1

Structure of the courseStructure of the course

I. Basic facts

II. Two definitions of national identity that can be applied to Belarus

III. Historical overview: independence and

subordination

IV. Belarus since independence: a

rugged road to nationhood

V. Analysis of national identity in Belarus

VI. Group discussion

2

BelarusBelarus

• ‘The forgotten heart of Europe’

• ‘a natural park of communism’

• the black hole of Europe’

• ‘a denationalised nation’

• ‘a country with a death wish’

3

Belarus: Basic FactsBelarus: Basic Facts

• area: 207.600 km² (landlocked)

• population: 10,4 mio

• population growth rate: -0.15%

• life expectancy: 62 years (m), 68 years (f)

• ethnic groups: 81,2% Belarusian, 11.4% Russian, 7.4% Polish, Ukrainian and other

• religion: 80% Eastern Orthodox, 20% other (Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim etc)

• official languages: Belarussian & Russian

• export partners: Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania

4

Government and Government and PoliticsPolitics

• Government type: Republic

• President: Alyaksandr Lukashenka

• Administrative Divisions: 6 voblastsi and 1 municipality:

Brestkaya, Homyel’skaya, Mahilowskaya, Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya, Horad Minsk

• Constitution: 30 March 1994 - revised by

national referendum 1996

5

Political PartiesPolitical Parties:

Opposition:(in Consultative Council of Parties

• BNF - Belarusian Popular Front (Burshevsky/Vyachorka)

• Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hromada (Shuskevich)

• Agrarian Party (Sharetski) (split 1996)• Belarusian Labour Party• CAB - United Civic Party (Bogdankevich)• Belarusian Party of Communists

Others:

• KPB - Communist Party of Belarus pro-Lukashenka

• BPR - Belarusian Patriotic Movement pro-Lukashenko

• Agrarian Party (Shimanski) pro-Lukashenko• Liberal Democratic Party (Gaydukevich)

extremist party (links with Zhirinovsky)

• Lukashenka: Bezpartyjnyj - no party affiliation, ex- communist

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Executive branchExecutive branch

• Chief of state: Alyaksandr Lukashenka

• Head of Government: Prime Minister Gennady Novitsky

• Minister of Foreign Affairs: Mikhail Khvostov

• Cabinet: Council of Ministers

• Elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; first election in 1994, 2nd election normally in 1999 but Lukashenko extended his term by referendum from 5 to 7 years

• second elections on Sept. 9, 2001 - percent of vote - Lukashenka 75,6%, Hancharyk 15,4%

7

Legislative Branch:Legislative Branch:

bicameral parliament : Natsianal’niy Schod (national assembly) consists of:

• Sovjet Respubliki (Council of the Republic), 64 seats

• Palata Predstavitelej (Chamber of Representatives), 110 seats

instead of previous 450 seats

Judicial BranchJudicial Branch

• Supreme Court: judges appointed by President

• Constitutional Court: half of judges are appointed by President and half of judges are appointed by Chamber of Representatives

8

Basic Question :Basic Question :What kind of National What kind of National

Identity?Identity?

• After independence: it seemed exceptionally difficult for Belarus to develop and establish national identity

• Different part of society have different views upon identity

hence, two possible definitions that can apply on the situation here:

9

Anthony SmithAnthony Smith

• Fundamental features of national identity:

1. a historic territory or homeland

2. common myths and historical memories

3. a common mass public culture

4. common legal rights and duties for all members

5. a common economy with territorial mobility for all members

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Benedict AndersonBenedict Anderson

Imagined CommunitiesImagined Communities

- a nation = an imagined political community

(constructed identity)

- created by the end of the 18th C: many dynasties (Romanovs- Russian Empire)

- begin 19th Century: tendency of self-identification: Romanovs asserted themselves as Great Russians

- next step: imposed this self-identification on their subjects: official nationalism

- in Russian Empire this took place through Russification (also in Belarus)

- this form of Russian identity was followed by and continued in Soviet identity (explicitly and implicitly)

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Historical Development of the Historical Development of the Belarusian stateBelarusian state

6-7th C Kryvichi, Drehovichi, Radzimichi & Yatviagi --Smolensk, Polatsk-Vitsebsk, Turau-Pinsk

10th C ° Rahvalod dynasty – Belarus unscathed duringmongol invasions

14th C Belarus becomes part of the Great Duchy of Lithuania.Belarus retains privileges& language. by 16 th C:distinctive B. culture had developed

1569 Unia Lubelska: Union between Poland and Lithuania

1772-1795 Three partitions of Poland: Belarusian territorybecomes part of Russian Empire 1863 rebellion:Kastus Kalinouski

1905-1914 National revival of Belarus (Nasha Niva) Lutskevichbrothers

25 /3/ 1918 Belarus declares Independence: BelarusianDemocratic Republic (socialist Hramada)

1/1/1919 Soviet Regime Proclaimed

30/12/1922 Belarus = BSSR (Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic)

27/7/1990 Declaration of State Sovereignty

25/8/1991 Declaration of Independence: BSSR = Republic ofBelarus

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Two Important remarks Two Important remarks that should be kept in that should be kept in mind throughout the mind throughout the

course :course :

1. Independence was not a Belarusian tradition: Only two periods of real independence (Rahvalod dynasty & 1918)but actually also under Great Duchy of Lithuania

2. History of Belarus is not exclusively linked to Russia. 4 centuries of relations with the West (Lithuania and Poland: 14th C until end of 18th C

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Cautious national revival in the years before and after Cautious national revival in the years before and after Independence: 1986-1993Independence: 1986-1993

• Influence by perestroika: letter to Gorbi to prevent distinction of B. culture & language

• Increasing criticism of Soviet regime

• 3 issues triggered change:

1. Chernobyl disaster 1986 70% of radioactive fallout on Belarus

2. language question- by mid-70s: 2/3 of Belarusians spoke

Russian in daily life, only 1/3 Belarusian- no Belarusian schools in the 95 cities of

BSSR- 1990 Law on Languages: Belarusian as

state language

3. mass graves in Kurapaty 1988 - archeologist Zyanon Paznyak discovers

graves / execution place of NKVD- many mass demonstrations

14

Cautious national revivalCautious national revival

• 1989: Founding congress of the Belarusian Popular Front (BPF)

in Vilnius former capital of Great Duchy of Lithuania. leader: Zyanon Paznyak

• BPF and other groupings looked West for self-identification: to common history with the Central European Countries and Baltic States (mainly Lithuania)

• 1991: BSSR becomes Republic of Belarus: the people went back to the common myths for the new national symbols

- white-red-white flag of 1918 - coat of arms with knight

(Pahonya)

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Cautious national revival: Problems 1991-Cautious national revival: Problems 1991-19931993

• Ruling class reluctant to change. suspended communist membership but institutions remained the same: nothing really changed.

• Critical mass: internal quarrels (Paznyak vs. Shushkevich) - missed opportunities for BPF

• ideas on national revival mainly among intelligentsia and youth in Minsk: BPF failed to bridge the gap to the country side and reach the mass of the people.

• “The Country was led by an elite, opposed by another elite, while the general masses, conditioned to Soviet Rule, were reduced to passive onlookers” (D. Marples)

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Lukashenka and Neo-Lukashenka and Neo-SovietismSovietism

• Presidential Elections 1994: (other candidates: Shushkevich, Paznyak, Kebich) Lukashenka 80.1% (2nd round)

• opposition: ‘100 day grace period’ formed shadow cabinet from a group of

more than 100 intellectuals supporting BPF policies

• attacked state television and independent media (editors of newspapers replaced)

• spoke invariably Russian : had a totally different view upon national identity

• this also appeared from a referendum he organised: direct attack on Belarusian national identity

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Referendum of May 1995Referendum of May 1995

- Do you agree that Russian Languageshould have an equal status withBelarusian?

83.3%

- Do you support the proposal aboutthe establishment of a new state flagand state symbols of the Republic ofBelarus?

75.1%

- Do you support the actions of thePresident directed toward economicintegration with Russia?

83.3%

- Do you agree with the need tointroduce changes into theConstitution of Belarus anticipatingthe pre-term dissolution of theSupreme Soviet by the President ofBelarus in cases of systematic orgross violations of the constitution?

BUT turnout only 64.8% so in totalelectorate, this would be 54%,48.7%,54%, 50%.

77.7%

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After Referendum:After Referendum:

• Referendum: major success: people rejected national symbols of emerging nation! WHY? Marples: conditioning of electorate during soviet times / successful propaganda of Luskahenka. People still not used to self-initiative& free expression

• Soviet Style Flag and coat of arms• Soviet textbooks reintroduced• Russian became also a state language

introduction of (neo-)Soviet symbols and customs (saturdays as workdays etc)

• Taras Kuzio: ‘sultanism’: president sought to strengthen his powers even more - felt restricted by parliament --> referendum

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Referendum of November 1996Referendum of November 1996amended version of constitution: dissolution of amended version of constitution: dissolution of

unicameral parliament into bicameral: Council of unicameral parliament into bicameral: Council of Republic, Chamber of RepresentativesRepublic, Chamber of Representatives

protests 16-17 November: Russia intervenedprotests 16-17 November: Russia intervenedturnout 84%turnout 84%

YES NO

1. Should the national holiday of Belarus bechanged from 27 July to 3 July, when Belaruswas liberated from Nazi Germany?

88.18% 10.45%

2. Do You support the new Constitution offered bythe President, which would extend his term inoffice from 5 to 7 years; permit him to appointhalf the members of the Constitutional Court andthe electoral Commission, in addition to a newupper house of 64 senators, while the number ofseats in the parliament would be reduced to 110?

70.45% 9.39%

3. Do You support the unrestricted buying andselling of land?

15.35% 82.88%

4. Should the Death Penalty be abolished? 17.93% 80.44%

5. Do you support the draft referendum offered bythe parliamentary deputies that would abolishthe office of President

7.93% 71.20%

6. Do You support the election of regional leaders?[appointed by the President]

28.14% 69.92%

7. Do You approve of funding for state institutionsdirectly from the budget?

32.18% 65.85%

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Success: Lukash. made unicameral parliament into bicameral parl. opposition collapsed, virt. Outlawed.

from weak democracy towards authoritarianism Charity & public org. harassed through financial inspection

EU reaction to ReferendumEU reaction to Referendum Did not recognise new, amended Constitution

SANCTIONS - PCA was not conluded, nor was its trade-

related part (Interim Agreement) - Belarusian membership of the Council of

Europe was not supported - Bilateral Relations at the Ministerial level were

suspended - EU technical assistance programmes were

frozen (except humanitarian aid, regional programmes and programmes directly benefiting the democratic process)

1999: STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH Sanctions would be gradually lifted upon

fulfilment of the four benchmarks set by the OSCE:

1. Substantial powers returned to Parliament 2. Opposition representation in electoral

commissions 3. Fair access to the state media for the

opposition 4. Electoral legislation conforming to

international standards --> some positive developments, but not all

requirements have been fulfilled

US: angry reaction after 1st secr. Arrested & declared persona non grata - another incident 1998: embassies

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Belarus - RussiaBelarus - Russia

• Recognised National Assembly

• 1st years of independence: Belarus was 1 of most heavily milit. Countries in Eur. - wanted non-nuclear, neutral status

• PCA, START I, non-polif.treaty, PfP

• 1996 rel. W deteriorated (NATO enlarg Poland, Hungary)

• rappr Russia in different steps (see other slide)

• not bad in eyes of B. people: ec. Depend. 66% of Belarus exports go to Russia‘the Assembly shop of the Soviet Union’: raw materials were made into finished products :Belarus relies heavily on CIS-Russia markets for raw materials and components

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Relations with RussiaRelations with Russia

12 April 1994 Russia and Belarus announce a monetary Union(abandoned by Russia later that year)

January 1995 Russia and Belarus form a Customs Union

2 April 1996 Belarus and Russia announce the creation of aCommunity of Sovereign Republics

2 April 1997 Belarus and Russia sign an Act of Union (ratifiedby Parliaments in both countries in June 1997)

26 May 1997 Russia-Belarus Union Charter signed byLukashenko and Yeltsin (goes into effect on June11)

25 December 1998 President Yeltsin and President Lukashenka signa declaration of further Unification of Russia andBelarus, a Treaty between the RF and the Republicof Belarus on equal rights for citizens, and anagreement on the creation of equal conditions foreconomic entities

8 December 1999 Treaty on the Formation of a Union State

November 2000 President Lukashenka and President Putin agreeon a single currency by 2005

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Contents of the UnionContents of the Union

2 April 1996: Community of Sovereign Republics

• Countries combine policies in areas like

- foreign policy - economic reforms - transport - energy - development of a single currency.

• Treaty created 3 new organs:

Supreme Council Executive Committee Parliamentary Assembly

• BUT: Union mainly on paper - lower involvement of Russia under Putin?

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Belarus-RussiaBelarus-Russia

• Pessimistic Scenario: Belarus as 90th subject of Russian

Federation

• Union State = pet project of Lukashenka

• financial support through energy subsidies

• change under Putin but Belarus still geostrategic importance

• so: pro-merging economies / drafting of constitutional act

25

National IdentityNational Identity• Belarus: country divided over its national

identity: a denationalised nation?

1. Lukashenko & ruling class - (Neo-)Soviet Identity

- reinstating official nationalism: soviet style suymbols

- Russification: Russian-language education and main state language

Lukashenko strives for a neo-Soviet identity. Isolates Belarus both from democratic West

and Democratising East: Belarus as an Imagined Community

(Anderson)

26

2. Intelligentsia and young generation: Smith’s National identity

1. Belarus as their homeland/historic territory

2. shared common myths (times of independence)

3. common mass public culture: weekly ‘Pahonya’ (until 2002) and Nasha Niva (°1991, orig. 1906) - underground network

4. common legal rights and duties for all members: human rights aspect

5. common economy : independent Belarusian economy: vehemently opposed to merging economy with Russia: neo colonialism

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• Anderson’s Imagined Communities Lukashenka- Neo Sovietism

• identity as an

arena for the play of rhetorical practices of political actors

• constructivist view: identity is constructed, tied to civic and political commonalities of a group

• Smith’s definition of national identity opposition’s view on national identity

• primordialist

view: identity is fixed and inherited by territorial and historical commonalities

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National IdentityNational Identity

• Current situation is temporary, not hopeless

• process of growing national identity is irreversible

• opposition is silenced but strong• which path for ideas and support? - exclusively Western - or Russian path as well?• Opening a Russian channel could be

an option for high politics (not for opposition): change of policy, cooperating constructively: through Russia?

• Russia has most influence, Putin is pragmatic when it comes to good relations with West

• 2 problems: - make it an issue on the EU-Russia

agenda - what are Russia’s intentions with

Belarus?

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DiscussionDiscussion

Concerning CIS

• Do you think that the reluctant attitude of Ukraine towards Russia and the positive attitude of Belarus towards Russia is identity-related in the way it was presented here? (constructed or primordial identity that determines attitude)