ADVISORYBOARDOleg GrabarAngelikiE. LaiouJohnMeyendorffNicolasOikonomidesIhor SevcenkoSperosVryonis, Jr.PROJECTMANAGERSMargaret Scrymser(1988-90)CatherineBrown Tkacz(1984-88)ASSISTANTEDlTORSSusanHigmanRobertaGoldblattBIBLIOGRAPHERLeslieS. B. MacCoullTheOxfordDictionary of------..------Prepared at Dumbarton OaksAlexanderP. KazhdanEDITORINCHIEFAlice-Mary TalbotEXECUTIVEEDITORAnthony CutlerEDITORFORARTHISTORYTimothyE. GregoryEDITORFORARCHAEOLOGYANDHISTORICALGEOGRAPHYvNancyP. SevcenkoASSOCIATEEDITORNew York OxfordOXFORDUNIVERSITYPRESSOxfordUniversityPressOxford NewYork TorontoDelhi Bombav Calcutta Madras Karachi,Petalin!( Jaya Sin!(apore HongKOll!( TohoNairobi Oar es Salaam Cape TownMelbourne AucklandandassociatedcompaniesinBerlin IbadanCopyright 1991byDumbartonOaksTrusteesfor HarvardUniversilyWashinglon, D,e.Publishedby OxfordUniversityPress, Inc.,200MadisonAvenue, NewYork, NY10016Oxfordisaregisteredtrademark of OxfordUniversityPressAll rightsreserved. Nopart of thispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrieval system, or transmitted, inanyform orby anymeans,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without theprior writtenpermission of OxfordUniversityPress.I. Kazhdan, A.9-23208CIPLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationDataThe Oxforddictionary of Byzantium I Alexander P. Kazhdan. editor-in-chief;Alice-Mary Talbot, exectttive editor; AnthonyCutler,editorforart history;TimothyE. Gregory, editorforarchaeologyandhistorical geography;NancyP. Sevi'enko, associate editor.p. cm.ISBN0-19-546.';2-8I. ByzanlineEmpire-Civilization-Dictionaries.P. (Alexander Petrovich), 1922-DF52 1.093 1991949'5' 03' 03---dc20PROJECTElllTOR: JeffrevP. EdclsteinCOPYEDlTORSANDPROOFREADERS: WilliamBissell, EricBranch. Constance Creede,GeoffreyB. Gneuhs, PhilomenaMariani, BarbaraPalfy, KevinPope, MariaSarro,NancySnyder, JamesWailer9 8 7 6543 2 1PrintedinIheUnitedStates of Americaonacid-freepaperPREFACE------..------Theidea of producing adictionary of Byzantine studieswasformu-latedbythelateGyulaMoravcsikinanarticlepublishedin 1949(By-zantinoslavica 10[1949] 7). Several years later, Johannes Irmscherde-velopedthis proposal duringavisit toMoscow, andplansweremadetopreparesuchadictionary asa joint German-Sovietenterprise; how-ever, theproject wasneverlaunched. In 1968PeterWirthinMunichbeganpublication of anambitiouswork, entitledReallexikonderByzan-tinistik, rivalingPauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyklopiidieinscope; this dictio-nary collapsed after the appearance of afewfascicles.InAmericaplansfor thepreparationof adictionaryofByzantiumbegantomaterialize atDumbartonOaksin1980 in conversations amongAlexander Kazhdan, AnthonyCutler, Speros Vryonis, andJelisavetaAllen. Withtheencouragement andsupportof Giles Constable, thendirector of DumbartonOaks,editorial andadvisory boardswere estab-lished, apreliminary list of entries was drawn up, andin1982 an initialapplicationwasmadetotheNational Endowmentfor theHumanities.Afterthereceipt of NEHfunding, theproject formallycommencedinNovember 1983; in1984 anofficewasestablishedatDumbartonOaksandacontract wassignedwithOxfordUniversityPress.A number of existing encyclopedias dealto a limited extent withByz-antinehistoryandculture. Insomeof themByzantiumisconsideredas anintegral part-butonlyapart of thesubjectmatter; tothiscat-egorybelong, first andforemost, theLexikondesMittelalters (asyet un-finished)andtherecently completed Dictionary of the Middle Ages.Otherencyclopedias include separate fields of Byzantine studies, limited chro-nologically (thus Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyklopiidie elucidates the his-toryofthelate Roman Empireandalsotreats later authors relevantfor ancient history) or topically (there are numerous patristic, theo-logical, liturgical, andchurchhistorical dictionariesandencyclopediasas well as reference books on prosopography, topography, art, andiconography, includingtheProsopography of the Later Roman Empire, theProsopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit, theTabulaImperii Byzantini,andtheReallexikonzurbyzantinischenKunst). Oursis, however, thefirstattempt to collect within asingle work data concerning all fields of Byz-antine studies.Encyclopediasdifferinthat some of them(suchastheReal-Encyklo-piidie or the Dictionnaire d'histoireet de geographieecclesiastiques-the latterstill inprogress) claim comprehensiveness of bothinformation andbib-liography, whileothersareselectiveandthereforemoreconcise(e.g.,thethree-volumeDizionariopatristicoedi antichitacristiane). The OxfordDictionary of Byzantium(hereafterODB) wasfromtheoutsetplannedasaselective dictionary followingthemodel of other Oxforddictionaries.vvi I PREFACEAs aresult itwasnecessarytomake choices inthree areas: thenumberof entries, theirlength, andthebibliographical references.FromtheverybeginningwelimitedtheODBtoapproximatelyfivethousandentries. Itgoes without sayingthat this is anumberinsuffi-cienttoincludeall Byzantinenames andterms; thuswehadtodecidewhoand what would be treated, whoandwhat would be excluded.Onlyonecategory, that of theByzantineemperors, iscomplete, whileaselectionhasbeenmade among saints, patriarchs, writers, places, fis-cal andadministrative concepts, and so forth. The decisionprocess waslong andpainful: westartedit beforethe editorialboardwasfullyop-erative, weconsultedwithmembersoftheDumbartonOakscommu-nity, in1986 wepublishedthepreliminaryWorking Lists of entries anddistributedthis pamphlet toleadingByzantinists. Wecontinuedtomakechangesinthelist right uptothetime of galleyproofs, thankstotheunderstanding of the OxfordUniversityPress. The final resultis com-prehensive coverage of allaspects of Byzantinehistory andcivilization,withspecial depthinsubjectssuchasbureaucratictitlesandfiscal terms,urbanlife, andrural economy.Ouroriginal goal wastocreateawork of approximately1.1millionwords, exclusiveofbibliographies. Weestablishedtheaveragelengthof anentryastwohundredwordsand of amajorarticleas onethou-sandwords, but wedidgrantourcontributorssomelatitude. We re-strictedbibliographical references: werequestedthatonly oneeditionof a text (the best) be indicated and that the "literature" section includeno more thanfour or fiveitems. As aconsequence, however, of addingnewentries in thecourseof our work, ofincreasingthewordageofmany entriesinordertopermit adequatecoverage of thesubjectmat-ter, and of expanding the bibliographies to incorporate themost recentscholarhip, thecompletedproduct is considerablylonger thanantici-pated, a three-volume workofapproximately two millionwords, in-cludingbibliographies. We were able to keep revisingthe bibliogra-phies until June 1989; inonlya fewinstances was it feasible toaddreferencestoneweditions, articles, andmonographsthat appearedin1989 and1990.Wedecidedtodividethesubject matterinto about 135"clusters" ofentriesandinvitedcertaincontributors toserveas cluster leaders re-sponsiblefor a particular topicsuchas fiscal systemorgeographyofAsia Minor. In most instances, the cluster leader was asked towriteboth a general survey article onhis or her topic of specialization as wellas the relatedshorter entries. Our reasoningwas that the systemofclusterswouldpermit morecoherencewithinthe group of entries andmoreflexibilityforthese contributors who, inthe course of work, weretodecidewhichpersonorobject wasmoreandwhichlesssignificant;we also expectedtherebytolessenrepetitions andinconsistencies. Cer-tainly, the system had its shortcomings:oftenit was impossible to makea strict separation between different clusters, and some topics appearedin different clusters, even under differentnames. Some cluster leaderssubcontracted a part oftheir entries, thus multiplyingthe legionofcontributors. It is our judgment neverthelessthat this systemhelpedtoPREFACE Iproduceacertainuniformityandtoavoidunnecessaryduplicationofinformation.Itwas difficult toimposea consistent structureontheentries andespecially difficultto decide whether an entry shouldmerely statefactsor should also include source references, scholarly discussions, andscholarlydoubts. Thusmanyentrieshavenoscientificscaffolding andsupports, while others are heavily loaded with scholarly apparatus. Thisdifference intreatment has been determined bothby the preference ofindividual contributors andbythecontroversial nature of certaintop-ics. Inanycase, wetriedtoavoidunilateral solutions andsometimespresentedinthe runningtext, or atleastinbibliographical references,conclusionswe or our contributors donotshare.Wealso faced the difficult questionoftowhat extent adictionaryshould summarizealreadyestablished data andtowhatextent authorsshouldgobeyondthedejaconnuandsuggest newviewpointsandnewsolutions. At thebeginning, weset asour goal thesummationof ele-mentaryknowledgeabout Byzantium; itturnedout, however, thatthereare many questions that have not even been asked and many traditionalviews that are not substantiatedby the sources. We found ourselvesobliged to touch upontopics developed by westernmedievalists but notyet studied by Byzantinists andto question a number of traditional per-ceptions anddates.Preparation of the ODBwasthe joint effort of more thana hundredcontributors, dozens of cluster leaders, and a handful of editors. Couldsuch anassemblagereachaunified approach andwork asateam?Wetriedtoachieve suchagoalbut werenot alwayssuccessful. Over aseven-year periodwe hadlongdiscussions, bothat meetings andincorre-spondence; theeditorial boardinsisted, surrendered, andinsistedagain,and frequently was unableto findunity within its ownranks. Neverthe-less wehopethat intheendwe managedtodevelopcertaingeneralprinciples, even though theycould not be uniformlyapplied, partlyowing to the lack of data, partly to the strength of traditional ap-proaches.First of all, weaddressedissues of chronologyandgeography. Thechronological scopeofthedictionarywasdefinedas theperiodfromthe4th to the 15thcentury; classical authors suchas Euripides andPlatoareincluded, but discussionof themisfocusedonthetransmis-sion andknowledge of their writings in Byzantium. Thepost-Byzantinetradition(Byzarueapres Byzarue) wasdeliberatelyomitted. It provedmuchmoredifficult to set geographical limits for the ODBbecauseoftheconstant fluctuationintheborders of theempireandthefar-rangingimpact of Byzantineculture anditscontactswithdistantlands. All re-gionsthat at anytimeformedpartof the ByzantineEmpirearecov-ered, asaresitesoutside the empire'sborders that hadsignificant con-nections with Byzantium. In entries treatingareas borderingontheempire, theemphasisisonrelationswithByzantium orByzantinecul-ture. Thus, the ODB entries on the Qur'an andMul)ammad differ greatlyfromtheircounterpartsintheEncyclopediaof Islam, inthat theyfocusonByzantineperceptions of theHolyBook andProphet of Islam. To..VIIviii PREFACEtake anotherexample, intherealm of art andarchitecture, onlythosechurches of medieval Serbiahavebeenemphasizedforwhichit canbedemonstrated that Byzantine artists or architects were primarily re-sponsible.The second principle we followedwas to make the entries in the ODBinterdisciplinary in nature. We wantedtohave entries inwhichhistory,philology, art, andliturgywereinterwovenandcombined; evenshortentriesweresometimeswrittenbythreeprofessionalssothat apersonor anevent is viewed fromseveral vantage points. This approachiscloselylinkedtoourbelief thatelementsof Byzantineculturedidnotexistinisolation.Thisbrings us totheverycomplexproblemof whether Byzantiumwas a living, developingorganismor onlya guardianofancient andpatristictraditions. ThequestioniscomplexsincesomuchinByzan-tiumimitatedthepast andthesources themselves glossoverchangesand alterations, but inthewords of Paul Lemerle "to representByzan-tiumas immutableover a periodofelevencenturies is tofall intoatrapset by Byzantiumitself" (Lemerle, Cinq etudes 251). In fields asdisparate as literature, military strategy and organization, science, med-icine, law, andphilosophy, theeditorial boardhas takenthepositionthat Byzantiumdidnot merelytransmitthetraditions of antiquitybutdevelopeditsownmodels andworldview.Afinal pointisthat theODBincludesmanytopicsnotnormallyfoundintraditional encyclopedias anddictionaries. Theeditorshavemadeadeliberateattempt toemphasizerealiaandthemaninthestreet(homobyzantinus), withspecial focusonsubjects suchasthefamily, diet, emo-tions, andeveryday life.It is our hopethat theODBwill provideits reader withabodyofknowledge about Byzantium. We alsoexpect it todemonstrate manyareas ofstudythat are still underdeveloped, unclear, andconfused,andbyso doingtostimulate thefurtherevolution of our discipline.NOTETOTHEREADEREntriesintheODBarearrangedinalphabeticalorder, strictlyletterbyletter, not wordby word. Aspace between wordsis thus ignored, sothat LeoGrammatikosprecedesLeonardof Chios, but Leoof Cataniafollows Leontios Scholastikos. Entriesonemperors, popes, patriarchs,andothers withidentical namesarearrangedinchronological order.Cross-references, indicatedbysmall capitals (e.g., FARMS, IRENE), willguidethereader toother entries that shouldoffer pertinent relatedinformation. Werecommendthat thereader doingresearch on atopicalso consult the major survey article; thus, someone interested infarmsmight alsoreadthearticle onagriculture, wherenumerous other rele-vant entrieswillbementioned.Somemonumentsaresubjectsofindependent entries madeunderthenameof thespecificchurchormonastery(this is thecasefor thePREFACEmonuments andmonasteries of Constantinople, Athos, andThessalon-ike), whileothersarediscussedinentriesunder thenameofthesite(asfor Mistra, Venice, Rome, etc.). Manyartists andarchitects who arenot subjectsof separateentriesarediscussedin the major articlesonartists and architects,respectively. Toponyms are generally listed underthe formofthe name commonly used in the Byzantine period, forexample, Ankyrainsteadof modernTurkishAnkara. Modernnamesareusedfor sitesfor whichthemedieval nameis unknownoruncer-tain, for example,AlahanManastiri, Ummel-Jimal.Referencesto primary sources aregivenintwo different ways: eitherthe work is cited in the formof a bibliographic abbreviation (e.g.,Theoph. or De cer.), which can be found in the list ofbibliographicabbreviations, or the nameoftheauthor or text is printedin smallcapitals, toindicatethat thecross-referencedentrywill provideinfor-mation oneditions of theworks.Greekterms andthe names of most people and places have beenstrictlytransliterated, but in manyinstances a traditional latinizedoranglicizedform(e.g., Homer, Aeschylus, Thebes, Nicaea) wasused. Wehave alsoadoptedthe anglicized formofGreekfirst names that arecommoninEnglish, forexample, John, Nicholas, Peter. ArmenianhasbeentransliteratedinaccordancewiththeguidelinesoftheRevuedesetudes armeniennes, ArabicandOttomanaccordingtothe rulesoftheInternational Journal of MiddleEastStudies. For Slaviclanguageswehavefollowedthe "modified Harvard system," employed in Byzantinische Zeit-schrift. InLatinwehaveusedtheinitial formju-, ratherthaniu-, forexample, jugum, jus;wealsodistinguishbetweenvandu.Thebibliographies areselective andemphasizemonographs onagivensubject; theyaresupplementedbybibliographical citationsintherun-ningtext. Usuallythemost important itemis listedfirst, but insomecasesarecent bookorarticlewasaddedat theend. Inordertoavoidrepetition, someworkshavebeenomittedfromthebibliography of anentry if they are listed in the bibliography of another entry cross-referenced in the text. For thesake of simplicity, many articles are citedin the reprint edition of a scholar's articles (such as VariorumRe-prints), withthedateof original publicationindicatedinparentheses.For books, reprint information is givenwherever known. When pos-sible,wehave triedto emphasize worksinwesternEuropean languages(especially English), but where appropriate aconscious decisionwasmadetoinclude numerous works inGreek, ill SlaviLallJuLlJneasLnll Eu-ropeanlanguages, andinlanguages of theMiddleEast.Among the challengesfacedby the editorial boardwas that of recon-ciling ourcontributors' differingdefinitionsof thetermByzantineandtheir often conflicting terminology for the successive stages of Byz-antinehistory. In early drafts of entries theperiod fromthe 4th to7thcenturywasvariouslytermedlate antique, early Christian, lateRoman,earlyByzantine, proto-Byzantine, andevenlateByzantine(byscholarsdealing withthehistory of Syro-Palestine andEgypt).ThetermMiddleByzantinewasusedby different contributorstorefertothe8thto11thcentury, the9thto 12thcentury, etc. Because of thelack ofprecisionIXx PREFACEandconfusionengenderedby Byzantinists' inconsistent terminologyfortheperiodization of Byzantinehistory, the editorshavetriedtosubsti-tuteexact centuries whereverpossible. Ingeneral, theODBhas chosentousethetermlateRomanorlateantiquefor theperiodof the4thtotheearlyormid-7thcenturyandtoemployByzantinefor phenomenaof the7th century andlater, butinevitablythereareinconsistenciesinourusage.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe OxfordDictionary of Byzantiumwould never have been realizedwithouttheassistance andgoodwill of numerousinstitutionsandindi-viduals.Threesuccessivedirectorsof DumbartonOaks havesupportedtheproject inmanifoldways, beginning withtheinitialencouragement givenbyGiles Constable, who providedinvaluable adviceduringthe earlyphasesof organization, preliminaryoverturestotheNational Endow-ment fortheHumanities, andnegotiationswithpublishers. Hissucces-sors, Robert ThomsonandAngeliki Laiou, havecontinuedthis policyofstronginstitutional commitment and have alsothemselves madeascholarly contribution to the ODB by writingand reviewingentries.Throughout thelongyearsof theproject, DumbartonOaks has pro-vided office space, paid some staff salaries, made accommodationsavailable, and offered various kinds of administrative and logisticalsupport. We are grateful tothe staffs of theFinancial Office (especiallyMarlene Chazan and JoseGarcia), theByzantineLibrary(especiallyIr-eneVaslef, SteveRouser, andMarkZapatka), andtheDepartment ofVisual Resources (especiallyNatalia Teteriatnikov andAstrid Williams),whohelpedtoadministerourgrantsandfinances, totrackdownob-scurebibliographiccitationsandrareandmissingbooks, andtopro-videphotographsfortheillustrations, respectively.TheAdvisoryBoard, composed of six senior scholars, played anim-portant roleintheplanning of theODB, reviewinggeneral guidelinesandadvisingonthelist ofentriesandselectionofcontributors. Theadvisers have supported the project throughout its duration, as contrib-utors andespeciallyasreviewers of entries writtenby other scholars.Wealsowishtoacknowledgewarmlytheimportantcontributiontotheproject of GaryVikan, oneof thetwooriginal editorsfor art his-tory, whohadtoleavetheEditorial Boardat the end of1984. Hewasextremelyhelpfulinthe earlyphases of theproject, especiallyinrevis-ingthelist of art entries andinpreparing theinitialapplicationtotheNational Endowment fortheHumanities.Wewouldindeedberemissif wedidnot payspecial tributetoour127contributors fromseventeendifferent countries whosecombinedefforts were essential for the realization of this project. Inorder toavoidthetranslation of entries, welookedfirst toscholarsfromEnglish-speakingcountries, but for certainspecializedtopicswewerenot ablePREFACE Itoadheretothis principle. Manyof ourcontributorsnot onlyagreedtoserve as cluster leadersandtowritelarge numbersofentries butalsowere collaborators inthetruesense of theword, working withtheeditorsasateamanddemonstratingaconcernfortherelationship oftheir entriestotheODBas awhole.Oneofthe advantages ofpreparingtheODBat DumbartonOakshasbeentheavailabilitytotheeditorsof themanyAmericanandin-ternational scholars whovisit the Byzantine Librarytoconduct theirown research. Many of these individuals have been extremely generousintheir willingness toreadandcomment uponsizablegroupsof en-tries. EntireclusterswerereviewedbyUteBlumenthal (Papacy), Rob-ert Browning(Rhetoric, Literature, Education), BernardCoulie (Ar-menia, Georgia), Paul Hollingsworth (Russian Literature), DavidJacoby(Economy/Agrarian Relations), Leslie MacCoull (Coptic Art and Ar-chaeology), Cyril Mango(Culture), Michael McCormick(Papacy), JohnMeyendorff(Ecclesiastical Structure, ChurchCouncils, Patriarchates),Nicolas Oikonomides (Bureaucracy, Athos), Andrzej Poppe (RussianvLiteratureandGeography), Lennart Ryden(Hagiography), Ihor Sev-cenko(Palaeography, Antiquity, Literature, Late ByzantineAuthors),IrfanShahid(EthiopiaandSouthArabia), andRainerStichel (Theol-ogy). Somescholarsinpermanent residenceat DumbartonOakswhoalsoreviewedentriesare JelisavetaAllen(SerbianGeography), Ange-liki Laiou(Economy, Family, UrbanLife), andWilliamLoerke(Archi-tecture). Furthermore wewishtoacknowledgetheadvicefromafar ofFlOosBak (who read the entries onHungary), Dimitri Conomos (Hym-nography), Elena Metreveli (Armenia, Georgia), andIsidoreTwersky(Jews). Manyother scholars readandcommentedon individual en-tries; weregret thatitisnotpossibletomentionthemallbyname.One of our greatest difficultieswasinreconciling conflicting systemsoftransliteration for the manylanguages cited in the ODB. We areparticularly gratefulfortheassistance of StevenReinert andElizabethZachariadouwith Ottoman Turkish, of Sidney Griffith andPeter Cowewith Syriac, of Robert Thomson with Armenian and Georgian, of IrfanShahidwithArabic, andof LeslieMacCoull withCoptic. StefanGeroalsocounseled us onthe translationoftheological terminologyfromGerman intoEnglish.Wewouldalsoliketorecognizethedifficultassignmentcapablyex-ecutedbyRuth Macrides andKennethWesche, whotranslatedfromGermantheclusters onlaw andtheology, respenively.TheODBproject hasbeenfortunatetoenjoythroughout itscoursetheservicesof adevotedandablestaff. CatherineBrownTkacz, whojoinedtheproject in January1984 asproject coordinator andthenbe-cameproject manager, wasresponsiblefor thechallengingtask of de-signingthecomputer programsandorganizingoffice procedures. Inadditiontoperformingcountlessother duties inconnectionwiththemanagement of the project for morethanfour andahalf years, shealso servedasassistant editor.After her resignation in 1988, Catherine Tkacz was succeeded asprojectmanagerbyMargaretScrymser, whohadoriginally joinedtheXlxii PREFACEstaff in1986 asproject assistant. Margaret ran theoffice efficiently andcalmlyfor thefinal twoyears of theproject, supervising staff andvol-unteersduringaperiodof constant deadlinesandnever-endingpres-sure. Inadditionshekeyedall final revisionsintothe computer beforetheentriesweresent topress andoversawtheprocess of bibliographicverification.Anotherkeystaff member duringthefinal phase of theprojectwasSusanHigman, whoservedasassistanteditorin1989-90. Shewasaninvaluableassistant totheexecutiveeditoraswell asservingasliaisonwithOxfordUniversityPress, coordinating thechecking of galleyproofs,andperforming numerous other tasks. Roberta Goldblatt preceded Su-sanasassistant editorforafewmonthsin1988-89.Anessential part ofthepreparationoftheODBwasthe keyingofmorethanfivethousandentries, achallengingassignment becauseofthemultilingual character of thematerial. CatherineTkaczandMar-garet Scrymserkeyedalargenumber of entries duringtheearly yearsof theproject. Wealsowishtoacknowledgewithgratitudetheskilledworkof GerryGuest (fifteenmonths, 1988-89), whosecomputerex-pertisewas invaluable, and Leilani Henderson(tenmonths in 1989-90). JaneBaun andBarbara Hartmannalso didclericalworkforshortperiods of timein1986.For almost two years (1988-90) Leslie MacCoull faithfully carriedout the tedious but necessary task of verifying the more thanthirty-fivethousand bibliographic citations. Her scholarly background and lin-guisticabilitymadeherideallysuitedfor thisassignment, andwearemuchindebtedtoher. MonicaBlanchard of theInstitute of ChristianOrientalResearch at the CatholicUniversity of America made availabletous thespecializedresources inventoryof theinstitute's libraryandhelpedwiththeverification of Georgianbibliography.Aloyal group of volunteersassistedtheproject inmanyways: pro-cessingnewentries, filingand other clerical tasks, proofreading, main-taining a bibliographic inventory, bibliographic research, and providingcomputer expertise. Weareenormouslyinthedebt ofthis cheerfulbandofmenandwomen, whowerewillingtoundertakealmost anytaskat hand. Without theirserviceswewouldneverhavebeenabletocompletetheprojectwithinthetimeallotted. Inorder of years of ser-vice, wewishtoexpressourprofoundthankstoHelenMcKagen, PeggyNalle, and JoanTheodore(sixyears); Eleanor Hedblom(fiveyears);Jane Woods (three years); Teresa McArdle, Ginger McKaye, BettyWagner, andHal Warren(onetotwoyears); and JaneBaun, GianniGuindani, PatriciaHardesty, andPaul Hollingsworth(less thanone year).Inaddition, Michael Tkacz helped out onmore than one occasion overafour-yearperiod.Aspecial wordof appreciationisdueto JamesC. Moeser, deanoftheCollege of Arts andArchitectureat thePennsylvaniaStateUniver-sity, andtoG. Micheal Riley, dean of the College of HumanitiesattheOhio State University, for agreeing to release Anthony Cutler andTimothyGregory, respectively, fromsomeoftheir teachingdutiessothatthey couldcarry out their editorialresponsibilities.PREFACEWehavebenefitedfromthe expertadviceandassistance of theOx-ford University Press throughout ourlongyearsofcommonassocia-tion. Intheearlystages of theproject weworkedcloselyfirst withDavidAttwooll andthenwithWilliamMitchell as executiveeditorsofrefer-encebooks. Since 1988wehavehadacongenial workingrelationshipwithClaudeConyers, editorial director for referencebooks, andwithJeffreyEdelstein, whoservedas the Press's project editorduringthedemandingfinal phasesoftheproject. Amongformer staffmembersat OxfordUniversityPress, we shouldlikeparticularly to thankMarionBritt.Aproject ofthis magnitudeanddurationrequiredconsiderable fi-nancialassistance. Fromthebeginning wehavereceivedtheindispens-able support ofthe National Endowment for the Humanities, whichhasprovidedbothoutrightgrantsandmatchingfederal funds. Inad-ditionwewishto thankparticularly the AndrewW. MellonFoundationandDumbartonOaks, whichsupplementedEndowmentfundingwithgenerous grants throughout the seven-year periodofpreparationoftheODB. TheGetty Grant Program of the J. PaulGetty Trust andtheSamuel H. KressFoundationwerealsomajorbenefactors, making sub-stantialcontributionsto offset costsrelating to arthistorical portions oftheproject. We are alsomost appreciative of thefundsprovidedby theMenil Foundation, theCordonFund, Capt. Nicholas Kulukundis, andHelenMcKagen.THEEDITORIALBOARDSeptember1990XlllILLUSTRATIONS------..------LISTOFMAPSAFRICA, PREFECTUREOFASIAMINORATHENSATHOS, MOUNTBALKANSBLACKSEABULGARIABYZANTIUM, HISTORYOFCAUCASUSCONSTANTINOPLECRUSADESCYPRUSEGYPTGREECEITALYSYRIATHEMETHESSALONIKENorthAfricaintheLateRomanPeriodCities andRegions of AsiaMinorAthensMonasteries of MountAthosRegions of theBalkansTheBlackSeaRegionCities of Bulgaria, Serbia, andNeighboringRegionsThe RomanEmpire in the FourthCenturyThe Byzantine Empire in theSixthCenturyTheByzantine Empire circa1025TheByzantineEmpireunder theKomnenoiThe Balkans and Anatolia circa1214The Byzantine Empire and ItsNeighbors circa1350TheCaucasusRegionConstantinopleRoutes of the First Four Cru-sadesCyprusEgypt andthe SinaiPeninsulaCities andRegions of GreeceCities andRegions ot ItalyCities of Syro-Palestine andNeighboringRegionsThemes of Asia Minor in theSeventh andEarly EighthCen-tunesLater Themes and Regions ofAsiaMinorThessalonike in the FourteenthCenturyxvxvi ILLUSTRATIONSLISTOFGENEALOGICALTABLESAARONIOSAMORIANORPHRYGIANDYNASTYANGELOSASANBRYENNIOSCONSTANTINEI THEGREATDOUKASGATTlLUSIOHERAKLEIOSISAURIANDYNASTYJUSTINIANIKANTAKOUZENOSKOMNENOSLASKARISLEKAPENOSLEOIMACEDONIANDYNASTYNEMANJIDDYNASTYPALAIOLOGOSGenealogy of theAaronios Fam-ilyintheEleventhCenturyGenealogy of the Amorian Dy-nastySelectedGenealogy of theAnge-losDynasty(1185-1204)Genealogy of theAsanFamilyinByzantium in the ThirteenthandFourteenthCenturiesGenealogy of the BryenniosFamily in the Eleventh andTwelfthCenturiesSelected Genealogy of theFamilyof ConstantineISelected Genealogyofthe Dou-kasFamilyintheEleventh andTwelfthCenturiesSelectedGenealogyoftheGatti-lusioFamily intheLevant in theFourteenthandFifteenthCen-tunesSelected Genealogy of theFamilyof HerakleiosGenealogy of the Isaurian Dy-nastySelected Genealogy of theFamilyof JustinianISelected Genealogyofthe Kan-takouzenosFamily intheFour-teenthandFifteenthCenturiesGenealogy of the KomnenosFamilyGenealogy of the Laskaris Dy-nasty of NicaeaGenealogy of the LekapenosFamily inthe TenthCenturyTheHouse of LeoISelectedGenealogy of theMace-donianDynasty,867- I156Genealogyofthe Nemanjid Dy-nasty(ca.1167-1371)Selected Genealogy of the Pa-laiologosFamilyTHEODOSIOSIToccoZACCARIAILLUSTRATIONSSelectedGenealogy of theTheo-dosianDynastyTheTocco Familyinthe IonianIslands andEpiros in the Four-teenth andFifteenthCenturiesSelected Genealogy of the Zac-cariaFamilyintheLevantPHOTOACKNOWLEDGMENTS XVllAlinari/AnResource, NewYork NATIVITYBiblioteca Apostolica Vaticana BIRTH; BLEMMYES; BRICKS;CROSS, CULTOF THE; GRAIN; HOUSES; IDOL; JOSHUAROLL;LEO SAKELLARIOS; MENOLOGION OF BASIL 11; OCTA-TEUCH; PANTOLEON; PERFUMESANDUNGUENTS; PERSON-IFICATION; RELICS; SEASONS, PERSONIFICATIONS OF; Sy-MEONTHESTYLITETHEELDERBibliotecaNacional, Madrid LEOVIBibliothequeNationale, Paris EMPEROR; FRIEZEGOSPELSOsvaldoBohm CHALICELaskarinaBouras LAMPSDumbartonOaks, Washington, D.e. ALEXANDER; BRICK-WORKTECHNIQUESANDPATTERNS; BRIDGES; CERAMICS;CHORA MONASTERY; CHRIST: Types of Christ; CIBOR-IUM; COINS; CONSTANTINOPLE, MONUMENTS OF; Walls;DEESIS; DORMITION; FORTY MARTYRS OF SEBASTEIA;HAGIASOPHIA: Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (inte-rior view); ICONS: Painted Icons; JOHN11 KOMNENOS;JOHNCHRYSOSTOM; KAPER KORAONTREASURE; LIGHT-ING, ECCLESIASTICAL; MARRIAGE BELT; METOCHITES,THEODORE; MISTRA; NEREZI; OPUS SECTILE; PAMMA-KARISTOS, CHURCHOF HAGIAMARIA; PEACOCKS; PYXIS;QAL'ATSEM'AN; RHIPIDION; RING, MARRIAGE; SEALINGIMPLEMENTS; SGRAFFITOWARE; STOUDIOS MONASTERY;TAXATION; VIRGINHAGIOSORITISSAEkdotikeAthenonS.A., Athens CHRYSOBULLAlisonFrantz HOSIOSLOUKAS; PALACEGiraudonArtResource LARGITIODISHES, SILVERHinner Fotoarchiv, Munich AMPULLAE, PILGRIMAGE;ApOKAUKOS, ALEXIOS; BARBERINI IVORY; BASIL11; BOOKCOVER; CAPITAL; CONSTANTINEITHEGREAT; CONSTAN-TINEVII PORPHYROGENNETOS; CONSTANTINOPLE, MON-UMENTS OF: Cisterns; EPITAPHIOS; EVANGELIST POR-TRAITS; GREAT FEASTS; ICONS: Mosaic Icons; JOHNVIKANTAKOUZENOS; LIMBURG AN-DER-LAHN RELIQUARY;MAXIMIAN; PSALTER; RAVENNA; ROSSANOGOSPELS; SAR-COPHAGUS; TEKFURSARAYI; THEODORA.J. Paul GettyMuseum, Malibu HYPAPANTELibrary of Congress, Washington, D.e. GREGORYOFNA-ZIANZOS; JOHNKLlMAX(MSillustration)IngeborgLimmer SILKLincolnCollege, UniversityofOxford BEBAIAS ELPIUOSNUNNERY; NUN; PORTRAITS AND PORTRAITURE: AnOverviewMarburg/Art Resource, NewYork DIPTYCHS; STARONA-GORICINO; TEMPLONThomasMathews COLUMNCHURCHESMetropolitanMuseum of Art, NewYork DAVIDPLATESMichigan-Princeton-Alexandria Expedition to MountSinai, Ann Arbor ANNUNCIATION; JOHNKLlMAX (icon);NICHOLASOFMYRA; TRANSFIGURATIONMonastery of St. John, Patmos HEADPIECENational Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne CANONTABLESOsterrcichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna ANICIAJULI-ANAPhotoLykides, Thessaloniki CANA, MARRIAGEATJosephincPowell DAPHNI; MOSAIC; OHRIDRijksmuseum Hct Catharijneconvent, Utrecht VIRGIN Ho-DEW1;n'!, ed.E. Miller, 2vols. (Paris 1855-57; rp. Amsterdam1967)Philostorg., HE= Philostorgius, Kirchengeschichte2, ed. j.Bidez, F. Winkelmann(Berlin1972)Philotheos, Kletor. = Kletorologion of Philotheos, ed. N.Oikonomides, inhis Les listes de priseance byzantines du IXeet Xesiecle (Paris 1972)Photios, Bibl. = Photios, Bibliotheque, ed. R. Henry, 8vols.(Paris 1959-77)PhysMedGr = Physici et medici graeci minores, ed. j.L. Ideler,2 vols. (Berlin1841-42; rp. Amsterdam1963)Piltz, Kamelaukion = E. Piltz, Kamelaukion et mitra (Stock-holm1977) XXXVIII BIBLIOGRAPHIC ABBREVIATIONSPingree, "Astrological School" = D. Pingree, "TheAstro-logical Schoolof JohnAbramius,"DOP25(1971) 189-215Pingree,"Chioniades&Astronomy" = D. Pingree,"Greg-oryChioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy," DOP 18(1964) 133-60Pitra, Analecta = JB. Pitra, Analectasacm[et classical Spici-legioSolesmensiparata, 7vols. (Paris 1876-82, 1891; rp.Farnsborough1967)PK]IF= Prilozizaknjiievnost, jezik, istorijui folklorPL= Patrologiae cursus completus, Series latina, ed.J-P. Migne, 221vols. in222pts. (Paris 1844-80)Place of BookIllum. = K. Weitzmann, W.e. Loerke, E. Kit-zinger, H. Buchthal, The Place ofBook Illumination inByzantine Art (Princeton1975)PLP= Prosopographisches Lexikon derPalaiologenzeit, vo!. 1-(Vienna1976-)PLRE= TheProsopographyof theLaterRomanEmpire, vo!.I, ed. A.H.M. Jones, JR. Martindale, J Morris (Cam-bridge1971),vo!. 2, ed. JR. Martindale(1980)PO= Patrologia Orientalis, ed. R. Graffin, F. Nau,vo!. 1-(Paris 1904-)Podskalsky, Rus' = G. Podskalsky, Christentumund theolo-gische Literatur in der Kiever Rus' (988-1237) (Munich1982)Podskalsky, Theologie = G. Podskalsky, Theologieund Philo-sophieinByzanz(Munich1977)Polemis, "Chronology" = D.l. Polemis, "Notes on Elev-enth-CenturyChronology(1059-1081 ),"BZ58(1965)60-76Polemis,Doukai = D. Polemis, TheDoukai: AContributiontoByzantineProsopography(London1968)Polites, Katalogoi = L. N. Polites, Sympleromatikoi katalogoicheirographonHagiouOrous(Thessalonike1973)Poljakova, Roman. = S. Poljakova, Izistorii vizantijskogoro-mana(Moscow1979)Poljakova, Viz. leg. = S. Poljakova, tr., Vizantijskie legendy(Leningrad1972)Polychronion = Polychronion:Festschrift FranzDolger zum75.Geburtstag, ed. P. Wirth(Heidelberg1966)Popescu, InscrGrec = E. Popescu, InscriPfiile grecqtiJi latinedinsecolele IV-XIII descoperitein Romania (Bucharest 1976)Poppe, Christian Russia = A. Poppe, The RiseofChristianRussia(London1982)Poppe, "Organisationdiocesaine" = A. Poppe, "L'organi-sation diocesaine de la Russie aux Xle-XIIe siecles,"Byzantion 40 (1970) 165-217; rp. in Poppe, ChristianRussia, pt. VIIIPPSb= Pravoslavnij Palestinskij Sbornik (1881-1916) (SeealsoPSb)PPTS= PalestinePilgrims'Text SocietyPmecepta Milit. = Pmecepta Militaria, ed. Ju.A. Kulakovskij,"Strategikaimperatora Nikifora," ZAPANIst-fil 8.9 (St.Petersburg1908) I-58PraktArchEt = Pmktikates enAthenaisArchaiologikesHetair-ezasPrawer, Royaume latin = J Prawer, Histoire du Royaume latinde Jirusalem, 2 vols. (Paris 1969-70)Preger, Scriptores = T. Preger, ed., ScriptoresoriginumCon-stantinopolitanarum (Leipzig1901-07; rp. NewYork1975)Preisigke, Worterbuch = F. Preisigke, Worterbuch der grie-chischenPapyrusurkunden, 4vols. (Berlin1925-31), supp!',ed. E. Kiessting (Amsterdam1971)Prestige, God = G.L. Prestige, God in Patristic Thought2(London1952)PrincetonExped. toSyria = Publicatiomof thePrinceton Uni-versity Archaeological Expeditions toSyriain1904-195 and199, 7 vols. (Leiden1907-49)Pringle, Defence = D. Pringle, The Defence ofByzantine Africafrom Justiniantothe ArabConquest (Oxford1981)Pnnzing, "Brief Hemrichs" = G. Prinzing, "Der Brief Kai-ser Heinrichs vonKonstantinopel vom13. J anuar12 I 2,"Byzantion 43(1973) 395-43 1Prismata = Prismata: Naturwissenschaftsgeschichtliche Studien(Wiesbaden1977)PrOC= Proche-OrientChretienProcBrAc = Proceedings of the BritishAcademyProkopios,Buildings = Procopii Caesariensisopemomnia, ed.J Haury, G. Wirth, vo!. 4(Deaedificiis)(Leipzig1964)Prokopios, SH= Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia, ed. J.Haury, G. Wirth, vo!. 3(Historiaarcana) (Leipzig1963)Prokopios, Wars = Procopii Caesariensis opemomnia, ed. JHaury, G. Wirth, vols. 1-2(Leipzig1962-63)(DeBelloPersicoI-IV[= Wars I-Ill, DeBelloVandalicoI-II[=WarsIll-IV],De BelloGothico I-IV [=WarsV-VIII])Prot. = Actes de Protaton, ed. D. Papachryssanthou (Paris1975)Pryor, "Oaths" =JH. Pryor, "TheOathsofthe Leadersof theFirst CrusadetoEmperor Alexius IComnenus:Fealty, 8ovAeia,"Parergon: Bulletinofthe Australian and New Zealand Association for Medieval andRenaissanceStudiesn.s. 2 (1984) 111-41PSb = Palestinskij Sbornik (1954-; continuesPPSb)Psellos, Chron. = Michel Psellos: Chronographie, ed. E. Re-nauld, 2 vols. (Paris 1926-28)Psellos, Scriptamin. = MichaelisPselli:Scriptaminom, ed. E.Kurtz, F. Drexl, 2 vols. (Milan1936-41)pseudo-Kod. = pseudo-Kodinos, Traite des offices, ed. JVerpeaux(Paris 1966)PSRL= Polnoe sobmnie russkichletopisejQFItArch = Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Ar-chiven und BibliothekenQuasten, Patrology = J. Quasten, Patrology, 3vols. (West-minster, Md., 1950-60)Queller, Fourth Crusade = D.E. Queller, The Fourth Crusade:TheConquest of Constantinople, 1201-124(Philadelphia1977)RA= Revue archeologiqueRabe, Prolegomenon= Prolegomenon sylloge, ed. H. Rabe(Leipzig1831)RAC= Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum (Stuttgart1950-)RACr= RivistadiarcheologiacristianaRadojCic, Slikarstvo = S. RadojCic, Staro srpsko slikarstvo (Bel-grade1966)Rahlfs, Verzeichnis = A. Rahlfs, Verzeichnis der griechischenHandschriftendesaltenTestaments(Berlin1914)Ramsay, Asia Minor = W.M. Ramsay, The Social Basis ofRomanPower inAsia Minor (Aberdeen1941)BIBLIOGRAPHIC ABBREVIATIONSXXXIXRamsay, Cities = W.M. Ramsay, TheCitiesand Bishoprics ofPhrygia, 2 vols. (Oxford1895-97)Raybaud, Gouvernement = L.P. Raybaud, Le gouvernement etl'administrationcentrale del'empirebywntin sousles premiersPaLeologues(Paris 1968)Rayonnement grec = Rayonnement grec: Hommages ii. CharlesDelvoye, ed. L. Hadermann-Misguich, G. Raepsaet (Brus-sels 1982)RE= Reallexikon der Bywntinistik, 6 fascs. (Amsterdam1968-76)RBK= Reallexikonzurbywntinischen KunstRBMAS= RerumbritannicarumMedii Aevi scriptores(GreatBritain)RBPH= Revue beigedephilologie et d'histoireRE= Paulys Real-Encyclopiidie der classischen Altertumswissen-schaftREA= Revue desetudes anciennesREArm= Revue desetudes armeniennesREAug= Revue desetudes augustiniennesREB= Revue desetudes bywntinesRec.Dujcev (1980) = Bulgarsko srednovekovie, ed. V. Giu-zelev, I. Bozilov, et a!. (Sofia1980)RechScRel = Recherches desciencereligieuseReg= F. D61ger, P. Wirth, RegestenderKaiserurkundendesostromischenReiches, vo!. 1-(Munich-Berlin1924-)Regel,Fontes = W. Regel, Fontes rerumbywntinarum, 2vols.(St. Petersburg1892-1917; rp. Leipzig1982)RegPatr= Les regestes des actes du Patriarcat de Constantinople,ed. V. Grumel, V. Laurent, J. Darrouzes, 2 vols. in8pts. (Paris 1932-79)REGr = Revuedesetudes grecquesREI = Revue desetudesislamiquesReinert,Myth = S. Reinert,Greek Mythin Johannes Malalas'Account of Ancient HistoryBeforetheTrojanWar(LosAn-geles 1981)RendPontAcc = Attide/laPontificiaAccademiaRomanadi Ar-cheologia, RendicontiRepFontHist = Repertoriumfontiumhistoriae medii aevi, vo!.1- (1962-)RepKunstw= Repertorium furKunstwissenschaftRES= Revue desetudes slavesRESEE= Revue desetudes sud-est europeennesRestle, Wall Painting= M. Restle, BywntineWall Paintingin Asia Minor, 3 vols. (Greenwich, Conn., 1968)RevBibl = Revue bibliqueRevIst = Revista deistorieRH= Revue historiqueRhalles-Potles, Syntagma = G.A. Rhalles, M. Potles, Syn-tagmatontheionkai hieron kanonon, 6 vols. (Athens1852-59; rp. 1966)RHC= Recueil deshistoriens desCroisadesRHCArm. = Documentsarmeniens, 2 vols. (Paris 1869-1906)RHCGrecs = Historiens grecs, 2 vols. (Paris1875-81)RHCLois = Lois, 2 vols. (Paris1841-43)RHCOccid. = Historiensoccidentaux, 5vols. in8pts. (Paris1844-95)RHCOrient. = Historiens orientaux, 5vols. in6pts. (Paris1872-1906)RHE = Revue d'histoire ecclesiastiqueRhetGr, ed. Spengel = Rhetores graeci, ed. L. Spengel, 3vols. (Leipzig1894-96)RhetGr, ed. Walz= Rhetoresgraeci, ed. C. Walz, 9vols. in10 pts. (Stuttgart-Tiibingen1832-36)RHGF= Recueil deshistoriensdes Gaules et delaFrance, 24vols. in25pts. (Paris 1738-1904)RhM= Rheinisches Museum furPhilologieRHR= Revuede{,histoiredesreligionsRHSEE= Revuehistorique dusud-est europeenRHT= Revue d'histoiredestextesRiant, Exuviae = P. Riant, Exuviae sacrae Constantinopoli-tanae, 3 vols. (Geneva1877-194)RIASA= Rivistadell'Istituto nazionale di archeologiaestoriadell'arteRice, Art ofByz. = D. Talbot Rice, The Art ofByzantium(London1959)Richard, Operaminora = M. Richard, Operaminora, 3 vols.(Turnhout 1976-77)Richards, Popes =J. Richards, ThePopesandthePapacyintheEarlyMiddleAges. 476-752(London-Boston-Henley1979)RicSlav = Ricerche slavisticheRIS= RerumltalicarumScriptores, ed. L.A. Muratori, 25vols. in28pts. (Milan1723-51)RIS2= Rerum ltalicarum Scriptores (Citta di Castello-Bologna1900-)Ritzer, Mariage = K. Ritzer,Le mariage dansles Eglises chre-tiennesdu ler auXlesiecle(Paris 1970)RivStChlt = Rivista distoriadellachiesain ltaliaRJ = Rechtshistorisches JournalRM= RussiaMediaevalisRN= RevuenumismatiqueRaC= Revue del'OrientchretienRodley, CaveMons. = L. Rodley, CaveMonasteries of Byz-antineCappadocia(Cambridge1985)ROL= Revuedel'Orient latinRomHistMitt = RomischeHistorischeMitteilungenRoots of Egypt. Christ. = The Roots of Egyptian Christianity, ed.B. Pearson, J. Goehring (Philadelphia1986)Rothstein, Dynastie der Lahmiden= G. Rothstein,Die Dynas-tiederLahmideninal-Hira(Berlin1899)RPhil = Revue de philologie, de litterature et d'histoire anciennesRQ= RomischeQuartalschrift furchristlicheAltertumskundeundVur1KlrchengeschichteRSBN=Rivistadistudi bizantini e neoelleniciRSBS= Rivistadistudibiwntini e slaviRSR= Revue dessciencesreligieusesRudakov, Kul'tury = A.P. Rudakov, Ocerki vizantijskoj kul'-tury po dannym grdeskoj agiografii (Moscow1917; rp. Lon-don1970)Runciman, Romanus = S. Runciman, TheEmperor RomanusLecapenus and His Reign: A Study of Ioth-Century Byzantium(Cambridge1929; rp. 1988)Ryden, "Samonas" = L. Ryden, "The Portrait of theArabSamonas inByzantineLiterature,"Graeco-Arabica 3 (1984)101-08xl I BIBLIOGRAPHIC ABBREVIATIONSSacopoulo, Asinou = M. Sacopoulo, Asinou en 1106 et sacontribution ai'iconographie(Brussels 1966)Sansterre, Moines grecs = ].-M. S;, 'A1To1TaKpy/>;), firstcaliphandsuccessor of Mubammadfrom8 June632; born shortlyafter 570, died MadIna 22/3Aug. 634. After crushingrebels in the RiddahWars following the death ofMubammad, AbuBakr's armies scored major early successes againstthe Byz., including the battles in the 'Arabah (May633) andat or thecampofAreopolis(Ar. Mab, mod. Rabba), andatDathin andAjna-dayn (July 634), as well as the occupation of muchof thelandeast of theDeadSea; inhis lifetimethe Muslims seizedTransjordaniaandsouthernPalestine fromthe Byz. Abu Bakr skillfully se-lectedhisgeneralsanddirectedthemfromMa-dIna, but did not personally fight against Byz.armies or visit conqueredByz. territories or towns.He possessed great leadership qualities, whichcontributedsignificantlytotheconsolidation andadvance of Islam. He also showed a sense formilitarystrategy andoperations, althoughHera-kleios and contemporaryByz. commandersprob-ably did not consider him a serious opponent. Hismotives and calculations concerning Byz. can onlybeinferred, for nocontemporarysourcedetailshis decisiontoinvadeByz. Syria. The invasion ofIraq also took much of his attention. Most scholarsnowaccept thehistoricity of hiscaliphate, whichCroneandothers hadchallenged(P. Crone, M.Cook, Hagarism[Cambridge 1977] 28, 178, n72,partlyretractedinP. Crone, M. Hinds, God'sCa-liph [Cambridge1986] 111-13).LIT. Donner, Conquests82-9, 127-34. W.M. Watt, EI21:109-11. Caetani, Islam2.1:510-719:3:1-119.-W.E.K.- -ABUFIRAS, morefullyal-J:IarithibnSa'IdibnHamdanal-TaghlibI, Arab prince, warrior, andpoet; bornIraq932, diedSyria4Apr. 968. Hismotherwasof Byz. origin, andafter his father'sdeathin935hegrew upunder her care andthepatronage of his HamdanidCOUSInSAYF AL-UAWLAat Aleppo. Heparticipatedinseveral expeditionsagainst Byz. andin962 was woundedandcap-tured byTheodosios Phokas. Kept in chains atCharsianon, helater enjoyedprincelytreatmentinConstantinople, wasfocal innegotiating a gen-eral exchange of prisoners, and was finally re-leasedin966. Legend creditshimwithaspectac-ular escape from an alleged earlier imprisonment.WhilegovernorofManbij, hewas killedduringhis unsuccessful revolt against Sayf al-Dawla's son.8 I- - -ABUMINAAs poet-warrior AboFiras reflected the ideal ofArab chivalry and sincerity; spontaneity and vervecharacterizehis poetry. Heis most esteemedforhis Byzantine Poems (Rilmiyyiit) composedduringhis captivity, expressing defiance in adversity,yearning forloved ones, andreproachto Sayf al-Dawla for delay in ransominghim. His poems,oftenwith his own illuminatinghistorical notes,provide important information on expeditions,frontiertoponymy, Byz. prosopography(e.g., thePHOKAS and MALEINOS families), conditions ofprisoners, and Byz.-Arabmutual perceptions, asin his debate with Nikephoros Phokas on thefightingabilities of Byz. andArabs.ED. Diwan [Collected Poems], ed. S. Dahhan (BeirutIg44)LIT. Vasiliev, Byz. Arabes 2.2:349-70. M. Canard,"Quelquesnoms depersonnagesbyzantins dansunepiecedu poete arabe Abu Firas (X' siecle)," in Bywnce et lesmusulmans(London Ig73), pt.IX(1936), 451-60(withN.Adontz). Sezgin, GAS2:480-83. H.A.R. Gibb, E/2I: Ilgf.-A.Sh.ABUMINA, famous EarlyChristiansettlement(the ancient name is unknown) and pilgrimagecenter in Mareotis, west of ALEXANDRIA, wheretheundergroundtombofSt. MENASwas vener-atedfromthe late 4thC. onward. The inner coreconsistsof alargesquare, withXENODOCHEIAonthenorthandchurchesonthesouth. TheMAR-TYRION over the saint's tomb is the most importantof the churches. Its earliest foundations date fromthe late 4th C.; enlarged several times, it wasrebuilt under JustinianI asatetraconch. Totheeast is a largetransept basilica(early6thC.), tothe west a baptistery. At the south rear lies anunusual semicircular structure which probably heldINCUBATIONrooms for sick pilgrims. Therearealso two baths withinthetown, colonnadedstreets,andmany private houses. Other churches havebeenfoundintheenvironsof AboMIna. Aba-silicatothenorthisaveryregularbuildingextramuros, closely connected with a residential quarterthat perhaps served as the residence for non-Chalcedonians. A churchtotheeast, another te-traconch, is surrounded by several houses foranachoretes. All churches andofficial buildingswere built of local limestone. For their decorationextensive use was made of marble spolia fromdestroyed buildings in Alexandria. The famousMENAS FLASKS were produced as pilgrim souvenirsat AboMInafromtheearly 6thC. onward.Duringthe Persian invasions of6 I6-20AboMIna was almost totally destroyed, and it wasrebuiltonlymodestlyafterwards. AftertheArabconquest(639-42)thetown, whichwasformerlyChalcedonian, came intothehands of the CopticMonophysitechurch, andpresumablyabout thetimeof theCopticpatriarchMichael I (744-68)the martyrionwas rebuilt as a five-aisled basilica.Thesitewasfinallyabandoned afterthe lothC.UT. C.-M. Kaufmann, DieMenasstadt I (Leipzig IglO).P. Grossmann, "Abu MIna," MDAI K38(lg82) 131-54.Idem, Abil Mina: A Guide to the Ancient Pilgrimage Center(CairoIg86). -P.Gr.ABYDIKOS(&f3VOLKO Pwp,avov or to make an alphabet (as in the AKATHISTOSHYMN);letters can be doubledto allow the text toexpand(e.g.,TOVXXPPVVfTfTOOfTfTTTOp,OV) andsomephoneticspellingis permissible(e.g., Tam-vov). Alphabetic acrostics link chapters and entriesinthegnomologia(seeGNOME) andMIRRORSOFPRINCES, hortatoryworks towhicharerelatedaseries ofshorter penitential alphabets in proseandverse and in the vernacular as well as thelearned languages (Krumbacher, GBL717-20).Acrostics are found in secular enkomia, spellingthenameof the recipient (e.g., in theworksofDIOSKOROS OF APHRODITO). Alphabetic acrosticsare also used forlove songs, as in theEROTOPAIG-NIA.ACOLYTEthe "follower" in a FU-NERAL cortege. Justinian's novel 59, regulating thepayment offuneral expensesoutof theendow-ments of theGREATCHURCH, mentionsakolouthoiamongthe various corporations that specializedin the performanceofthe necessaryobsequies.There were to be three akolouthoi per cortege(asketrion). The acolytes who constituted the lowestclerical orderintheRomanchurch(H. Leclercqin DACL 1:348-56) apparently did not have acounterpartinByz. -P.M.ACQUISITION. Themost commonlegal meansof obtaining propertyweretransfer(Lat. traditio;Gr. paradosis) , possession by prescriptive right(LONGl TEMPORISPRAESCRIPTIO), occupatio, and ac-quisitionex lege. Propertywas obtained, for ex-ample, in fulfillment ofa sale-, gift-, or dowry-CONTRACTthroughaphysical transfer; fromthetimeof JustinianI thistransfercouldtakeplaceinformally, incontrast totheearlier formal act,themancipatio. Incase of apurchase(SALE), pay-menthadto accompany the transfer in order forthe acquisition ofthe propertyto be complete.Occupatio, appropriationwiththeintent tokeepthe objectasproperty, wasthe legalbasisfortheacquisition of an object which had no owner.Acquisitionexlege(i.e., anacquisitionwheretheacquirerdoesnot participateinthetransaction),involved primarily the acquisition ofan inheri-tancebythelawful heirofthetestator. Theac-quisition of possessionwasbased onthe effectivetenureofanobject andbythewishtohaveit:corpore et animo(Gr. somati kai psyche, lit. "inbodyandsoul"). -M.Th.F.LIT. Prawer, Royaume latin.ACROCORINTH. SeeCORINTH.-C.M.B.ACRE, KINGDOM OF. After the Third CrusaderecoveredAcrefromSaladin(12July 1191)butfailedtoregain Jerusalem, Acrebecamethecap-ital of thekings of Jerusalem andamajor centerfor the production of CRUSADER ART. John ofBrienne was king there(12 IO-25)before becom-ingLatinemperorinConstantinople. Restrictedtoacoastal strip, thekingdom of Acrewasdom-inated by Italian merchant communities in thecities. Aconflict betweenVenetiansandGenoeseover a house belonging to the Church of St. SabasinAcre(1256-70)droveGenoa to ally itself withMICHAELVIII, therebyfacilitatinghisseizureofConstantinople. The Venetian-Genoese struggles,however, spread into Byz. waters, where muchACTAARCHELAI, anti-Manichaeandocumentin the formofa disputation involving, on theChristianside, Archelaos, bishop ofKascharainMesopotamia(ca.270), andfor the ManichaeansTurboand MANI himself. Althoug-hthe disputeis certainly not historical, the text contains au-thentic documents and genuine tradition concern-ingMANICHAEANISM. TheActawere written be-fore350byanotherwiseunknown Hegemoniosandwerecitedby authorssuchasEPIPHANIOS ofSalamisandSOKRATES. Onlya fewfragmentsofthe original Greek version survive, but the fulltext existsinadefectiveLatintranslation.ED. PG10: 145-1528.Hegemonius:Acta Archelai, ed. C.H.Beeson(Leipzig1906).LIT. G. Hansen, "Zu denEvangelienzitaten in den'ActaArchelai,' "StP7(1966)473-85. A.L. Kac, "Manichejstvo16 I ACTIONSvRimskoj imperii podannymActa Archelai," VDI, nO.3(1955) 168-79 -T.E.G.ACTIONS(oywyai). Undertheclassical formu-lary procedure of Rome, actions were writtenstatements of grievance (formulae) that were allot-tedtothepartiesbythePRAETOR onthebasis oftheir descriptions of the conflict, so that theycouldbringtheir lawsuit beforethe judge. Thesubstantiveclaims set forth inthis formal state-ment were closely connected with the relevantOBLIGATION; asaruleeveryobligatiohaditsownactioand, inversely, wheretherewasnoobligatio(seePACTA) therewasnoactio. Withtheelimina-tion of theformularysystemin342(Cod. Just. II57.1), the procedural aspect of the actionbecameirrelevant. Actionbecamethenamefor thesub-claim(obligatio) that a plaintiffbroughtagaInst a defendant. The name of the actionhadto be mentioned inthe first sentence of the plain-tiff'swrit(editioactionis). Consequently, listswerecompiled of thenamesof actions; of these, onlythe work DE ACTIONIBUS from the 6th C. has beenedited.Actions in the Post-Justinianic Period. TheByz. developedadetailedsystem of classificationofactions (e.g., Synopsis BasilicorumA. 24. I). Incharters, however, the term(which is common)hasavaguemeaning of "claim,"withtheconno-of an illegal procedure. It is used primarilyInformulasassuring legal protectionforabuyerorgranteeagainst theseller (grantor)orathirdpersonwhowas thus prohibited frominitiatingan.y claims concerning the transferred object (e.g.,Ivzr. I, nO.3. 19-20; Xenoph., nO.9.45, etc.). Adoc-ument of 1377 (Lavra3, no.148) describes a nomi-mos. agoge (with no further definition) broughtagaInst the monastery; the plaintiffs eventuallydropped the claim, refusing to turn to "any Chris-tianagoge"that couldassist them, andtheysub-sequentlyguaranteedthepropertyof theLavra.Thereisadifference between the elaborate cate-?"orization of actions inlegaltexts andthesimpleInterpretation of the agoge in documents as a claimingeneral. -A.K.ACTOR. In Roman law actors (Lat. histriones) andMIMESwereconsideredas belongingtoaninfa-mous profession and were classified with thosewhomtheemperorexpelledfromthearmyforshameful behavior(Digest 3: 2. 1). Despitethede-fense of actors by some intellectuals (LIBANIOS,CHORIKIOS OF GAZA), this negative attitude towardactors prevailedin Byz.: clerics were forbiddennot only toparticipate inperformances, but evento see ashow. Various decrees, secular andeccle-siastical alike (esp. the rules of the Council inTRuLLo), restricted theatrical performances. Aslateas the 15thC. Manuel II characterizedthetheatrical showas typical oftheOttomancourtandfound it reprehensible. Theprincipal accu-sationagainst actors was thesexual promiscuityallegedlycharacteristic of theirway of life: musi-cians, dancers, and actors are frequently men-tionedinthesame contextasprostitutes. Never-theless, inthelateRomanEmpireactorsweretobe found everywhere; a lawof 409 preventedlocal urbanauthorities fromtransferringactors,charioteers, and wild animals from their cities andthus lessening the appeal ofpopular festivities(CodJust. XI 41.5). Withthedeclineof theTHE-ATER, actorsassumedtherole of clowns and jest-ers.LIT. F. "Zumprofanen Mimos in Byzanznach dem Verdlkt des Trullanums (691)," Byzantioo 6 (1974)321-43.W. Puchner,"Byzantinischer Mimos, PantomimosundMummenschanzimSpiegel dergriechischenPatristikund ekklesiastischer Synodalverordnungen," Maske und Ko-thum29(1983) 311-17. -Ap.K., A.K.ACTS (OpateLS' TWV a1TO!.S\\ "b"d", "Ilit' I' r" 11 taIhgu r z\\'is, ht'II Sp,i (;1I11 ik" 1I 11 dhiihg"tik."ill ..\'kill FII'U/"I, ,\Iulli dl Ilu,illdrll'rulI III UIIUIIdi Frlullld"Anlrlll. \o!. I (]\Iilall "1('(;)-.U:FRONTIER (opwv). Inantiquitv thefrontier wasconsidered as a demarcation line between theI ivilizedOIKOllME:sIE and theworld of theH.\I{IlAI{IAN: its significance \\as more cultural thanpolitical and therefore fluctuated. Regular rela-tionswiththe Persian Empire, andbterwiththeArab caliphatc, contributed to a clarilicltion ofthe kgal concept ofa frontier, whik necessitiesof defcnse produceda conlTetc, physical notionof a border.I'rokopios, who paid serious attentionto the problemoffrontiers, recognizedthemasfollowing nat u ral barriers-l{lvEI{S, molltHains,deserts, seas: theLI\1ESwas a manmadef()rtiliedfron t iet'. Theideaoffrontier. howe\'er, was notconsistent Iv applied: for a long period Cyprus wasshared between the Arabs and the 1hz., whikcertainindependent regionsandcities\\erecon-sidered (theoretically) as parts or Bv!. territorvunder the command of Bvz. officials (or localrukrs adorned with1hz.titles). Intermedian zones popubtedbybilingual settlers, subject turegularraids fromboth sides andowinguncertain alle-giance, commonly existed along 1hz. frontiers(such was the milieuof J)J(;ENES AKRIT\S). Thiskgal disequilibriumresultedintheapplicationtostatefrontiers of terms suchas Iwrol!lnioll orl\,IW-flJl/, \\ hidl \\ eI t' IllH 11l22). At theendofhis reign, dis-lodgedbythePersians, VaxtangHedfor ashorttimetoWesternGeorgia, whichremainedunderByz. control. After the Persians installed amarzpan(governor)inTblisi, andIberiawithAR- fell into theIranianorbit. Inthefollowingcenturythe Muslims gainedcontrol ofboth Ar-menia and Iberia. The enlarged province wasruledfromDuin, Tblisi remainingthecenterforlocaladministration.Thecaliph'sholdoverGeorgialastedtwocen-turies. In 888, three years after the ArmenianBAGRATIDprincesassumedtheroyal title, Adar-narse of the Georgian branch of that family claimedthe title of king. Georgia was not united,however,for Abchasiaremainedanindependentkingdomuntil thereignofBagrat III (97H-IoI4).As the borders of Byz, expandedeastward inthe lothc., upper T AYK' was annexed on thedeathof itsprinceDAVIDOFT AYK'/TAOin 1000.UnliketheArmeniankingdoms, however, whichwere incorporatedinto the empire inthe I I th c.,Georgia remainedindependent. After Byz. con-trol in eastern Anatolia collapsed following thedefeat at MANTZIKERT(1071), theGeorgiansex-tendedtheirswayinCaucasiaunder DAVIDI III VTHERESTORERandhis descendants, Theeasternregion of Kakhetia was incorporated in 1105'Tblisi wasregainedin I 122fromthe Shaddadids(aMuslimKurdish dynasty of Gandza, whichhadoccupied Ani andTblisi after the Turkishcon-quest of Anatolia), Tblisi now became thecapital;themonastic complex of GELAT'I nearthe earliercapital of Kutaisi remainedanimportant centerof learning. In1124Ani was captured, but duringtheremainderof the 12thC. it passedbackandf(lrthseveral timesbetweenGeorgians andShad-dadids.Cultural contacts between Georgia andByz. werefosteredinConstantinopleandin monasticcen-terssuchas Mt. Athos(wheretheGeorgianshadtheir own monastery, IVERON), Mt. SINAI (see G.Garitte, Cataloguedes manuscritsgeorgienslilterairesdu Mont Sinai lLouvain 1956]), andJerusalem.political ties were strengthened in the 6th C,when the emperor first bestowed titles (usuallyKOUROPALATES) onGeorgianprinces. Inthe I I thCmarriage alliances confirmed those ties:inIO:FBagrat I V married the niece of Romanos I I I,following a visit to Constantinople by Bagrat'smother Maria, herself ofArmeniandescent; Ba-grat'sdaughter MARIAOF"ALANIA" married Mi-chael VII Doukasandsubsequently NikephorosIll. The daughter of David IIIIVthe Restorermarried the grandson of Alexios I Komnenos,while the first wife of Andronikos I Komnenoswas relatedtoQueenT'AMARA(whohelped AI-exios andDavidKomnenosto seizeTRERIZONDinI :!(4). Many nobles of Georgian or Armeniandescent served in the Byz. army, such asJohnTORNIKIOS andGregoryPAKOURIANOS.After 1204directcontactswithConstantinoplewerefew. TheMongol attack of1220 curbedthemilitarysuccessof T'amaraandhersonGeOl'geIV(1212-23). In 1:!40Queen Rusudan(1223-45)appealedtoPopeGregoryIXfor help. LatinmissionarieshadbeeninTblisi since 1233andaLatin bishopric was established there in 1329.Nevertheless, the Georgian delegation to theCouncil of FERRARA-FLORENCEdid not sign theact of Union.In the 14th C Georgiancontrol over easternGeorgiaand Armeniadeclined. George VI (theBrilliant, 1314-46) moved his capital to Kutaisiand contacts with the West and Trebizond becamemore significant. The second wife of Bagrat V(1360-95) was Anna, thedaughterof Alexios I Iof Trebizond; the daughter of AlexanderI (1412-42) marriedJohn IVKomnenos ofTrebizond.Constantinople remained beyond the Georgianhorizon, savefor unsuccessful negotiationstoar-range a marriage between the daughter of GeorgeVIII (1446-65) andthelast emperor, CONSTAN-TI r-.;EX I.UT. ToumanolT. Cal/cwian Hi.lt. Idem, CHH4] :'iV:,-{l:17. 9H:1-1oo9 M.D. Lordkipanidze. Gf{)lgiainthl'XI-XIICntll/ril'l (Tbilisi I thC., andin the 6th C. another bathcomplex and colon-nades flankingtherardo(513-30;'). It is possiblethat the Maiouma theater was restored inwhen that pagan festival, previously abolished,was revived in the guise of a Christian harvestfestival.Gerasais best knownfor its extensivenumberof churches(at least 12), many of impressive size.Most datefromthe5thand6thC. andarebas-ilicaninplan. The oldest of theseisthe cathedralof ca, "knowledge"), aloose-knit andvariablesystemof belief basedonOUALISMandthepremisethat thefull revelationof Godisgivenonlytoaselect few. It flourishedesp. in the 2nd C. The works ofGnostics werecondemnedanddestroyedsothat until fairlyre-centlytheir teachings were knownonlythroughtheCh ristianpolemicdirectedagainst them; thediscoveryofthe NAC I-IAMMADl texts. however,makes Gnostic writings directly available, Gnosticsranged from the Valentinians, who taught anelaborate and decidedly non-Christian mythology,to Marcion (died ca. 160), who was a Christianheretic with dualist tendencies. Gnostics associ-ated the Godofthe OldTestament with Satan,andtheirChristologvwasdocetic; it wasanearlyrival of Christianitv, andmuchof Orthodoxthe-,ology was developed toanswer its challenge. Bythe:-\nl C, howevC!", Gnosticismwasnolongerathreat, survivinginaninstitutionalizedformonlyamong theMANDAEANS. Nevertheless. Gnostic ideascontinued to be influential in the ALEXANDRIA1\;SCHOOL, esp. inthewritingsofCLEMENTOFAL-EXANDRIA, ORIGEN, andEVM;RIOSPONTIKOS. Somescholars haveseenGnosticinfluenceinthe PAU-LlCIANS andBO(;OMILS, butthisisunlikely exceptinthemost general sense.LIT. K. Rudolph, G/lVl;' (NewYorkC. \'allee. AStud\' ill A/lti-G/lo.ltir Po/emir, (Waterloo, Ontario. '981).E.I( Pat'gels, The (;/lllltir (;OI/Ie!1 (;'\'t'wYork H.A.(;rccn, The Frorwmiralld Suria/ Ongiwof(;/lO,/iO.1I11(AtlantaIqHo,). I\I.K. Tl'Ofilllova, "Cnosticislll,"PSb26(197H) 10:\-27. .GOATS(aL)'Low). Goats areoftenmentionedincombination with SHEEP as aigido/Jrobata (Lavra2, no. Io9.36 I) or may be listed separately(e.g.,Lal/m I, nl),38.36). Ahousehold might keep asmanyas lOOgoats (Lavra 2, no.l09.8S4), and amonasteryaflockof 2,000 sheep andgoats.The Byz. kept goats for milk, CHEESE, MEAT,and wool. The term aigt'iomt'taxa ("goat silk"), usedbyI'TOCHOPRODROMOS(:r77), indicatesthat theirwool was considereda high-qualitymaterial. Ontheother hand, the roughcloakofa holy mancould also be madeofgoat wool (PG120A5B).The GEOPONIKA(bk.18'9-1O) devotes less spaceto goats thanto sheep, butotherwise there are nodata toestablish the relative proportionsofthetwo species. According to the Ct'o/Jonika, goatswerepasturedonmountains; thevitaofPaul ofLatros (ed. H. Delehaye, AB I I [I 892J440alsotells of a peasant(gt'vrgos) who livedwithhis goatsinthemountains, but returnedhomeat harvesttIme. -A. K.. .J. W.:'-J.GOD(eea,,). Offive knownancient etymologiesofthewordtheos thechurch fathers retainedatleast three: fromt!tt'o,'run"; ti!t'orfo, observe";andtithemi, "set"(I. Opelt, StP5[1962J532-40),The Christian concept of God originated as amiddle way between the pagan idea ofgods as"older brothers" of humans, immortal but vul-nerabletohumanpassions, andtheEasterncon-cept of thetranscendent God, fullydistinguishedfrommankind. Dissatisfied with the paganideaandesp. hostiletotheconcept of thedivineem-peror, churchfatherstriedtopreservethemon-otheisticprincipleof theOldTestament withoutGODFREY OF BOUILLON 857disrupting the ties between God and mankind,thus making possible the "divinization" or SAL-VATION of man.AccordingtoGregoryofNyssa (PGGodis unknowableinhis essence; thus, the churchLlthers, using apophatic THEOLO(;Y, define Godprimarilywithnegativeepithets, commencingwiththenegativeprefixa(n)("without"): thusallarchO.l(without beginning), a/JmrwftO.l (unintelligible), etc.(e.g., Johnof Damascus, EX/J. fidt'i 2.10-12, cd.Kotter, Srhriftcn 2:80. However, theconcepts ofOIKOl\;OMIAand INCARNATIONmake it possibletobridgethe gap between Godand man. Thein-comprehensibility of God created an epistemolog-ical problem-how canwe learn about God? Johnof Damascus (Exp. fidt'i 3-4-5, ed. Kotter, Sdmfim2: 10) solveditby arguing(seeANALOGY)that ourbelief inGodisnatural (Phvsikos).Otherqualitiesof Godemphasizedhisomnip-otenceandomniscience (usuallybeginningwith/Jan- ["all"J, e.g., PANTOKRATOR) orhisjustice andPHILANTHROPY towardmen. Inthepolitical sphereGodwasconsideredtheguarantor andguardianof theByz. Empire andof itsrulerinparticular.LIT. (;.1.. Prestige. (;odillPatnstirThought (London '952).W. Schoedel, "Enclosing, not Enclosed: The Earlv ChristianDoctrineof God."inEurl\' Chri.ltiull Litl'mtureulldthe lim/ Intl'ltertua/ Tmditioll (Paris '979) 7,-,-H6. R.M. Huhner,DfTGolt dfTKirrhenJ,(jtl'r(Munich 1979). F.M. Young. "In-sight or The Greek Fathers on God and Evil,"JEH24 (1973) 113-26. B.A. Mastin, "The Imperial Cultand the AstTiptionoftheTitlethell\ to Jesus (John XX,28)."StudiaE,'ullgl'/im6(Berlin ]()7:1) 3:0,2-6,-,.-C.P., A.K.GODFREY OF BOUILLON, duke of Lower Lor-raine;born ca. 1060, died Jerusalem18JulyI lOO.LeadingtheLotharingiancontingent of theFirstCrusade, Godfrey (rOvTocf>pe) peacefully tra-versedtheBalkansuntil, at Selymbria, he learnedthat HUGHOF VERMANDOlS was captive in Con-. .. " . . .slallllllople, wllel'eupull lieueVdSLdLeullK1 eglUII.MollifiedbyAlexios I, hepacifiedhistroopsandreached the outskirts of Constantinople on 23Dec. 1096. Alternating peace and conflict betweenGodfrey and the Byz. culminated in a seriousbattle outside Constantinople on 2 Apr. 1097.Anna Komnene says he was attacking the city;pillaging of thesuburbsfollowed. Only afterfur-therskirmishesdidGodfreyagreetoenterCon-stantinople and swear fealty to Alexios (5 Apr.1(97). Thereafter he mediated between BOHF.-858 GODPARENTMUND andthE emperor. GodfrEYplaYEda leadingroleintheCrusade. AftErtheconquest of JERU-SALEMhemayhavehecomeadllO((/tllSsrmrti Sl'pul-rhri. Anna Komnenecalls himwealthyandarro-gant and emphasizEshis rapid changes of attitudetowardAlexios.LIT..J.c. Andressohn. Thl' AIII'I'\/11' {{lidLlfl' o( (;odji-no(Bouilloll (BloomingtonI 11147]: rp. Frecport, N.\' .. 1(172).Prvor, "Oaths" 111-41. -CI\I.B.GODPARENT(avaooxo:", ': '" .... n ..' '." '-'-, , /', .. -,' __',_', O' " '--f-,Yt' :r'..' .. ',-- 1- " ,', ,' .. " _ ('" viAl 7fi e. ,",.t ,,;>-:-.-.;. ,_,.J".If .:,,-, -'"* '-">if" '/'-77) IH-I"O. P. Courcellc,1.1'11I'IIrngr((1I'll Orrirll'lIl' (Paris "HH), -R.B...\.K.GREENS. SeeFACTIONS,GREGENTIOS (fp1)yvno7] 29of), and the CO/ll'I'/"Ialion, acento ofpassages from\'arioustexts, mayreflectthe drastic efforts of the saint to comertthelocalJews.Greg'l'l1tios iscalledGregoryinone MSof thevita(BHG705a). Thelatter name(aIpctio facillor)appears constantlyin the Slavonic traditionandis also foundin the illScription on a Cypriotfrescoof I I 10- I H that portravsthesaint (c. Mango, E.Hawkins, DO}' I H [I andfigA4).SOl'RUS.\'asiliC\. "Zitic s\. (;rigcntija. episkopaOmiritskogo." \'i:\'II'/1/ '4(lqo7-0tl) 2:,-(>7. 1'(; Hii:.e,6H-7114.LIl. I'atlagcall, SIIIII/I1/1', pt.XllI (lq(;4), "7q-iio2. I.Shahld, "Ihzallliumill SouthArahia."J)OP:3:, (1l17q) 2:,-'H. (;. Fiaccadori. "Yemenllcstoriallo,"m.'>//1111 III 011011' dlFdrlllIJlflrill/l/,ed. S.F. Bondict al. (Pisa. Il.d. IlqH,I)]) IqHf,2IOf. -G.F.GREGORAS, NIKEPHOROS, polymath andhis-torian; born Herakleia Pontike ca. I(V. Crecu,RSHAcRoulII 2756-(1) or (H.-V.Beyer, .I(jB27[I I 29f), diedConstantinoplebetween Iand 136 I. Orphaned as a child,Gregoras(l'p1)yopaio:, lit. "HolyWis-dom"), nameofnumerous churches in the Byz.Empire and neighboringcountries. Twoof themost important were the cathedral church ofConstantinopleandt hat of Thessalonike. Otherswere to be found, for example, in MONEMVAS[AandOHRIDaswell asat KIEV.HAGIASOPHIAINCONSTANTINOPLE. Thefirstchurch on the site, of basilical form, was builtnearthe Milioll (see MESE), that is, intheneigh-borhoodofthe Great Palaceand Hippodrome,Iw ConstantiusI I (not Constantine as often stated)and inaugurated in It was known as theGREAT CHURCH (Megale Ekklesia)-the name HagiaSophia is first attestedca.4:Vl-andhadtheepis-copal palace attached to its south side, Burneddown bythesupporters of JohnChrysostomin404, it was rebuilt, once again as a basilica, byTheodosios I I andcompleted in 4 15. Theonlyextantpan of theTheudusianbasilicaisaculoll-nadedporch, probablythe fafJtiall HO/ill'S(Cambridge H)Kfi).andSchismasSocial alldNational 1\100'('I11('lItS,"inSclmnJ,Hnl',\,' alldRtligiou" I'rol",,1(Cambridge 'lIKI) :J7-5ti, K,LNoetlicbes, Di,' gl'lfl:gl'bnilfhOl ,\111,1111111,,111'1I dlTfhrisllichfllKI1iSITdl',l -4' } h" gl'gl'lI IfIi rl'lil"T, fftoid1'/1 /IIul } lidI'll (Cologn('Hl/')' C. Waiter, "Heretics in Byzalltillc Art," FChR :)(HI70)40-4Y. - r.LC.. A.K.. A.C.HERMES, ancient Greekdivinity. Although themyths of Hermeswerecriticized andridiculedby, ,Christians, thereweresome attemptstoreconcilehisimagewiththenewreligion. Earlyapologistscompared his roleas themessengerofthegodswith that of the Christian Logos. On the otherhand, Hennes wasconsideredtobethegreatestofHellenicphilosophers, onewho"prophesied"the idea of the Trinitv and oiko/lomia; he was,allegedlya contemporary of Moses, together withwhomhestudiedEgyptianwisdom; somepeopleevenidentifiedhimas Moses. Kosmas theHym-nographer (PG says that CregoryofNazianzosrejectedthisidentification; Kosmas,however, assumes that Hermes was the first tocall Cod"triune."HERMES TRISMEGISTOS CEp!J-YJ'> Tpwp.. i-YUTTO,>, lit. "Thrice-Greatest") is theCreeknamegiven to the Egyptian god Thoth, who, as thedivinity of wisdom, wasbelievedtobethe authorof a number of religious texts. The Greeks adoptedthese documents, known as the Hermetica, betweenthe Ist andC. and regarded themas therevelation of Hermes Trismegistos. Thev combineelements of magic, astrology, alchemy, philoso-phy, andtheology. Theyweremuchreadinlateantiquity, esp. inthe 4thC. Theywere excerptedbySTOBAIOSfor hisanthologyinthe!jthC., butbetweenthebthand I I thC. theypracticallydis-appearedfromsightinRyz. This musthavebeenpartlyduetothefact that theoccult wasneverasafesubject intheChristianempire. Inthe 11thC. PSEI.l.OSwas familiar withpartsof theHerme-tica, but the next signs of real interest do notappearuntilthe14thC. Thefourearliest surviv-ingMSS of thecollection datefromthat century,and there are some referencesto it inNikephorosGREGORAS.4 vols.-J.D.A.-J Festugiere, 1.11 rh'f/l1tioll dHnnJh Trismfgistl',(Paris 'Y-H-"4)HERMIT((l'/Jeqwp'Y/T'r)'>, P'Y/!J-tT'Y/'>, 'ijcrvXCXO"T'rj,,amonkor nunwhoretiredfromtheworldtoliveasolitarylife of prayer andASCETICISM. Theher-mits likeA1'o:TONY TilE CREAT who withdrew 10 theDESERTofEgypt in theand4thC. weretheearliest Christianmonks; eremitismcontinuedtobe a prominent formof Ryz. MONASTlCISMuntilthe15th C. Later hermits weremorelikely to liveonholymountainssuchasOLYMPOS, AUXENTlOS,ATHOS, GANOS,andTherewerewomenhermits until the I I thc.; thereafter nuns werefound only in cenobitic convents (A.M. Talbot,G()rThR30[1985] Ib-18). ParticularlyrigorousasceticismwaspracticedbytheSTYLITE saints andrecluses(ENKl.EISTOl).Eremitismwas generallyconsidered to be su-perior to cenobitic monasticismbecause of thegreaterhardshipsassociatedwiththesolitarylifeand the greater opportunities for spiritual im-provement. In art(e.g., OcrNersessian, L'illl1stra-lion II, fig.24S) anchorites like 5t. Onouphriosillustrate thephysicalself-denial of thosewho arefed byGod. Usuallyamonkhadtospendthreeyears in a KOlNOBION before he could receivepermissionfromthe !tegol1menostobecomeaher-mit. Anumberofmonks movedbackandforthbetweenthecenobiticanderemiticlife, ignoringthe principle of monastic STABILITY; most holymen spent at least part of their careers in solitude.Still there was tension between cenobitismanderemitismthroughout the centuries. BASIL THEGREAT, who espoused cenobitism, attacked theeremitic wayoflife becauseofthe impossibilityof material self-sufficiency, excessive concern withthe self, and the lackof opportunity10 practicecharity. EUSTATHlOS OF THESSALONIKEcriticizedtheself-centeredness of thehermit whohidawayinacave, likeninghimtoHomer'sCyclops. An-other problem for the hermit was his lack of accessto the liturgyand sacraments, if he were not apriest (A. Kazhdan, BZ78 [1985] 53-55). Somehermitssolvedthisproblemby attending servicesontheweekendat anearbymonastery.LIT. A. Kazhdan, "Herlllitic, Cenobitic, and SecularIdealsinByzantineHagiographv of theNinththrough theTwelfthCenturies,"GOrThR30('yK5) 473-H7. D. Papa-chryssanthou, "LavielIIonastiquedanslescall1pagnesby--A.K. LIT. P. Stockmeier, RAC'4:77o-Ko.zanlines duVIIIe auXIesilde."13vwnlion4:, (1974) 1:;H-Ho. K. Bosl, "''EP1)!w,-Eremus'" H,'oF2 (lljti 7) 7:>-90.-A.I\I.T.. A.C.HERMOGENES CEP/l-OYEIJ7]. Thetreatiseof THEOGNOSTOS, 011Ortlw,!!,?aphy, was based largelyonHerodian, as was theunpublishedOnBrmth-illfisbyTheodoretos(dateuncertain). :\1any1hz.commentariesandgrammatical writingsdrawonHerodian, and in this way enable fragments ofhislost works tobereconstructed.HERODOTUS, Creek historian; born Halicar-nassus caAS5H,C" died 425. Herodotus wasknownin4th-C. Egypt(P.Oxv. VI 1157), andpapyri of hiswork are found as far away as Dura-Europos (CB.Welles, TAPA70[I939J 203-12). Theextent ofthedirect familiarityof the Byz. withHerodotusis debatable. Malalas (Mala!. 161.5-9) includedhimina list of poets andphilosopherswhowerecontemporariesofPhilipII ofMacedon, andinthe I'ARASTASEIS SVNTOMOl CHRONIKAI (p.66. I)"the chronographer Herodotus" appears as asource for Constantine I the Creat's murder ofhisson. Photios(HiM., cod.(0)characterizedHer-odotus inafewwords as ahistorian of thePersiankings andtheusurper Smerdis-averyBvz. per-ception(ormisperception?) of thebook.Interest inHerodotusawakenedinthe 10thCTheearliest presened MSdates fromthis time;the Sowla includes Herodotus's biography, andthe EXCERPTAof Constantine VII contain pas-sages fromhim. Herodotus's Persians werecon-sidered to be ancestors of the Arabs. PseUos (Mayer,"Psellos' Rede"53.2011-09) praisedHerodotusasthemost eloquent writer. Inthe 12thC chroni-clers suchas Zonarasand Manasses hadstudiedhis text (E. Jeffreys, RJwlltioll 49 [I979J 21234), andother scholars (Cregory Pardos,JohnTzetzes, EustathiosofThessalonike) referred tohim. :\1anyauthorsmust havebeenfamiliar withattributestoHesiodotherworksnowlost orsur-viving only in fragments. Quotations from He-siod, many of themextensive andsometimesnotbasedonthcextant MSS, arcfoundinthe ET\'-MOLO""'":)ldl1Ll11L, 111L.iL..... )1IJ LIJ.Ul ' .... J.J..H.... J.UJ. '-" .... .... -mata"(Darrouzes, Epistoliers304.7).A special official, the hypomnemalographos, ismentioned in the 10th-C. laklikon of BeneSevic(Oikonomides, Lisles 251.26) and later texts. Intheabove-cited letterofPatr. Athanasios, IwepiIonhypomnemalonisoneof thesenior officialsofthe patriarchal chancellery. Hypomnemawasalsoaform of panegyric of a saint, e.g., the hypomnemalaontheTwelveProphets(BHG1591).LIT. Dii!ger-Karayauuopulos, l./rkundenlfhrf 82-85. Dar-rouzes. 0ftlkin-A.K.HYRTAKENOS, THEODORE, early 14th-C.writer and teacher in Constantinople; born inHyrtakos on theKyzikos peninsula (F. Dolger, Bl3 IIJ 4 I I[). Hyrtakenos CYPTCXK7)VOll'S. K.Weitzmann, "IconProgramsof the 12thand I :lthCentu-ries atSinai." /)ChAF112(I9R4)ii:{-llli. K. WcitzmannetaI., TheIcon(NewYork IgR2). -A.W.e.BILATERAL ICONS. The termbilateral isusuallyreservedfor panel-paintediconsof fair size, dis-playing thematically related compositions on bothfaces. Some 37Byz. examples survive; the earliestis of theI I thC. The obverse generallvshowsthePantokrawr, theVirginMary, orasaintandthereverse a Christological orMarianfeast, or scenesfromthelifeof thesaint. Mostwidespreadis thepairing of theVIRGINHOOEGETRIA andCRUCIFIX-ION. Infact, theHodegetriaiconinConstantino-ple seems to have originated the whole genre:being the object of special veneration on GoodFriday, the Virgin icon was at some unknownpointfurnishedwithanimage of theCrucifixionon its reverse. From this model, apparently, sprangtheidea of pairingachurch'spatronsaint withaGREAT FEAST and esp. the idea of pairing theVirgin prescient of her infant's death with animage of that deathitself.The actualuse of bilat-eral icons remains unclear; hungordinarily onthe templon screen, they were surely displayedonspecial occasions in processionsor onstands(PROSKYNETARIA), wheretheirconjunctionofim-ages could be appreciated. Thoughsome icons,such as the great palladia-the Hodegetria andthe VIRGINOF VLA.DlMIR-may have become bi-lateral as cult practices developedaroundthem,othericonswerebilateral fromthestart.LIT. I'allas. I'flllioll wld !intaltllll,!; R'j-97. -A.W.e.METALICONS. Vulnerablebecausetheir mate-rial couldbereused, fewiconsinpreciousmetalssurvive today. Theywere numerous in the Ryz.era, however, inbothpublic andprivate contexts.In private use, gold. silver. bronze, doisonneEl\;AMEI., andCAMEOSwereformedintoicons forpersonal adornment onAMl!LETS, PENDANTS, BELTS,andRINGS. llyz. wills refertodevotional icons ofsilver and copper. Silver examples donotsurvive,thoughseveral small bronzepanelsseemtocopymore costly silver models, just as the gilded bronzetriptych in London reflects models in ivory(K.Weitzmann,The !cUll: HulvImarz:es, Sixth to Four-- HH-4:>6,withFng.II'.LIT. K. Seemann, "Zur Texlilberlieferllllgdel' delll Ig-natijvonSmolcnsk ZlIg-eschrielienen Wcrkc," B"o,F 2 (19G7):H5-(ig. M.!\:. TidlOllliro\", "Puti iz Rossii \" Vizalllijll \'XIV-XV\"\" .. "l'izOi' (lljGI) 4-10. -S.C.F.IGNATIOS, patriarchofConstantinople(4July847-23Gct. 858; 23No\'. 867-23Oct. 877) andsaint; baptismal name Niketas; born Constanti-nopleca.797/8, diedConstantinople; feastday 23Gct. Heis sometimes calledIgnatios theYounger(haneos) to distinguish him from theISt-C. churchfather Ignatios Theophoros. After thedepositionofhis father, Emp. Michacl I Rangabe, in 813,Ignatios, together withhis brothers,was castratedand forced to take monastic vows. He becamehegoumenos of three monasteries that he hadfoundedon thePrinces' Islands. In the aftermathof theIconoclast controversy, Empress THEODORAappointedhimtosucceedMETHODlOSIas patri-arch without conveningan elective synod, sinceshewantedtoavoidstirringupenmitybetweentheStouditesandthemoderates. Ignatiosfoundamodus vivendi withthe Stoudites but aroused theoppositionof themoderates ledbyGregoryAs-BESTAS. Thepatriarch'sposition deteriorated whenCaesarBARDAStookpower and exiled Theodora;deprivedofhersupport, Ignatios was forced toresIgn.Hewas replacedby PHOTlOS, whohadtogivesomeguaranteestotheformer patriarch andhisfollowers, but theguaranteesweresoonbroken;the appointment of Asbestas to the see of Syracusebecametheexternalcause of theclash. Ignatios,who had been temporarily exiled by Bardas totheislandof Terebinthos, wasallowedtoreturntohis mother'spalace inthe capital. He remainedmoderate,but theIgnatians attackedPhotios and'ltfptnnfp,-l tnrlrTHJPnnp'N rrwn, A l;: r tnt hplr"-lrlp--_._- "t---.- IAt first Nicholas was reluctant tosupport them,stating that Ignatioshadbeenelectednoncanon-ically, but eventuallythe pope usedthis conflictas a means to intervene in the affairs of the churchof Constantinople.In 867 Basil I, in his search for a Westernalliance, restoredIgnatiosto the patriarchal throneand banished Photios, but Ignatios refused toyield to thepapacy; he managedto drawBulgariainto theByz. ecclesiastical orbit and probably sub-984 IGNATIOS OFNICAEAjectedtheyoungchurchin MoraviatoConstan-tinople. Thisactiveanti-Westernpolicy ofBasil IandIgnatios madesenseless theirantagonismtoPhotios: the latter was released hornexile, suc-ceededIgnatiosafter his death, andcontributedtothesanctification ofIgnatios. Auniquemosaicportrait of Ignatios preserved in Hagia Sophiawas probablycreatedshortlyafter HH6. Thevitaof IgnatiosbyNIKETAS DAVIDPAPHLAGOJ\; isper-meatedbyhatredfor Photiosandcontainsmorederision of Photiosthaneulogy ofIgnatios.LIT. RrgPatr, fase. nos. 444-55. 49H-507. F. D\'Ornik,Nrll' Catholic Fllrvdoprdia 7::15 If. R. Janin. DTC7 (IW)71P. Stephanou, "La violationducompromisentrePhotiuset lesif(natiens."()rChrP1 (19.5.1)-Y'7.-A.K.IGNATIOS OF NICAEA. See I(;C\iATIOS THEDEACOJ\;.IGNATIOS OF SMOLENSK. See IGNATIJ OFSMOLENSK.IGNATIOS THEDEACON,writer; bornca.770-80, died after 845, if the kanon on the FORTY-Two MARTYRS OF AMORION(ed. V. Vasil'evskij,P. Nikitin, p.80-44) ascribedto "Ignatios" belongsto him and not to one of his numerous namesakes.Apupil andcollaborator of Patr. T ARASIOS, Ig-natios was ordainedby himdeaconandbecameskeuophylax; after Tarasios's deposition (HoG) Ig-natios sided with the Iconoclasts and was laterelected metropolitan of Nicaea. He later regrettedthischange of heart. At somepoint hebecameamonk onMt. Olympos.TheSOUDAlists his works, includingthe vitaeof TarasiosandPatr. NIKEPHOROSI, funeral ele-gies, letters, and (now lost) iambics against THOMAS, .THESLAV. OnastylisticbasisSevcenko attributed10 himthe vitae of GREGORYOF DEKAI'OLlSandGHlR(;E OF AMASTRIS (in Iconoclasrn 121-25).ProbablyIgnatiosalso wrote severalpoeticworks,such as verses on Adam (a dialogue between Adam,Eve, andtheSerpent), verses onLazarus andtherich man, moral sentencesinalphabetical order;the existence ofother Ignatioi prevents certainidentification. Amember ofthe generationthatfollowed THEOI'HANESand THEoDoRE OF STOU-0I0S, Ignatios revealed interest in the ancient her-itage, esp. in Sophocles andEuripides(R. Brown-ing, RFGr HI [1968] 45-(7), and emphasizedthe rhetorical adornment of his speech. Lipsic(()rerki 404-oS) hypothesized that Ignatios wasrepresented with Patr. .John VII in a caricatureintheKhludovPSALTER.Ell. Forlist of hisworks, seeTu.\(ulum-l.rxiko/l 3l)o-l)l,LIT. W. Wolska-Conus, " 'Dequibusdam19natiis,''' TM4(1970) :329-tio. c. Manf(o, "ObservationsontheCorre-spondenceof If(natius. Metropolitanof '\Iicaea," TU1 (19H I) 40:3-10. -A.K.IGNATIUS, PSEUDO-, conventional name forthe author of the interpolations made perhapsca.30o-38ointhetext of thelettersof St. Igna-tius, bishopofAntioch(diedca.l(7). Theinter-polations mainlyconcerntheroleofthebishop.Theinterpolator appearstobea follower of AR-IANISM, and various candidates have been pro-posed, for example, Akakios ofCaesarea (died360), EUNOMIOS, Silvanos of Tarsos (0. Perler,Histjb77[1%8]73-H2), and JlILlANOFHALlKAR-NASSOS.It ispossiblethatheis tobe equatedwiththe author of theApOSTOLICCONSTITUTIONS.EO. K. Lake, Th!' Apostolic Fathns, vul. 1 (London-Cambridge, Mass., 195Y) withFng. tr.LIT. J. RillS-Camps. [hrFour Authentic Lel/ns of /grl.lltius,the Martyr (Rome1yHo). R. J oly, Lr dossin d'/gnace d'A IItioche(Brussels 197iAOS' and the component-1>LA1}S' in CV-1>LA1}, "loving the good,"fem.