1

BelarusBelarusStructure of the CourseStructure of the Course

I. Basic facts

II. Two definitions of national identity that can be applied to Belarus

III. Historical overview: independence and subordination

IV. Belarus since independence: a rugged road to nationhood

V. Analysis of national identity in Belarus

VI. Group discussion

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Belarus: Basic FactsBelarus: Basic Facts

• area: 207.600 km² (landlocked)

• population: 10,4 mio

• population growth rate: -0.15%

• life expectancy: 62 years (m), 68 years (f)

• ethnic groups: 81,2% Belarusian, 11.4% Russian, 7.4% Polish, Ukrainian and other

• religion: 80% Eastern Orthodox, 20% other (Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim etc)

• official languages: Belarussian & Russian

• export partners: Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania

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Government and PoliticsGovernment and Politics

• Government type: Republic

• President: Alyaksandr Lukashenka

• Administrative Divisions: 6 voblastsi and 1 municipality: Brestskaya,

Homyel’skaya, Mahilowskaya, Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya, Horad Minsk

• Constitution: 30 March 1994 - revised by national referendum

1996

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Political PartiesPolitical Parties:: Opposition:• BNF - Belarusian Popular Front (Burshevsky/Vyachorka)• Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hromada (Shuskevich)• CAB - United Civic Party (Bogdankevich)• Agrarian Party (Sharetski)• Belarusian Labour Party• Belarusian Party of Communists

Others:• KPB - Communist Party of Belarus pro-Lukashenka• BPR - Belarusian Patriotic Movement pro-Lukashenka• Agrarian Party (Shimanski) pro-Lukashenka• Liberal Democratic Party (Gaydukevich) extremist party

(links with Zhirinovsky)• Lukashenka: Bezpartyjnyj - no party affiliation, ex-

communist

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Executive branchExecutive branch• Chief of state: Alyaksandr Lukashenka

• Head of Government: Prime Minister Gennady Novitsky

• Minister of Foreign Affairs: Mikhail Khvostov

• Cabinet: Council of Ministers

• Elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; first election in 1994, 2nd election should have been in 1999 but Lukashenka extended his term by referendum from 5 to 7 years

• second elections on Sept. 9, 2001 - percent of vote - Lukashenka 75,6%, Hancharyk 15,4%

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Legislative Branch:Legislative Branch: bicameral parliament : Natsianal’niy Schod (national

assembly):

• Sovjet Respubliki (Council of the Republic), 64 seats • Palata Predstavitelej (Chamber of Representatives), 110

seats instead of previous 450 seats

Judicial BranchJudicial Branch

• Supreme Court: judges appointed by President

• Constitutional Court: half of judges are appointed by President and half of judges are appointed by Chamber of Representatives

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National Identity?National Identity?

• After independence: difficult for Belarus to develop and establish

its national identity

• Different parts of society have different views upon identity

two possible definitions:

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Anthony Smith (1991)Anthony Smith (1991)

• Fundamental features of national identity:

1. a historic territory or homeland

2. common myths and historical memories

3. a common mass public culture

4. common legal rights and duties for all members

5. a common economy with territorial mobility for all members

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Benedict Anderson (1991)Benedict Anderson (1991)

Imagined CommunitiesImagined Communities

- a nation = an imagined political community (constructed identity)

- end 18th C: Romanov dynasty - Russian Empire

- begin 19th Century: self-identification: Romanovs = Great Russians

- next step: imposed this on their subjects: official nationalism

- in Russian Empire: through Russification (also in Belarus)

- Russian identity followed by and continued in Soviet identity

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Historical OverviewHistorical Overview

6-7th C Kryvichi, Drehovichi, Radzimichi & Yatviagi -- Smolensk,Polatsk-Vitsebsk, Turau-Pinsk

10th C ° Rahvalod dynasty

14th C Belarus becomes part of the Great Duchy of Lithuania

1569 Unia Lubelska: Union between Poland and Lithuania

1772-1795 Three partitions of Poland: Belarusian territory becomes part ofRussian Empire

1905-1914 National revival of Belarus

25 /3/ 1918 Belarus declares Independence: Belarusian DemocraticRepublic

1/1/1919 Soviet Regime Proclaimed

30/12/1922 Belarus BSSR (Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic)

27/7/1990 Declaration of State Sovereignty

25/8/1991 Declaration of Independence: BSSR = Republic of Belarus

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Two Remarks:Two Remarks:

1. Only two periods of real independence : Rahvalod dynasty & 1918

2. History of Belarus is not exclusively linked to

Russia. 4 centuries of relations with West (mainly Lithuania/Poland)

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Cautious national revival: 1986-1993Cautious national revival: 1986-1993

• Intelligentsia influenced by perestroika• 3 issues triggered change:

1. Chernobyl disaster 1986 70% of radioactive fallout on Belarus

2. Language question- by mid-70s: 2/3 of Belarusians spoke Russian in daily

life, only 1/3 Belarusian

3. Mass graves in Kurapaty 1988 - archeologist Zyanon Paznyak discovers graves- mass demonstrations

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Cautious national revivalCautious national revival

• 1989: Founding congress of Belarusian Popular Front (BPF)

in Vilnius. leader: Zyanon Paznyak

• BPF and other groupings looked West for national identity: to common history with the Central European Countries and Baltic States (mainly Lithuania)

• 1991: ° Republic of Belarus: common myths - new national symbols

- white-red-white flag of 1918 - coat of arms with knight (Pahonya) Belarus -

Great Duchy of Lithuania

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Cautious national revival:Cautious national revival:

Problems 1991-1993

• Ruling class: reluctant to change

• internal quarrels (Paznyak vs. Shushkevich) - missed opportunities for BPF

• BPF failed to bridge the gap to the countryside

• “The Country was led by an elite, opposed by another elite, while the general masses, conditioned to Soviet Rule, were reduced to passive onlookers” (D. Marples)

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Lukashenka and Neo-SovietismLukashenka and Neo-Sovietism

• Presidential Elections 1994: Lukashenka 80.1%

• opposition: ‘100 day grace period’ shadow cabinet

• Lukashenka attacked state television and independent media

• spoke invariably Russian :

different view upon national identity (than opposition)

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Referendum of May 1995Referendum of May 1995

- Do you agree that Russian Language should have an equal status withBelarusian?

- Do you support the proposal about the establishment of a new state flag andstate symbols of the Republic of Belarus?

- Do you support the actions of the President directed toward economicintegration with Russia?

- Do you agree with the need to introduce changes into the Constitution ofBelarus anticipating the pre-term dissolution of the Supreme Soviet by thePresident of Belarus in cases of systematic or gross violations of theconstitution?

BUT turnout 64.8% so in total electorate, this would be 54%,48.7%, 54%, 50%.

83.3%

75.1%

83.3%

77.7%

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After Referendum:After Referendum:

• Referendum: success - why?

• Soviet Style Flag and coat of arms

• Soviet textbooks reintroduced

• Russian became also a state language

introduction of (neo-)Soviet symbols and customs

• Taras Kuzio: ‘sultanism’

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Referendum of November 1996Referendum of November 1996Turnout 84%

YES NO

1. Should the national holiday of Belarus be changed from 27 July to 3 July, whenBelarus was liberated from Nazi Germany?

88.18% 10.45%

2. Do You support the new Constitution offered by the President, which wouldextend his term in office from 5 to 7 years; permit him to appoint half themembers of the Constitutional Court and the electoral Commission, in additionto a new upper house of 64 senators, while the number of seats in the parliamentwould be reduced to 110?

70.45% 9.39%

3. Do You support the unrestricted buying and selling of land? 15.35% 82.88%

4. Should the Death Penalty be abolished? 17.93% 80.44%

5. Do you support the draft referendum offered by the parliamentary deputies thatwould abolish the office of President

7.93% 71.20%

6. Do You support the election of regional leaders? [appointed by the President] 28.14% 69.92%

7. Do You approve of funding for state institutions directly from the budget? 32.18% 65.85%

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EU reaction to ReferendumEU reaction to Referendum

Did not recognise new, amended Constitution SANCTIONS

- PCA not conluded, nor Interim Agreement - Belarusian membership of the Council of Europe not supported - Bilateral Relations at Ministerial level suspended - EU technical assistance programmes frozen

1999: STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH

Sanctions gradually lifted upon fulfilment of 4 benchmarks set by OSCE:

1. Substantial powers returned to Parliament 2. Opposition representation in electoral commissions 3. Fair access to the state media for the opposition 4. Electoral legislation conforming to international standards

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Belarus-RussiaBelarus-Russia

• Recognised National Assembly

• 1st years of independence: Belarus 1 of most heavily militarised countries in Europe - wanted non-nuclear, neutral status

• PCA, START I, PfP

• 1996 relations with West deteriorated (NATO enlargement)

• rapprochement with Russia

• economic dependence: - 66% of Belarus exports go to Russia - ‘the Assembly shop of the Soviet Union’

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Relations with RussiaRelations with Russia

94 Monetary Union Russia - Belarus (abandoned by Russia later that year)

995 Customs Union

6 Creation of a Community of Sovereign Republics

7 Belarus and Russia sign an Act of Union

Russia-Belarus Union Charter signed by Lukashenko and Yeltsin (goes into effect on June 11)

er 1998 Declaration of further Unification of Russia and Belarus, a Treaty between the RF and the Republicof Belarus on equal rights for citizens, and an agreement on the creation of equal conditions foreconomic entities

r 1999 Treaty on the Formation of a Union State

2000 President Lukashenka and President Putin agree on a single currency by 2005

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Belarus-RussiaBelarus-Russia

• Pessimistic Scenario: Belarus as 90th subject of Russian Federation

• Union State = pet project of Lukashenka

• financial support through energy subsidies

• change under Putin but Belarus still geostrategic importance

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National IdentityNational Identity

1. Lukashenka & ruling class - (Neo-)Soviet Identity 1. Lukashenka & ruling class - (Neo-)Soviet Identity

- reinstating official nationalism: Soviet-style symbols

- Russification: Russian-language education and main state language

Lukashenka strives for a neo-Soviet identity.

Isolates Belarus both from democratic West and democratising East:

Belarus as an Imagined Community (Anderson)

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2. Intelligentsia and young generation: Smith’s National identity

1. Belarus as their homeland/historic territory

2. shared common myths (times of independence)

3. common mass public culture: weekly ‘Pahonya’ and Nasha Niva (°1991, orig. 1906) - underground network

4. common legal rights and duties for all members: human rights aspect

5. common economy : independent Belarusian economy: opposed to merging economy with Russia

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• Anderson’s Imagined Communities Lukashenka- Neo Sovietism

• identity as an arena for the

play of rhetorical practices of political actors

• constructivist view: identity is constructed, tied to civic and political commonalities of a group

• Smith’s definition of national identity opposition’s view on national identity

• primordialist view: identity

is fixed and inherited by territorial and historical commonalities

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National IdentityNational Identity

• Current situation: not hopeless

• irreversible process of growing national identity

• which path for ideas and support? - exclusively Western - or also Russian path?

• Russian channel: option for high politics: cooperating through Russia?

• 2 problems: - make it an issue on the EU-Russia agenda - Russia’s intentions with Belarus?

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DiscussionDiscussion

CIS

• Do you think that the reluctant attitude of Ukraine towards Russia and the positive attitude of Belarus towards Russia is identity-related in the way it was presented here?