1 the concept of information(1)
TRANSCRIPT
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INFS 213INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
MRS. FLORENCE ENTSUA-MENSAH
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CONCEPT OF INFORMATION(A brief Introduction)
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• The conception of information has changed over the years with the strategic uses of information systems. For the modern organization, information is a resource that is described as parallel if not more important to land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.
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• Information is an elusive concept and there is a continuing debate about its meaning and about its relationship to its correlates such as knowledge and data, and in business circles, intelligence.
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• In everyday language, data, information, intelligence and even knowledge are used interchangeably.
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DATA
• DATA is a plural of a Latin word “Datum” which are facts, records of an event (i.e. figures) that has occurred or about to take place.
• Data or facts are independent, unrelated, unlimited in number and meaningless as it stands.
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DATA
• Data simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence (in and of itself). It can exist in any form, usable or not. It does not have meaning of itself.
• In other words, Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things.
• It may be considered as ‘raw’ material – i.e. needs processing to be meaningful.
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DATA
• Data is the starting point in providing information. It is the facts, figures, values, or even opinions which are needed to help with decision making.
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Baby A Baby B Baby C
1st 3.2 3 4.22nd 4.3 3 4.83rd 5 3.5 5.24th 5.2 3.4 5.55th 5.5 3.6 56th 6 3.5 5.27th 6.2 4 58th 6.4 4.2 4.8
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1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
WIEG
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MONTHS
Baby ABaby BBaby C
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INFORMATION
• information is the aggregate of data or facts, systematically collated, structured or arranged to keep management posted with relevant developments in a manner as will facilitate decision-making in any one or more activities in the running of a business.
• Information is necessarily meaningful data, whereas data may have no intrinsic meaning or significance in itself (O’Brien, 1970).
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INFORMATION
O’Brien (2003) simply defines information as data that have been converted into a meaningful and useful context for specific end users.
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At a Regional Seminar on National Information and Informatics Policies for Africa held at Addis Ababa in 1988, Information was defined as:
“...intelligence or knowledge that contributes to social, economic, cultural and political well-being of society, irrespective of the form it is encrypted in (text, figures, diagrams, etc.), the medium it is stored in (paper, magnetic, etc.), the mode of dissemination (oral, written or audio-visual, etc.), the social activity that generated it (research, administration, censuses, remote sensing, etc.), or the organizing and disseminating institutions (libraries, documentation centres, archives, statistical offices, mapping agencies, geological surveys, computer centres, media and broadcasting services, telecommunication services)”(Abate, 1988).
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INFORMATION
• Simply put, information is meaning assigned to data. It is data that have been processed into a form that is meaningful to a recipient or user and is of real or perceived value in current or prospective decision processes (Davis and Oslon, 1985).
• Information must inform, that is, add to what we already know about an event or place; it must tell the recipient something that he/she did not know before or could not predict. Information adds to knowledge but must be relevant to some event, state or process.
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KNOWLEDGE
• What is Knowledge?
• Stair & Reynolds (2003) define knowledge as an awareness and understanding of a set of information and ways that information can be used to support a specific task and make a decision.
• Mckeown (2003) defines it as the capacity to request, structure and use information
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THE KNOWLEDGE PYRAMID
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INTELLIGENCE
KNOWLEDGE
INFORMATION
DATA
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• Mckeown (2003) defines it as the capacity to request, structure and use information
• Smith and Medley (1987) also define it as human inferences and interpretations derived from processed information – it is a blend of human experience, analysis, deduction and assimilation.
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Top level managers or
strategic managers – these use knowledge
Middle level management or tactical
staff – these use information
Operational staff/level – same as non-management staff
Non-management employees – these use facts, data etc to ensure that specific tasks are planned
and carried out a day to day basis
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CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION
• Relevance • Timeliness• Accuracy• Clarity • Complete• Current • Cost and Value
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Functions of Information
• Elimination / Reduction of Uncertainty • Aids Strategic Planning • Communication• Serves as a Memory Supplement • Simplifies Situations and Problems
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VALUES OF INFORMATION
This is the amount/ price a decision maker will be willing to pay for information prior to making decision.
Maximum price one should pay for knowing the actual value of an uncertainty before the decision on a course of action.
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Three Main Reasons Why Information is considered Valuable are:
• Strategic Resource • Competitive Advantage • Decision Making
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What makes Information a Valuable commodity
• Source of the information • Ease of Assimilation• Accessibility • Frequency of the Information
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Information and communicationCOMMUNICATION
• Seitel (2004) defines communication as a process of exchanging information, imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others. It also includes understanding others in return.
• Lucey (1997) states that Communication involves the interchange of facts, thoughts, value judgments and opinions.
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THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
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SOURCE / MESSAGEDESTINATION /
RECEIVERCHANNEL/MEDIUM
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CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
• Communication generally involves the exchange of information, thoughts, ideas and emotions. This process that involves a senderwho encodes and sends the message, which is then carried via the communication channel to the receiver where the receiver decodesthe message, processes the information and sends an appropriate reply normally via the same communication channel
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CHANNELS/COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
• Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient– The one who formulates the idea/information
is the Sender or The Encoder– The means through which the
idea/information is transmitted is the channel/ message
– The one who receives and translates the idea is the decoder/recipient
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The receiver sends feedback if the message has been well understood. However, during the process, there may be some ‘noise’ or distortion of the message being sent and consequently, the appropriate feedback may not be obtained
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• The process of decoding the message by the receiver can be difficult especially if there is anything that gets in the way of the message.
• Noise could range from lack of clarity of the message, to irrelevant or excessive volumes of information, or incomplete information.
• Feedback is critical to the process of communication. A communicator must get feedback from a receiver to know what messages are or are not getting through
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• The process of decoding the message by the receiver can be difficult especially if there is anything that gets in the way of the message.
• Noise could range from lack of clarity of the message, to irrelevant or excessive volumes of information, or incomplete information.
• Feedback is critical to the process of communication. A communicator must get feedback from a receiver to know what messages are or are not getting through
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Goals of Communication
• Inform • Motivate• Persuade• To build mutual understanding.
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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Oral Communications Written CommunicationElectronic CommunicationVisual Communication
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ORAL COMMUNICATIONS
• Oral communications refer to spoken, verbal or word of mouth transmission.
• Example; Face to face communication, Telephonic Communication . . .
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• Advantages:– It is characteristic of its immediacy and personal
touch, which might be difficult to capture in other forms of communication.
• Disadvantages:– Since it is spoken, there is no written record of what
has been said which can lead to disputes. Also in oral communication the persons involved do not have sufficient time to think through the answers they give. So they could arrive at some decision which they may not have suggested with hindsight.
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Written Communication
• Written communication refers to the written words and can be communicated in writing and sent by e mail, snail mails or memoranda (either printed or handwritten).
• Examples are: Orders, Instructions, Letters, Memos, Reports, Policy manuals, Information Bulletin, Complaint System, Suggestion System, etc.
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• Advantages: – they provide a permanent record of events
which can not be disproved. – It can be a potential record, capable of
extended life and of being used again and again.
• Disadvantages: – it takes time to produce and they tend to be
formal and distant. – They can also cause problems with
interpretation.– Instant feedback is not possible.
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Visual Communication
• Visual communication in part or whole relies on vision. It is described as the transmission of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon.
• It includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour and electronic resources. It also explores the idea that a visual message accompanying text has a greater power to inform, educate, or persuade a person or audience.
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Advantage– They can simplify messages with numbers in them
and be used to illustrate techniques and procedures
Disadvantage– At times, they may be difficult to interpret without
the reinforcement of the written and spoken word.
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• Electronic Communication: – communication that is generated and received
electronically. This communication can be accessed by electronic mail (E-mail), videoconferencing, instant messaging…
• Advantages/disadvantages:– Speed of access; as well as the unlimited access to
global information. – Enhances communication and instant feedback.– It is machine dependent. – Power dependent
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To sum it up…
• All the types of Information could be as important as each other.
• It is always important to consider your intended recipient before you choose your communication type.
• You can also combine the types for clarity
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Combination of VISUAL and WRITTEN
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Think about this….
• Which type of communication can the Braille system be categorised?
• Any Questions so far?
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The five (5) Cs of Communication
ClearCompleteConciseCorrectCourteous
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• Differences in People – Differences in personal, Cultural, Educational, ...– Status differences – Personal biases – Fear and Emotional overtone
• Language
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BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
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Breaking the Barriers of Communication
• With your knowledge so far how do you think some of the barriers of communication can be surmounted?
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