, H. Ueber Lebertransplantation in dieVorderkammer des Auges. Virchow Arch. Path. Anat. 299:219.

Popper, H., Mandel, E. and Mayer, H. Ueber die diagnostischeBedeutung der Plasmakreatininbestimmung. Ztschft. Klin. Med.133:56.

1941

The histological distribution of vitamin A in human organs undernormal and pathologic conditions. Arch. Path. 51:766.

1943

Steigmann, F. and Popper, H. Intrahepatic obstructive jaundice.Gastroenterology 1:645.

1951

Waldstein, S.S. et al. Liver cirrhosis: Relation between function andstructure based on biopsy studies. Arch. Intern. Med. 87:844.

1952

Koch-Weser, D., de la Huerga, J. and Popper, H. Hepatic necrosisdue to bromobenzene and its dependence upon available sulfuramino acids. Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. Med. 79:196.

1957

Popper, H. and Schaffner, F., eds. Liver: Structure and Function. NewYork: Blakiston Div., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.

Transition of hepatitis into cirrhosis. Amer. J. Dig. Dis. 2:397.

"These articles and books were selected from among Popper's 821 publications.

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1959

Popper, H. and Schaffner, F. Drug-induced hepatic injury. Ann.Intern. Med. 51:1230.

1963

Schaffner, F. and Popper, H. Capillarization of hepatic sinusoids inman. Gastwenterology 44:239.

1965

Rubin, E., Schaffner, F., and Popper, H. Primary biliary cirrhosis.Chronic nonsuppurative destructive cholangitis. Amer.J. Path. 46:387.

1966

Bronfenmajor, S., Schaffner, F. and Popper, H. Fat-storing cells(lipocytes) in human liver. Arch. Path. 82:447.

1966

Davidson, C.S., Babior, B. and Popper, H. Concerning hepatotoxicityof halothane. New Engl. J. Med. 275:1497.

1967

Deinhardt, F. et al. Studies on the transmission of human viralhepatitis to marmoset monkeys. I. Transmission of disease, serialpassages, and description of liver lesions./. Exp. Med. 125:673.

1968

De Groote et al. A classification of chronic hepatitis. Lancet 2:626.

1975

Thomas, L.B. et al. Vinyl-chloride induced liver disease. From idio-pathic portal hypertension (Banti's syndrome) to angiosarcoma.N. Engl.J. Med. 292:17.

1978

Alter, H.J. et al. Transmissible agent in non-A, non-B hepatitis. Lan-cet 1:459.

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1979

Berk, P.D. et al. Veno-occlusive disease of the liver after allogeneicbone marrow transplantation. Ann. Intern. Med. 90:158.

1981

Thung, S.N. et al. Animal model of human disease: chimpanzeecarriers of hepatitis B virus. Am. J. Pathol. 105:328.

1982

Popper, H., Gerber, M.A. and Thung, S.N. The relation of hepato-cellular carcinoma to infections with hepatitis B and related vi-ruses in man and animals. Hepatology 2:1.

1983

Rizzetto, M. et al. Chronic hepatitis in carriers of hepatitis B sur-face antigen, with intrahepatic expression of the delta antigen.An active and progressive disease unresponsive to immunosup-pressive treatment. Ann. Intern. Med. 98:437.

1986

Marion, P.L., et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in ground squirrelspersistently infected with ground squirrel hepatitis virus. Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:4543.

1987

Popper, H. et al. Hepatocarcinogenicity of the woodchuck hepatitisvirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:866.

1987

Acs, G. et al. Hepatitis B virus produced by transfected Hep G2 cellscauses hepatitis in chimpanzees. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:4641.

1987

Chisari, F.V. et al. Structural and pathological effects of synthesis ofhepatitis B virus large envelope polypeptide in transgenic mice.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:6909.