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ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

PROMOTING SUSTAINABILITY IN EMERGING ECONOMIES VIA LIFE CYCLE THINKING

Water demand and stress from oil palm based biodiesel production in Thailand

Pariyapat Nilsalab1,2 • Shabbir H. Gheewala1,2 • Rattanawan Mungkung3 • Sylvain R. Perret4 • Thapat

Silalertruksa1,2 • Sébastien Bonnet1,2

Received: 19 February 2016 / Accepted: 9 October 2016

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016

Responsible editor: Pomthong Malakul

1The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, 126

Prachauthit Rd, Bangmod, Tungkru, Bangkok, Thailand 10140

2 Center of Excellence on Energy Technology and Environment, PERDO, Bangkok, Thailand

3Centre of Excellence on enVironmental strategy for GREEN business (VGREEN), Department of Environmental

Technology and Management, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngamwongwan Rd, Chatuchak,

Bangkok, Thailand 10900

4Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, UMR G-Eau, 34398

Montpellier, France

Shabbir H. Gheewala

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

Phase 1Plantation

stagePhase 3

Retaining the highest productivity

Phase 4Decreasing productivity

Time (year)

Best practice

Good practice

Bad practice

Crop production

Phase 2Increasing productivity

Part 1: Oil palm cultivation and biodiesel production

Oil palm is a major feedstock for producing conventional biodiesel in Thailand and not only

cultivation areas but also production capacity of biodiesel will need to be expanded to satisfy the

target of biodiesel plan. Therefore oil palm cultivation and biodiesel production are shortly

described in the following section.

1. Oil palm cultivation

Oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacp, is considered as the most productive oil crop because of high

oil yield. The commercial seedlings available in Thailand are for the hybrid Tenera, a cross of

the Dura and Pisifera, because of its high and continuous productivity of oil and suitable

geographical and climatic conditions. The growing period of oil palm can be separated into 4

stages based on the age of oil palm, as illustrated in Fig. S.1; (1) plantation stage covering 30-36

months after planting. Increasing the abundance of oil palm trees as well as quality is highly

focused on during this stage, (2) increasing productivity starting after 3 years of age, (3)

retaining the highest productivity, and (4) decreasing productivity starting rapidly or slowly

depending on the previous stage. However, the critical periods of oil palm for fruit maturity are 6

months, 18 months, and 24 months and the significant factors affecting the growth and

productivity are quantity and distribution of rainfall, sunlight, temperature and wind. Other than

these factors are the land slope, drainage system and soil characteristics (DOAE 2007; DOA

2008; Siriwardhana et al. 2009; Papong et al. 2010).

Fig. S.1 Crop production of oil palm based on 25 years (Jungniyom 2010)

Statistical data in the year 2011 reveal that approximately 11 million ton of fresh fruit bunch

(FFB) was harvested while the plantation area increased to 0.67 million ha (Table S.1). Both the

planted area and production of FFB have shown an increasing trend since the year 2000 (DEDE

2011; Jongsakul 2012).

Table S.1 Statistical data of oil palm (DOAE 2012)

Year Total planted area (ha) Harvested area (ha) FFB production (ton) Yield (ton ha-1)2000 265,590 230,053 3,342,923 15

2001 292,316 242,852 4,096,562 17

2002 312,992 263,018 4,001,376 15

2003 329,102 287,903 4,902,575 17

2004 384,879 309,165 5,181,797 17

2005 439,692 324,193 5,002,670 15

2006 473,138 379,872 6,715,036 18

2007 512,044 426,120 6,389,983 15

2008 588,175 461,555 9,270,510 20

2009 622,343 510,003 8,162,703 16

2010 652,301 568,364 8,223,135 14

2011 668,091 599,546 10,776,848 18

2012 690,516 637,220 11,326660 18

2. Biodiesel production

Conventional biodiesel production in Thailand is based on tranesterification including (1)

extraction of crude palm oil (CPO) at a palm oil extraction mill, (2) refining of CPO to obtain

refined palm oil (RPO) at a palm oil refinery and (3) production of biodiesel via

tranesterification (Pleanjai et al. 2007; Papong et al. 2010).

(1) CPO extraction: standard processes i.e. sterilization, stripping, oil extraction and clarification,

are included. FFB is sterilized with steam and goes to bunch stripping. The fruit is then fed to the

digester for CPO extraction. In the next step, the CPO is purified to remove water and

contaminated solids before storage. As part of these processes, water is required for the boiler to

generate steam which is used to sterilize and clarify the CPO that has been extracted.

(2) RPO processing: chemical refining is performed to remove free fatty acid (FFA), color and

odor of the CPO via degumming, bleaching, and deodorizing processes. Then the RPO is

distilled and fractionated to separate stearin and olein. In these processes, water is required to

produce the steam that is used in the bleaching and deodorizing processes.

(3) Biodiesel production: transesterification using batch technology is considered. In the

chemical reaction, the RPO is mixed with alcohol (methanol) and a strong base (potassium

hydroxide). Then palm methyl ester (PME) or biodiesel and glycerol are obtained. Subsequently

the PME is separated from the glycerol and water is used for washing in a washing tank.

Currently, there are 11 biodiesel plants under operation with actual production of approximately

1.4 million liters per day, as detailed in Table S.2 (DOEB 2013).

Table S.2 Biodiesel diesel production plants

Biodiesel plant Location Capacity1

(L day-1)Actual production2

(L day-1)1. Bangchak Petroleum Public Co.,Ltd. Bangkok 50,000 2,9672. Bangchak Biofuel Co. Ltd Ayudhaya 300,0000 n.d.3. Absolute Energy Public Co. Ltd Prachinburi 800,000 188,7244. Patum Vegetable Oil Co.,Ltd. Pathumthani 1,400,000 576,9895. A I Energy Public Co.,Ltd. Samutsakhon 250,000 41,1736. Weera Suwan Co.,Ltd. Samutsakhon 200,000 11,1857. Absolute Power P Co.,Ltd. Rayong 300,000 n.d.8. Thai Oleochemical Co.,Ltd. Rayong 685,800 307,0009. Pure Biodiesel Co. Ltd Rayong 300,000 111,78710. Green Power Corporation Co.,Ltd. Chumporn 200,000 90,20311. New Biodiesel Co. Ltd Suratthani 220,000 93,162Remark n.d. is no data

1B100 production plants, June 2013 (DOEB 2013) 2 November 2009 (Preechajarn 2010, DEDE 2012)

References

DEDE (2011) Lists of biodiesel entrepreneur (November 2011). Department of Alternative Energy

Development and Efficiency.

http://www.dede.go.th/dede/images/stories/Biodiesel/Sale_B100_Nov_11.pdf. Accessed 31June

2013

DEDE (2012) Alternative Energy Development Plan: AEDP 2012-2021. Department of Alternative

Energy Development and Efficiency. http://www.dede.go.th/dede/images/stories/aedp25.pdf.

Accessed 15 March 2014

DIW (2008) Governance manual for biodiesel industry. Department of Industrial Works.

http://www2.diw.go.th/I_Standard/. Accessed 15 August 2013

DOA (2008) Oil palm. Department of Agriculture. http://it.doa.go.th/vichakan/news.php?newsid=12

Accessed 11June 2013

DOEB (2013) List of B100 plants. Department of Energy Business.

http://www.doeb.go.th/info/data/dataoil/SaleB100.pdf. Accessed 31June 2013

DOAE (2007) Oil palm plantation. http://agrimedia.agritech.doae.go.th/book/book-fruit/MU%20038.pdf.

Accessed 11 June 2013

DOAE (2012) Oil palm (2007-2011) Department of Agricultural Extension.

http://www.agriinfo.doae.go.th/5year/production/crop50-54/palm.pdf. Accessed 11 June 2013

Jongsakul A (2012) Biofuel and Energy Crop Production Policy of Thailand. Thai Aviation and

Environmental Workshop: Biofuels and Efficient Flight operations, March 20-21, Thailand

Jungniyom T (2010) Oil palm plantation management. Oil Palm Agronomical Research Center, Faculty

of Natural Resources, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand

Papong S, Chom-In T, Noksa-nga S, Malakul P (2010) Life cycle energy efficiency and potentials of

biodiesel production from palm oil in Thailand. Energ. Policy 38:226-233

Pleanjai S, Gheewala SH, Garivait S (2007) Environmental Evaluation of Biodiesel Production from

Palm Oil in a Life Cycle Perspective. AJEE. 8:15-32.

Preechajarn S (2010) Thailand biodiesel demand and supply outlook. GAIN Report TH0079. Bangkok:

USDA Foreign Agricultural Services

Siriwardhana M, Opathella GKC, Jha MK (2009) Bio-diesel: Initiatives, potential and prospects in

Thailand: A review. Energ. Policy. 37:554-559

Part 2: Methodological approaches for assessing crop water requirement

Crop water requirement is basically measured through crop evapotranspiration based on the FAO

Penman-Monteith approach using the theoretical calculation or the CROPWAT 8.0 model. Short

descriptions of the model is provided below.

- The CROPWAT 8.0 model, one of its applications is widely used for assessing the crop and

irrigation water requirements. Four methods for calculating the effective rainfall are available in

the model i.e. fix percentage of rainfall using a fixed percentage coefficient, dependable rainfall

developed by FAO/AGLW accounting different climatic data and losses due to runoff and

percolation, empirical formula considering local climatic data, and USDA soil conservation

service methods including local climatic data, soil water capacity and crop evapotranspiration.

To obtain the effective rainfall, the meteorological data used referred to statistical data obtained

from the Thai Meteorological Department (TMD) over the period 2000-2011 (TMD 2011).

Fig. S.2 Average annual crop water requirement of oil palm based on the theoretical equation

and the CROPWAT

Theoretical calculation

CROPWAT Theoretical calculation

CROPWAT Theoretical calculation

CROPWAT

South East Central

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000Starting period Established period

Ave

rage

ann

ual c

rop

wat

er re

quire

men

t (m

3 ha

-1 y

-1)

Figure S.2 shows that the results obtained from CROPWAT and the theoretical equation for

three regions are not significantly different. The slightly different values in the Central may be

because the plantations there are still relatively new; these values may change in a few years

from now when the plantations become more mature. Hence the theoretical equation, which has

much lower data requirement, is sufficient to use. The CROPWAT is also developed based on

the theoretical equation; though, with more details on the inclusion in the model of climate data

among the provinces relating to the geographic location of their respective meteorological

stations, and regional cultivation calendar. Due to the amount of effective rainfall significantly

affecting the ratio between rainwater and the amount of additional freshwater withdrawal, the

study also consider the effective rainfall obtained from the RID method and the CROPWAT as

detailed in Tables S.3 and Fig. S.3).

Table S.3 Ranges of rainwater and additional freshwater withdrawal based on different methods

for quantifying the effective rainfall.

(m3 ha-1 year-1) Rainwater(Effective rainfall)

Additional freshwater withdrawal

South RID method 8,968-11,141 1,081-3,519CROPWAT methods 7,297-10,925 433-4,386

East RID method 7,712-9,842 2,619-6,280CROPWAT methods 6,317-9,760 1,342-6,901

Central RID method 6,805-8,033 4,978-6,693CROPWAT methods 4,731-8,964 3,820-7,605

Fig. S.3 Effective rainfall (EF) and additional freshwater withdrawal with ranges of maximum

and minimum of oil palm planted in the South, East and Central regions of Thailand

a) South

02,0004,0006,0008,000

10,00012,00014,000

additional freshwater withdrawal EFm3/ha

b) East

02,0004,0006,0008,000

10,00012,00014,000


c) Central

01,0002,0003,0004,0005,0006,0007,000


Moreover the results obtained from CROPWAT and the theoretical equation for three regions are

not significantly different. The slightly different values in the Central may be because the

plantations there are still relatively new; these values may change in a few years from now when

the plantations become more mature. Hence the theoretical equation, which has much lower data

requirement, is sufficient to use. The CROPWAT is also developed based on the theoretical

equation; though, with more details on the inclusion in the model of climate data among the

provinces relating to the geographic location of their respective meteorological stations, and

regional cultivation calendar.

Part 3: Additional data and results

Table S.4 Data requirements of oil palm for calculating crop water requirement

Parameter Data Remark Data sourcesCrop coefficient 0.90 (initial) Phase 1-2 1)Chapagain and

Hoekstra (2004)(Kc) 0.95 (mid-season) Phase 3-40.95 (late season)

Metrological data Reference crop evapotranspiration (ET0)* Provincial data 2)RID (2011)

(Provincial data: Temperature Provincial data 3)TMD (2011)2000-2011) Relative humidity (meteorological

Sunshine duration stations) forWind speed calculating the ET0

Monthly rainfallEffective RID’s method* Monthly rainfall 4),5)RID (2010rainfall Fix percentage (Provincial data) and 2011)

Dependable rain (FAO/AGLW formula) CROPWATEmpirical formulaUSDA soil conservation service

Remark *Provincial data of ET0 values and RID’s method are presented in Table S.4-S.51)Chapagain AK, Hoekstra AY (2008) The global component of freshwater demand and supply: an assessment of virtual water flows between nations as a result of trade in agricultural and industrial products. Water Int 33: 19–32.2)RID (2011) Reference Crop Evapotranspiration by Penman Monteith (Second edition). Royal Irrigation Department, Bangkok, Thailand3)TMD (2011) Statistical meteorological data. Thai Meteorological Department, Bangkok, Thailand.4)RID (2010) Estimation of crop water requirement during crop cultivation. Royal Irrigation Department, Bangkok, Thailand5)RID (2011) Crop water requirement for pre-feasibility study. Royal Irrigation Department, Bangkok, Thailand

Table S.5 Potential crop evapotranspiration (ETo) by provinces (2)RID, 2011)Potential crop evapotranspiration (mm day-1)

Region Province Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg.C Pathum Thani 3.54 3.85 4.44 4.64 4.05 4.15 3.62 3.59 3.26 2.90 3.83 3.54 3.8C Lopburi 3.90 4.61 5.13 5.06 4.17 3.75 3.66 3.31 3.26 3.65 3.86 3.88 4.0C Phetchaburi 3.59 4.23 4.87 4.89 4.22 3.74 3.66 3.17 3.38 3.08 3.39 3.49 3.8C Prachuap Khiri Khan 3.84 4.31 4.64 4.83 4.19 3.98 3.70 3.54 3.48 3.42 3.66 3.88 4.0E Chachoengsao 3.85 3.83 4.19 4.31 3.86 3.52 3.46 3.46 3.26 3.33 3.47 3.51 3.7E Prachinburi 3.81 4.06 4.32 4.65 3.98 3.50 3.44 3.15 3.25 3.58 4.02 4.01 3.8E Sa Kaeo 3.93 4.41 4.83 4.79 4.04 3.97 3.72 3.50 3.30 3.53 3.77 3.71 4.0E Chonburi 4.18 4.44 4.81 5.00 4.39 4.26 4.22 4.02 3.67 3.52 4.21 4.39 4.3E Rayong 3.66 3.98 4.32 4.54 4.08 3.97 3.75 3.74 3.42 3.43 3.71 3.69 3.9E Chanthaburi 3.83 3.72 4.03 4.28 3.43 3.11 3.10 2.84 2.95 3.33 3.81 3.91 3.5E Trat 3.80 3.83 4.17 4.28 3.89 3.35 3.32 2.87 3.22 3.35 3.68 3.84 3.6S Chumphon 3.40 3.86 4.34 4.33 3.82 3.83 3.59 3.68 3.53 3.37 3.24 3.36 3.7S Ranong 3.84 4.21 4.29 4.27 3.76 3.34 3.27 3.30 3.20 3.31 3.41 3.52 3.6S Suratthani 3.53 4.12 4.38 4.32 3.80 3.63 3.55 3.62 3.51 3.21 3.11 3.19 3.7S Nakhon Si Thammarat 3.32 3.77 4.10 4.15 3.69 3.65 3.53 3.64 3.53 3.18 2.99 2.94 3.5S Phatthalung 3.65 4.09 4.13 4.20 3.74 3.68 3.51 3.62 3.54 3.31 3.30 3.28 3.7S Phuket 4.19 4.50 4.53 4.27 3.79 3.77 3.76 3.83 3.51 3.35 3.34 3.73 3.9S Krabi 4.08 4.73 4.42 4.21 3.73 3.58 3.54 3.63 3.57 3.07 3.27 3.50 3.8S Trang 4.21 4.86 4.67 4.30 3.71 3.60 3.24 3.35 3.26 3.12 3.27 3.64 3.8S Songkhla 3.74 4.21 4.34 4.24 3.72 3.67 3.69 3.76 3.57 3.34 2.99 3.16 3.7S Satun 4.43 4.60 4.40 4.18 3.64 3.52 3.53 3.65 3.28 3.14 3.32 3.80 3.8S Pattani 3.36 3.95 3.91 3.95 3.49 3.39 3.42 3.52 3.48 3.25 2.95 2.85 3.5S Yala 3.53 4.20 4.25 4.31 3.77 3.66 3.66 3.80 3.75 3.59 2.94 3.10 3.7S Narathiwat 3.32 3.82 4.07 4.19 3.75 3.63 3.61 3.72 3.40 3.25 2.94 2.92 3.6S Phang Nga 3.78 4.45 4.43 4.63 3.93 3.72 3.7 3.85 3.62 3.36 3.16 3.23 3.

8

Table S.6 Effective rainfall estimation method (4),5)RID, 2010 and 2011)

Average monthly rainfall (mm) Effective rainfall (% of monthly rainfall)0-10 0

11-100 80%101-200 70%201-250 60%251-300 55%

>301 50%

Table S.7 Suitable areas for oil palm plantation announced by MOAC*

Regions

Provinces

South Chumphon, Ranong, Suratthani, Phang Nga, Phuket, Krabi, Trang,Nakhon Si Thammarat, Phatthalung, Songkhla, Satun, Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat

East Chachoengsao, Prachinburi, Sa Kaeo, Chonburi, Rayong, Chanthaburi, TratCentral Pathum Thani, Saraburi, Nakhon Nayok, Phetchaburi, Prachuap Khiri Khan,Remark: *Ministry of Agricultural and Cooperation

Table S.8 Oil palm production forecasted by OAE

Year Plantation area (million ha)

Productive areas (million ha)

Oil palm production(million ton)

CPO(million ton)

Yield(ton ha-1)

2013 0.738 0.66 12.02 2.04 18.282014 0.760 6.85 12.91 2.20 18.852015 0.776 0.72 13.94 2.37 19.492016 0.788 0.73 14.81 2.52 20.182017 0.795 0.75 15.51 2.64 20.812018 0.802 0.76 16.28 2.77 21.532019 0.809 0.77 17.04 2.90 22.212020 0.814 0.78 17.78 3.03 22.852021 0.820 0.79 18.51 3.15 23.53Source: Ponsen T (2013) Oil palm to palm oil: Crisis or Chance to AEC-National policy on alternative energy. The 9th NSTDA Annual Conference (NAC2013), March 31 – April 3, Pathumthani, Thailand

Fig. S.4 Statistical data (2000-2012) and forecasted data by OAE of plantation area and

production

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

0.0

100.0

200.0

300.0

400.0

500.0

600.0

700.0

800.0

900.0

1,000.0

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

16.0

18.0

20.0Production (ton) Expected production (OAE) Planted area (ha)Expected area (OAE)

thousand ha million ton

Fig. S.5 Statistical data (2000-2012) and forecasted data by OAE of oil palm yield

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

10

20

11

20

12

20

13

20

14

20

15

20

16

20

17

20

18

20

19

20

20

20

210.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

20.1

14.5

20.5

23.5 ton ha-1year-1

Table S.9 Annual average crop water requirement of oil palm plantation in the South, East and

Central regions of Thailand

Starting period (m3 ha-1 year-1) Establish period (m3 ha-1 year-1)Wet season* Dry season* Wet season* Dry season*

Rainwater

Additional freshwater withdrawa

l

Rainwater


l

Rainwater


l

Rainwater


lSouth 5,670 365 4,223 2,012 5,907 522 4,325 2,257

East 5,857 141 2,291 4,360 6,155 342 2,319 4,702Centra

l 5,585 705 1,684 5,053 5,757 731 1,684 5,427Remark: *Wet season = May to October and Dry season = November to April

Fig. S.6 Average water requirement of oil palm based biodiesel classified by rainwater and

additional freshwater withdrawal

South East Central0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

Additional freshwater withdrawalRainwater

m3 L-1 biodiesel

Table S.10 Water requirement of oil palm based biodiesel production by region

(m3 L-1 biodiesel)* Rainwater Additional freshwater withdrawalSouth Average 4.3 1.1

Min-Max 3.0-7.0 0.4-2.2East Average 4.9 2.9

Min-Max 3.1-9.6 1.1-6.5Central Average 5.2 4.0

Min-Max 2.5-11.2 1.6-7.5Remark: *cubic meter of water per a liter of biodiesel

Table S.11 The suitable areas for plantation and locations of biodiesel production plants

classified by watershed boundary

Watershed Recommended area by OAE* Biodiesel plantChao Phraya Pathumthani, Saraburi, Bangchak Petroleum

Nakhon Nayok, Chachoengsao Bangchak BiofuelPatum Vegetable Oil

Prachinburi Chachoengsao, Prachinburi, Sa Kaeo, Chanthaburi, Nakhon Nayok

Absolute Energy

Thachin Pathum Thani A I EnergyWeera Suwan

East Coast Gulf Chachoengsao, Sa Kaeo, Chonburi, Rayong, Absolute Power PChanthaburi, Trat Thai Oleochemical

Pure BiodieselPeninsula East Coast Prachuap Khiri Khan, Chumporn, Ranong, Trang,

Suratthani, Nakhon Si Thammarat,Green Power Corporation

Phatthalung,Songkhla, Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat New Biodiesel

Peninsula-West coastChumporn, Ranong, Suratthani, Phang Nga, Phuket, Krabi, Trang, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Phatthalung, Songkhla, Satun

Thale sap Songkhla Trang, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Phatthalung, Songkhla, Satun

West Coast Gulf Chumporn, Phetchaburi, Prachuap Khiri Khan

Tapi Ranong, Suratthni Phang Nga, Krabi, Nakhon Si Thammarat

Pattani Songkhla, Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat

Bang Pakong Chachoengsao, Prachinburi, Sa Kaeo, Chonburi, Chanthaburi, Saraburi, Nakhon Nayok, Pathum Thani

Mun Prachinburi, Sa Kaeo, Nakhon NayokThole Sap Sa Kaeo, Chanthaburi, TratPasak Saraburi, Nakhon NayokMae Klong PhetchaburiPhetchaburi Phetchaburi, Prachuap Khiri KhanRemark: *OAE = Office of Agricultural Economics

Table S.12 Water deprivation of oil palm cultivation in the South, East and Central regions of

Thailand

(a) Water deprivation with regard to biodiesel

WatershedsAdditional freshwater

withdrawal(m3 L-1 biodiesel)

Ranges of water deprivation by provinces(m3H2Oeq L-1 biodiesel)

Highest water deprivation(Province)South East Central

Peninsula West Coast 0.39-1.76 0.008-0.021 - - PhuketThale Sap Songkhla 0.39-1.23 0.005-0.017 - - PhatthalungWest Coast Gulf 0.71-2.48 0.112 - 0.0375-0.0391 ChumphonTapi 0.39-1.20 0.023-0.072 - - RanongPattani 0.72-2.18 0.018-0.054 - - PattaniPeninsula East Coast 0.39-2.48 0.026-0.147 - 0.167 PrachuapkhirikhanEast Coast Gulf 1.07-3.63 - 0.016-0.055 - Sa KaeoBang Pakong 1.60-7.47 - 0.061-0.169 0.042-0.194 Nakhon NayokChao Phraya 1.60-7.47 - 0.839 0.543-2.559 Nakhon NayokMun 6.50-7.47 - 6.021 6.993 Nakhon NayokPrachinburi 2.40-7.47 - 0.039-0.105 0.122 Nakhon NayokThole Sap 1.07-3.63 - 0.020-0.069 - Sa KaeoMae Klong 2.38 - - 0.042 PhetchaburiPasak 6.08-7.47 - - 0.301-0.370 Nakhon NayokPhetchaburi 2.38-2.48 - - 0.052-0.054 PrachuapkhirikhanThachin 1.60 - - 0.461 Pathumthani

(b) Water deprivation with regard to plantation area

WatershedsAdditional freshwater

withdrawal (m3 ha-1)

Ranges of water deprivation by provinces (m3H2Oeq ha-1) Highest water deprivation

(Province)South East CentralPeninsula West Coast 1,081-3,519 13-42 - - RanongThale Sap Songkhla 1,081-3,041 15-43 - - SongkhlaWest Coast Gulf 2,131-6,693 336 - 985-1,055 PrachuapkhirikhanTapi 1,081-3,519 65-210 - - RanongPattani 1,665-3,041 41-75 - - SongkhlaPeninsula East Coast 1,081-6,693 73-237 - 451 PrachuapkhirikhanEast Coast Gulf 2,619-6,280 - 39-94 - ChonburiBang Pakong 4,142-6,393 - 107-163 129-166 SarabuiChao Phraya 4,142-6,393 - 1,403 1,686-2,165 SaraburiMun 5,209-5,261 - 4,876 4,827 PrachinburiPrachinburi 4,142-5,846 - 67-94 84 Sa KaeoThole Sap 2,619-5,846 - 49-110 - Sa KaeoMae Klong 6,251 - - 109 PhetchaburiPasak 5,209-6,393 - - 258-317 SaraburiPhetchaburi 6,251-6,693 - - 136-146 PrachuapkhirikhanThachin 4,978 - - 1,431 Pathumthani

Table S.13 Water deprivation of oil palm cultivation in the South, East and Central regions (by

province)

(a) Water deprivation with regard to biodiesel Water deprivation (m3 H2Oeq L-1 biodiesel)

South


(m3 L-1 biodiesel)

Peninsula West Coast

Thale sap Songkhla

West Coast Gulf Tapi Pattani Peninsula

East Coast

Chumphon 0.71 0.0085 - 0.112 - - 0.048Ranong 1.20 0.014 - - 0.072 - 0.081Suratthani 0.82 0.010 - - 0.049 - 0.055Phang Nga 0.71 0.0085 - - 0.043 - -Phuket 1.76 0.021 - - - - -Krabi 0.99 0.012 - - 0.059 - -Trang 1.04 0.012 0.015 - - - 0.070Nakhon Si Thammarat 0.39 0.0046 0.0054 - 0.023 - 0.026Phatthalung 1.23 0.015 0.017 - - - 0.083Songkhla 1.15 0.014 0.016 - - 0.029 0.078Satun 0.83 0.010 0.012 - - - -Pattani 2.18 - - - - 0.054 0.147Yala 1.00 - - - - 0.025 0.068Narathiwat 0.72 - - - - 0.018 0.048

Water deprivation (m3 H2Oeq L-1 biodiesel)

East


(m3 L-1 biodiesel)

East Coast Gulf

Bang Pakong

Chao Phraya Mun Prachinburi Thole Sap

Chachoengsao 2.48 0.037 0.064 0.839 - 0.040 -Prachinburi 6.50 - 0.169 - 6.021 0.105 -Sa Kaeo 3.63 0.055 0.094 - - 0.059 0.069Chonburi 2.36 0.035 0.061 - - - -Rayong 1.71 0.026 - - - - -Chanthaburi 2.40 0.036 0.062 - - 0.039 0.045Trat 1.07 0.016 - - - - 0.020


Central

Add

ition

al fr

eshw

ater

w

ithdr

awal

(m3 L

-1 b

iodi

esel

)

Wes

t Coa

st G

ulf

Peni

nsul

a Ea

st C

oast

Ban

g Pa

kong

Cha

o Ph

raya

Mae

Klo

ng

Mun

Pasa

k

Phet

chab

uri

Prac

hinb

uri

Thac

hin

Pathum Thani 1.60 - - 0.04216 0.543 - - - - - 0.461

Saraburi 6.08 - - 0.158 2.060 - - 0.301

- - -

Phetchaburi 2.38 0.375 - - - 0.04217 - - 0.052 - -Prachuap Khiri Khan

2.48 0.391 0.167

- - - - - 0.054 - -

Nakhon Nayok 7.54 - - 0.196 2.555 - 6.992 0.374

- 0.122

-

(b) Water deprivation with regard to plantation areaWater deprivation (m3 H2Oeq L-1 biodiesel)

SouthAdditional freshwater


Peninsula West coast

Thale sap Songkhla

West Coast Gulf Tapi Pattani Peninsula

East Coast

Chumphon 2,131 25 - 336 - - 144Ranong 3,519 42 - - 210 - 237Suratthani 2,517 30 - - 150 - 170Phang Nga 1,955 23 - - 117 - -Phuket 2,979 36 - - - - -Krabi 3,240 39 - - 194 - -Trang 3,023 36 42 - - - 204Nakhon Si Thammarat 1,081 13 15 - 65 - 73Phatthalung 2,898 35 41 - - - 195Songkhla 3,041 36 43 - - 75 205Satun 2,174 26 30 - - - -Pattani 2,812 - - - - 70 190Yala 1,795 - - - - 44 121Narathiwat 1,665 - - - - 41 112


EastAdditional freshwater


East Coast Gulf

Bang Pakong

Chao Phraya Mun Prachinburi Thole Sap

Chachoengsao 4,142 62 107 1,403 - 67 -Prachinburi 5,261 - 137 - 4,876 85 -Sa Kaeo 5,846 88 152 - - 94 110Chonburi 6,280 94 163 - - - -Rayong 4,369 66 - - - - -Chanthaburi 4,221 63 110 - - 68 80Trat 2,619 39 - - - - 49


Central

Add

ition

al fr

eshw

ater

w

ithdr

awal

(m3 h

a-1)

Wes

t Coa

st G

ulf

Peni

nsul

a Ea

st

Coa

st

Ban

g Pa

kong

Cha

o Ph

raya

Mae

Klo

ng

Mun

Pasa

k

Phet

chab

uri

Prac

hinb

uri

Thac

hin

Pathum Thani 4978 - - 129 1686 - - - - - 1431Saraburi 6,393 - - 166 2165 - - 317 - - -Phetchaburi 6251 985 - - - 109 - - 136 - -Prachuap Khiri Khan

6693 1,055 451 - - - - - 146 - -

Nakhon Nayok 5209 - - 135 1764 - 4827 258 - 84 -

Table S.14 Recommended areas for oil palm plantation

Suitable area (MOAC) Central East South Total area (million ha) 0.8 1.2 5

Risk areas [extremely and moderate level of WSI] Central East South

Provincial boundary (million ha) 0.60 0.004 0.03Watershed boundary Mun Chao Phraya West Coast Gulf

(% of total watershed area ) 0.1 2.9 97Recommended areas for oil palm Central East South

Provincial boundary (million ha) 0.2 1.2 5(% of total provincial area in region) 3 18 79

Table S.15 Scenarios for evaluating the potential impact resulting from the policy achievement

in 2021

Scenario 1- Single region (100%)Year Increased area* (million ha)2013 0.052014 0.022015 0.022016 0.012017 0.0082018 0.0072019 0.0062020 0.0062021 0.005

Scenario 2- Area distributions

YearIncreased area* (million ha)

South (79%) East (18%) Central (3%)2013 37,017 8,638 1,4292014 17,359 4,051 6702015 12,579 2,935 4862016 9,309 2,172 3592017 6,038 1,409 2332018 5,661 1,321 2192019 4,906 1,145 1892020 4,403 1,027 1702021 4,277 998 165

Remark *Plantation area in year 2012is defined as the base year.

Table S.16 Water requirement of oil palm cultivation resulting from the policy achievement in

2021

Scenario 1: 100% plantations in the South

Water deficit (million m3)SOUTH 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Total2013 104.6 1052014 104.6 49.0 154

Crop water requirement (million m3)

SOUTH 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Total

2013 570 5702014 570 267.5 838

2015 570 267.5 193.8 1,032

2016 570 267.5 193.8 143.4 1,175

2017 570 267.5 193.8 143.4 93.0 1,268

2018 602 267.5 193.8 143.4 93.0 87.2 1,387

2019 602 282.3 193.8 143.4 93.0 87.2 75.6 1,477

2020 602 282.3 204.6 143.4 93.0 87.2 75.6 67.8 1,556

2021 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 93.0 87.2 75.6 67.8 65.9 1,630

2022 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 87.2 75.6 67.8 65.9 1,635

2023 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 75.6 67.8 65.9 1,640

2024 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 67.8 65.9 1,644

2025 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 65.9 1,648

2026 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2027 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2028 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2029 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2030 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2031 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2032 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2033 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2034 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2035 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2036 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2037 602 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,652

2038 282.3 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 1,050

2039 204.6 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 767

2040 151.4 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 5632041 98.2 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 4112042 92.1 79.8 71.6 69.6 3132043 79.8 71.6 69.6 2212044 71.6 69.6 1412045 69.6 70

Water deficit (million m3)SOUTH 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Total2015 104.6 49.0 35.5 1892016 104.6 49.0 35.5 26.3 2152017 104.6 49.0 35.5 26.3 17.1 2322018 120.3 49.0 35.5 26.3 17.1 16.0 2642019 120.3 56.4 35.5 26.3 17.1 16.0 13.9 2852020 120.3 56.4 40.9 26.3 17.1 16.0 13.9 12.4 3032021 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 17.1 16.0 13.9 12.4 12.1 3192022 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 16.0 13.9 12.4 12.1 3222023 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 13.9 12.4 12.1 3242024 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 12.4 12.1 3262025 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 12.1 3282026 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302027 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302028 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302029 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302030 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302031 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302032 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302033 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302034 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302035 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302036 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302037 120.3 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 3302038 56.4 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 2102039 40.9 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 1532040 30.2 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 1122041 19.6 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 822042 18.4 15.9 14.3 13.9 632043 15.9 14.3 13.9 442044 14.3 13.9 282045 13.9 14

Scenario 1: 100% plantations in the East

Crop water requirement (million m3)EAS

T 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 202

0 2021 Total

2013 590 590

2014 590 276.6

867

2015 590 276.6

200.5 1,067

2016 590 276.6

200.5 148.3 1,215

2017 590 276.6

200.5 148.3 96.2

1,312

2018 623 276.6

200.5 148.3 96.2

90.2 1,435

2019 623 292.0

200.5 148.3 96.2

90.2 78.2 1,528

2020 623 292.0

211.6 148.3 96.2

90.2 78.2 70.2

1,609

2021 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 96.2

90.2 78.2 70.2

68.2 1,686

2022 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

90.2 78.2 70.2

68.2 1,688

2023 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 78.2 70.2

68.2 1,693

2024 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 70.2

68.2 1,697

2025 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

68.2 1,701

2026 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2027 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2028 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2029 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2030 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2031 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2032 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2033 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2034 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2035 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2036 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2037 623 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,705

2038 292.0

211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 1,082

2039 211.6 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 790

2040 156.6 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 579

2041 98.2

95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 422

2042 95.2 82.5 74.1

71.9 324

2043 82.5 74.1

71.9 229

2044 74.1

71.9 146

2045 71.9 72

EASTWater deficit (million m3)

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Total2013 206.2 2062014 206.2 96.7 3032015 206.2 96.7 70.1 3732016 206.2 96.7 70.1 51.9 4252017 206.2 96.7 70.1 51.9 33.6 4592018 223.7 96.7 70.1 51.9 33.6 31.5 5082019 223.7 104.9 70.1 51.9 33.6 31.5 27.3 5432020 223.7 104.9 76.0 51.9 33.6 31.5 27.3 24.5 5742021 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 33.6 31.5 27.3 24.5 23.8 6022022 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 31.5 27.3 24.5 23.8 6052023 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 27.3 24.5 23.8 6072024 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 24.5 23.8 6102025 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 23.8 6122026 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142027 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142028 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142029 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142030 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142031 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142032 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142033 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142034 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142035 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142036 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142037 223.7 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 6142038 104.9 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 3902039 76.0 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 2852040 56.3 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 2092041 36.5 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 1532042 34.2 29.6 26.6 25.8 1162043 29.6 26.6 25.8 822044 26.6 25.8 522045 25.8 26

Scenario 1: 100% plantations in the Central

Crop water requirement (million m3)CENTRAL 201

32014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Total

2013 599 5992014 599 280.9 8802015 599 280.9 203.5 1,0832016 599 280.9 203.5 150.

61,234

2017 599 280.9 203.5 150.6

97.7 1,332

2018 632 280.9 203.5 150.6

97.7 91.6 1,456

2019 632 296.5 203.5 150.6

97.7 91.6 79.4 1,551

2020 632 296.5 214.8 150.6

97.7 91.6 79.4 71.2 1,634

2021 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

97.7 91.6 79.4 71.2 69.2 1,711

2022 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 91.6 79.4 71.2 69.2 1,717

2023 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 79.4 71.2 69.2 1,722

2024 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 71.2 69.2 1,726

2025 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 69.2 1,730

2026 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2027 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2028 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2029 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2030 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2031 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2032 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2033 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2034 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2035 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2036 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2037 632 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,734

2038 296.5 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 1,102

2039 214.8 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 806

2040 159.0

103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 591

2041 103.1 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 4322042 96.7 83.8 75.2 73.0 3292043 83.8 75.2 73.0 2322044 75.2 73.0 1482045 73.0 73

CENTRAL

Water deficit (million m3)2013 2014 2015 201

62017 2018 201

92020 2021 Total

2013 260.0

260

2014 260.0

121.9 382

2015 260.0

121.9 88.4 470

2016 260.0

121.9 88.4 65.4

536

2017 260.0

121.9 88.4 65.4

42.4 578

2018 283.1

121.9 88.4 65.4

42.4 39.8 641

2019 283.1

132.8 88.4 65.4

42.4 39.8 34.5

686

2020 283.1

132.8 96.2 65.4

42.4 39.8 34.5

30.9 725

2021 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

42.4 39.8 34.5

30.9 30.0 761

2022 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 39.8 34.5

30.9 30.0 765

2023 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 34.5

30.9 30.0 768

2024 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

30.9 30.0 771

2025 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 30.0 774

2026 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2027 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2028 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2029 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2030 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2031 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2032 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2033 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2034 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2035 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2036 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2037 283.1

132.8 96.2 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 777

2038 132.8 96.2

71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 494

2039 96.2 46.2 43.3 33.7 32.7 361

CENTRAL

Water deficit (million m3)2013 2014 2015 201

62017 2018 201

92020 2021 Total

71.2 37.5

2040 71.2

46.2 43.3 37.5

33.7 32.7 265

2041 46.2 43.3

37.5

33.7 32.7 193

2042 43.3

37.5

33.7 32.7 147

2043 37.5

33.7 32.7 104

2044 33.7 32.7 662045 32.7 33

Crop water requirement and additional freshwater demand of scenario 1

20132015

20172019

20212023

20252027

20292031

20332035

20372039

20412043

20450.0

200.0400.0600.0800.0

1000.01200.01400.01600.01800.02000.0

year

million m3

S-Additional freshwater

C-Additional freshwater

S-CWRE-CWR

C-CWR

E-Additional freshwater

Scenario 2: The area distribution (79% in the South, 18% in the East and 3% in the Central)

Scenario Crop water requirement (million m3)

2 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 201

8 2019 2020 2021 Total

2013 575 5752014 575 269.6 8442015 575 269.6 195.3 1,0402016 575 269.6 195.3 144.5 1,1842017 575 269.6 195.3 144.5 93.8 1,2782018 607 269.6 195.3 144.5 93.8

87.9

1,398

2019 607 284.5 195.3 144.5 93.8 87.9

76.2 1,489

2020 607 284.5 206.2 144.5 93.8 87.9

76.2 68.4 1,568

2021 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 93.8 87.9

76.2 68.4 66.4 1,643

2022 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 87.9

76.2 68.4 66.4 1,648

2023 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

76.2 68.4 66.4 1,653

2024 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 68.4 66.4 1,657

2025 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 66.4 1,661

2026 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2027 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2028 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2029 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2030 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2031 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2032 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2033 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2034 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2035 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2036 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2037 607 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,664

2038 284.5 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 1,058

2039 206.2 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 773

2040 152.6 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 567

2041 99.0 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 414

2042 92.8

80.4 72.2 70.1 315

2043 80.4 72.2 70.1 2232044 72.2 70.1 1422045 70.1 70

Scenario Water deficit (million m3)

2 2013 2014

2015 2016 2017

2018 2019 2020

2021 Total

2013 127.9 1282014 127.9

60.0

188

2015 127.9 60.0

43.5 231

2016 127.9 60.0

43.5 32.2 264

2017 127.9 60.0

43.5 32.2 20.9

284

2018 144.2 60.0

43.5 32.2 20.9

19.6 320

2019 144.2 67.6

43.5 32.2 20.9

19.6 17.0 345

2020 144.2 67.6

49.0 32.2 20.9

19.6 17.0 15.2

366

2021 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 20.9

19.6 17.0 15.2

14.8 384

2022 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

19.6 17.0 15.2

14.8 387.1

2023 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 17.0 15.2

14.8 389.6

2024 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 15.2

14.8 391.8

2025 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

14.8 393.7

2026 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2027 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2028 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2029 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2030 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2031 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2032 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2033 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2034 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2035 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2036 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2037 144.2 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 395.6

2038 67.6

49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 251.4

Scenario Water deficit (million m3)

2 2013 2014

2015 2016 2017

2018 2019 2020

2021 Total

2039 49.0 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 183.8

2040 36.3 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 134.8

2041 23.5

22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 98.5

2042 22.1 19.1 17.2

16.7 75.0

2043 19.1 17.2

16.7 52.9

2044 17.2

16.7 33.8

2045 16.7 16.7

Table S.17 Water deprivation of oil palm plantation based on different area distribution among

the three regions

Proportional areas Additional freshwater withdrawal (million m3)

Water deprivation(million m3H2Oeq ha-1)Cases South East Central

1 18% 79% 3% 3,679 79.22 8% 90% 2% 3,859 77.53 5% 95% 1% 3,946 77.64 0.5% 99% 0.5% 3,987 76.15 0.09% 99.9% 0.01% 3,990 76.0

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