1 session iii - sw23a theoretical framework/ models of social policy

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Session III - SW23A Session III - SW23A

Theoretical Framework/ Models Theoretical Framework/ Models of Social Policyof Social Policy

ObjectivesObjectives

Explain at models of Social PolicyExplain at models of Social Policy Comparing welfare states internationally and Comparing welfare states internationally and

RegionallyRegionally Analyse the sorts of social policy systems that Analyse the sorts of social policy systems that

exist in the Caribbean and exist in the Caribbean and Conclude the best model for the nations of the Conclude the best model for the nations of the

Region.Region.

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The Welfare StateThe Welfare State

The idea of the "welfare state" means different The idea of the "welfare state" means different things in different countries. things in different countries.

An ideal model.An ideal model. The "welfare state" usually The "welfare state" usually refers to an ideal model of provision, where refers to an ideal model of provision, where the state accepts responsibility for the the state accepts responsibility for the provision of comprehensive and universal provision of comprehensive and universal welfare for its citizens.welfare for its citizens.

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The Welfare StateThe Welfare State State welfareState welfare. Some commentators use it to . Some commentators use it to

mean "welfare provided by the state". This is the mean "welfare provided by the state". This is the main use in the USA.main use in the USA.

Social protectionSocial protection. In many "welfare states", . In many "welfare states", notably those in Western Europe and notably those in Western Europe and Scandinavia, social protection is not delivered Scandinavia, social protection is not delivered only by the state, but by a combination of only by the state, but by a combination of government, independent, voluntary, and government, independent, voluntary, and autonomous public services. These countries are autonomous public services. These countries are usually thought of as "welfare states". usually thought of as "welfare states".

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Comparing Welfare States - Comparing Welfare States - MitchellMitchell

Comparison of policyComparison of policy, comparing the explicit , comparing the explicit terms in which actions are taken. Flora and terms in which actions are taken. Flora and Heidenheimer review the historical Heidenheimer review the historical development of welfare in Europe and development of welfare in Europe and America. They find that welfare in different America. They find that welfare in different countries often develops on similar lines. countries often develops on similar lines.

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Comparison of inputsComparison of inputs. Inputs are the resources . Inputs are the resources which go into welfare provision. For example, which go into welfare provision. For example, Wilensky's work on welfare spending shows that Wilensky's work on welfare spending shows that the main determinants are the age of the system the main determinants are the age of the system and the structure of the population. and the structure of the population.

Comparing productionComparing production. Different states operate . Different states operate different kinds of rules and structures. Esping-different kinds of rules and structures. Esping-Andersen uses evidence on the organisation and Andersen uses evidence on the organisation and delivery of specific services to define positions delivery of specific services to define positions adopted by different welfare states. adopted by different welfare states. 66


Comparing operationsComparing operations. This is done by . This is done by considering the detailed operation of benefits and considering the detailed operation of benefits and services - what they do, how they are paid for, services - what they do, how they are paid for, and who runs them. and who runs them.

Comparing outcomesComparing outcomes. The case can be made that . The case can be made that what matters about welfare is not what is what matters about welfare is not what is intended, nor what the process is, but whether or intended, nor what the process is, but whether or not people benefit from it. not people benefit from it.

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The United Kingdom: The The United Kingdom: The Welfare State Welfare State

Asa Briggs, in a classic essay on the British Asa Briggs, in a classic essay on the British welfare state, identified three principal welfare state, identified three principal elements. These were:elements. These were:

a guarantee of minimum standards, including a a guarantee of minimum standards, including a minimum income; minimum income;

social protection in the event of insecurity; and social protection in the event of insecurity; and the provision of services at the best level the provision of services at the best level

possible.possible.

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The United Kingdom: The The United Kingdom: The Welfare State Welfare State

‘‘Institutional' model of welfare: the key Institutional' model of welfare: the key elements are social protection, and the provision elements are social protection, and the provision of welfare services on the basis of right.of welfare services on the basis of right.

In practice, social welfare in the United In practice, social welfare in the United Kingdom is very different from this ideal. Kingdom is very different from this ideal. Coverage is extensive, but benefits and services Coverage is extensive, but benefits and services are delivered at a low level. The social are delivered at a low level. The social protection provided is patchy, and services are protection provided is patchy, and services are tightly rationed.tightly rationed.

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Germany: The Social MarketGermany: The Social Market

The post-war German settlement was based on The post-war German settlement was based on the idea of a 'social state', sometimes rendered the idea of a 'social state', sometimes rendered as a 'social market economy'. as a 'social market economy'.

The first, central principle was that economic The first, central principle was that economic development was the best way to achieve development was the best way to achieve social welfare. social welfare.

The structure of social services had to reflect The structure of social services had to reflect this priority. this priority.

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Germany: The Social MarketGermany: The Social Market The principle is represented most clearly in the The principle is represented most clearly in the

close relationship of services to people's position close relationship of services to people's position in the labour market. in the labour market.

Social benefits are earnings-related, and those Social benefits are earnings-related, and those without work records may find they are not without work records may find they are not covered for important contingencies. covered for important contingencies.

Less clear, but probably even more important, is Less clear, but probably even more important, is the general concern to ensure that public the general concern to ensure that public expenditure on welfare is directly compatible expenditure on welfare is directly compatible with the need for economic development and with the need for economic development and growth.growth.

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Germany: The Social MarketGermany: The Social Market Second, the German economy, and the welfare Second, the German economy, and the welfare

system, developed through a corporatist structure. system, developed through a corporatist structure. This principle was developed by Bismarck on the This principle was developed by Bismarck on the

basis of existing mutual aid associations, and basis of existing mutual aid associations, and remained the basis for social protection remained the basis for social protection subsequently. subsequently.

Social insurance, which covers the costs of health, Social insurance, which covers the costs of health, some social care and much of the income some social care and much of the income maintenance system, is managed by a system of maintenance system, is managed by a system of independent funds.independent funds.

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Germany: The Social MarketGermany: The Social Market Third, there is a strong emphasis on the principle Third, there is a strong emphasis on the principle

of "subsidiarity". of "subsidiarity". This principle is taken in Germany to mean both This principle is taken in Germany to mean both

that services should be decentralised or that services should be decentralised or independently managed, and that the level of state independently managed, and that the level of state intervention should be residual - that is, limited to intervention should be residual - that is, limited to circumstances which are not adequately covered circumstances which are not adequately covered in other ways. in other ways.

Higher earners are not covered by the main social Higher earners are not covered by the main social insurance system, but are left to make their own insurance system, but are left to make their own arrangements.arrangements.

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France: Solidarity and insertionFrance: Solidarity and insertion Social protection in France is based on the Social protection in France is based on the

principle of solidarity: the commitment is principle of solidarity: the commitment is declared in the first article of the French Code of declared in the first article of the French Code of Social Security. Social Security.

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France: Solidarity and insertionFrance: Solidarity and insertion The principle is used to refer to co-operative The principle is used to refer to co-operative

mutual support. mutual support. Some writers apply the term in relation to Some writers apply the term in relation to

'mutualist' groups (friendly societies) and 'mutualist' groups (friendly societies) and emphasise that people insured within national emphasise that people insured within national schemes are called to contribute and benefit on an schemes are called to contribute and benefit on an equal footing. equal footing.

Others stress that relationships of solidarity are Others stress that relationships of solidarity are based in interdependence. Solidarity is usually based in interdependence. Solidarity is usually understood, in this context, in terms of common understood, in this context, in terms of common action, mutual responsibility and shared risks.action, mutual responsibility and shared risks.

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France: Solidarity and insertionFrance: Solidarity and insertion The pursuit of 'national solidarity' was undertaken The pursuit of 'national solidarity' was undertaken

in the first place by attempting to extend the scope in the first place by attempting to extend the scope of existing solidarities, most notably through the of existing solidarities, most notably through the creation of a 'régime général' for health and social creation of a 'régime général' for health and social security, and subsequently through its progressive security, and subsequently through its progressive expansion. expansion.

Since the 1970s this pattern of solidarities has Since the 1970s this pattern of solidarities has been supplemented by additional measures been supplemented by additional measures designed to bring 'excluded' people into the net. designed to bring 'excluded' people into the net.

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France: Solidarity and insertionFrance: Solidarity and insertion The most important of these measures is the The most important of these measures is the

Revenu Minimum d'InsertionRevenu Minimum d'Insertion (RMI), introduced (RMI), introduced in 1988, which combines a basic benefit with a in 1988, which combines a basic benefit with a personal contract for 'insertion' or social personal contract for 'insertion' or social inclusion.inclusion.

In recent years there has been a greater emphasis In recent years there has been a greater emphasis on "active solidarity", which puts more stress on on "active solidarity", which puts more stress on the individual responsibility of unemployed the individual responsibility of unemployed people.people.

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France: Solidarity and insertionFrance: Solidarity and insertion This kind of arrangement is relatively expensive, This kind of arrangement is relatively expensive,

and much of the focus of social policy in recent and much of the focus of social policy in recent years has fallen on the control of expenditure. years has fallen on the control of expenditure.

The main areas of concern are not dependency or The main areas of concern are not dependency or unemployment, but pensions, because of the unemployment, but pensions, because of the special privileges accorded to particular special privileges accorded to particular occupational groups, and spending on health care, occupational groups, and spending on health care, where the stress on independent, market-led where the stress on independent, market-led services presents considerable problems in cost services presents considerable problems in cost control.control.

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The United States: A 'liberal' regimeThe United States: A 'liberal' regime

The United States is sometimes described as a The United States is sometimes described as a ‘liberal' welfare regime, in the sense that it ‘liberal' welfare regime, in the sense that it represents individualism, laissez-faire, represents individualism, laissez-faire, residualism and a punitive view of poverty. residualism and a punitive view of poverty.

These issues dominate US debates on welfare: These issues dominate US debates on welfare: examples are the introduction of 'workfare', the examples are the introduction of 'workfare', the exclusion of long-term benefit dependents, and exclusion of long-term benefit dependents, and the criticism of the 'underclass'.the criticism of the 'underclass'.

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The United States: A 'liberal' regimeThe United States: A 'liberal' regime

The US does not have a unified welfare system. The US does not have a unified welfare system. Federalism has meant that many important Federalism has meant that many important

functions are held by the various States, including functions are held by the various States, including public assistance, social care and various health public assistance, social care and various health schemes.schemes.

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The United States: A 'liberal' regimeThe United States: A 'liberal' regime By comparison with other developed countries, By comparison with other developed countries,

central government has had a limited role in social central government has had a limited role in social welfare provision: the main developments of federal welfare provision: the main developments of federal provision were during the Roosevelt administration provision were during the Roosevelt administration of the 1930s, which laid the foundations for the of the 1930s, which laid the foundations for the social security system, and the "War on Poverty" of social security system, and the "War on Poverty" of the 1960s, which provided some important benefits the 1960s, which provided some important benefits (notably health care for people on low incomes) and (notably health care for people on low incomes) and engaged the federal government in a wide variety of engaged the federal government in a wide variety of projects and activities at local level.projects and activities at local level.

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The United States: A 'liberal' regimeThe United States: A 'liberal' regime The US is pluralistic, rather than liberal. The US is pluralistic, rather than liberal. There are significant departures from the residual There are significant departures from the residual

model - e.g. state schooling, social insurance, or model - e.g. state schooling, social insurance, or services for military personnel, veterans and their services for military personnel, veterans and their families, which provide for more than 60 million families, which provide for more than 60 million people. people.

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The United States: A 'liberal' regimeThe United States: A 'liberal' regime In addition to federal and state activity, there are In addition to federal and state activity, there are

extensive private, mutualist and corporate interests extensive private, mutualist and corporate interests in welfare provision. in welfare provision.

The resulting systems are complex (and expensive): The resulting systems are complex (and expensive): the guiding principle is less one of consistent the guiding principle is less one of consistent individualism than what Klass has called individualism than what Klass has called "decentralised social altruism". "decentralised social altruism".

Diversity and complexity come at a price, and Diversity and complexity come at a price, and despite - or perhaps because of - political hostility to despite - or perhaps because of - political hostility to welfare provision, the US system is also unusually welfare provision, the US system is also unusually expensive. expensive.

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The United States: A 'liberal' regimeThe United States: A 'liberal' regime See Obamacare case study.See Obamacare case study.

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Theoretical FrameworkTheoretical Framework

A collection of interrelated concepts like a A collection of interrelated concepts like a theory.theory.

Guides research, determining what will be Guides research, determining what will be measured and what relationships sought.measured and what relationships sought.

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Theoretical FrameworksTheoretical Frameworks

Theoretical FrameworksTheoretical Frameworks (Hall & Midgely 2004, 24) (Hall & Midgely 2004, 24)

1. Representational Theory 1. Representational Theory – simplifies complex – simplifies complex social policy phenomena to promote a better social policy phenomena to promote a better understanding of different approaches to Social Policyunderstanding of different approaches to Social Policy

2. Explanatory or Analytical Theory – seeks to 2. Explanatory or Analytical Theory – seeks to explain the nature of social policy and the explain the nature of social policy and the rationale for policy decisions. Examines role of rationale for policy decisions. Examines role of industrialisation, capitalism, social protests etc.industrialisation, capitalism, social protests etc.

Theoretical FrameworksTheoretical Frameworks3. Normative Theory – provides a value framework 3. Normative Theory – provides a value framework

for social policy which identifies the values, for social policy which identifies the values, ideologies and political objectives which ideologies and political objectives which underlie social policy approaches.underlie social policy approaches.

Midgely identified three ideologies which influence Midgely identified three ideologies which influence three different approaches to SPthree different approaches to SP

Collectivism – Statist approach – Collectivism – Statist approach – -Institutional-welfarist approach-Institutional-welfarist approachIndividualism – Enterprise approachIndividualism – Enterprise approachPopulism - Community /Empowerment Populism - Community /Empowerment Development approachDevelopment approach 2727

Representational TheoryRepresentational Theory Willensky and Lebeaux (1965) – earliest model, called the Willensky and Lebeaux (1965) – earliest model, called the

Residual-Institutional model had two categories. This was Residual-Institutional model had two categories. This was modified by Titmuss who created a three-pronged model in modified by Titmuss who created a three-pronged model in 1974.1974.

1. Residual Welfare Model of Social Policy1. Residual Welfare Model of Social Policy 2. Industrial Achievement-Performance2. Industrial Achievement-Performance 3. Institutional Redistributive3. Institutional Redistributive

Residual and Institutional Redistributive models are at Residual and Institutional Redistributive models are at extreme ends of spectrumextreme ends of spectrum

Usually a blend of models is usedUsually a blend of models is used Ideology of the political party in power, and fiscal constraints largely Ideology of the political party in power, and fiscal constraints largely

determine which model is applied determine which model is applied 2828

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Residual ModelResidual Model Social policy provisions begin only when Social policy provisions begin only when

private market and family fail to meet private market and family fail to meet individual’s needsindividual’s needs

The basis for this model is the English Poor The basis for this model is the English Poor Laws - see Spicker (2008), G. Cumper (1987) Laws - see Spicker (2008), G. Cumper (1987) which was punitivewhich was punitive

Concerned with providing for very needy/ Concerned with providing for very needy/ poverty oriented model (selectivity) – “those poverty oriented model (selectivity) – “those who can pay, should pay”who can pay, should pay”

Residual ModelResidual Model

Marginal role for social welfareMarginal role for social welfare

In JA, examples are cost-sharing introduced in In JA, examples are cost-sharing introduced in the mid 80s in social services like health and the mid 80s in social services like health and education and the Programme for Advancement education and the Programme for Advancement through Health and Education –PATH through Health and Education –PATH

The Residual model sees welfare as being a The Residual model sees welfare as being a temporary safety net. temporary safety net.

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Welfare intervention is meant to be temporary, Welfare intervention is meant to be temporary, to help persons while they “get back on the feet”to help persons while they “get back on the feet”

In Jamaica a Steps to Work programme has been In Jamaica a Steps to Work programme has been introduced to provide skills training to introduced to provide skills training to beneficiaries to reduce the time spent on PATH. beneficiaries to reduce the time spent on PATH. Beneficiaries are re-assessed and some removed. Beneficiaries are re-assessed and some removed.

In the US, welfare beneficiaries are expected to In the US, welfare beneficiaries are expected to find work within a specified time period.find work within a specified time period.

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PATHPATH Targeting of the poor is utilised – Ministry of Targeting of the poor is utilised – Ministry of

Labour and Social Security.Labour and Social Security.

Under PATH Means testing is used to determine Under PATH Means testing is used to determine eligibility for assistance, i.e. poverty status. eligibility for assistance, i.e. poverty status. Applicants must complete a detailed form at the Applicants must complete a detailed form at the PATH office. Data entered into PATH PATH office. Data entered into PATH Beneficiary Identification System (BIS)Beneficiary Identification System (BIS) and a and a score is generatedscore is generated. .

PATH is funded by GOJ and a World Bank Loan. Visit PATH is funded by GOJ and a World Bank Loan. Visit www.mlss.gov.jm for more details for more details

PATHPATH The score determines the applicant’s The score determines the applicant’s

qualification for benefits. A home visit qualification for benefits. A home visit is then done to confirm the applicant’s is then done to confirm the applicant’s status before payments begin.status before payments begin.

Conditional TransfersConditional Transfers Beneficiaries must fulfill certain Beneficiaries must fulfill certain

obligations to receive benefitsobligations to receive benefits

PATHPATH Children on PATH must have 85% school Children on PATH must have 85% school

attendance (should not be absent for more attendance (should not be absent for more than 3 days per month) and must fulfill a than 3 days per month) and must fulfill a schedule of health centre visits. schedule of health centre visits.

Adults also have to attend their health centre Adults also have to attend their health centre at specified periods. at specified periods.

This approach aims to increase the human This approach aims to increase the human capital of the poor and break the capital of the poor and break the intergenerational transmission of poverty.intergenerational transmission of poverty.

PATHPATHPATH BeneficiariesPATH Beneficiaries Children:Children: from birth to completion of secondary from birth to completion of secondary

education; a post-secondary training grant of $15,000 just education; a post-secondary training grant of $15,000 just introduced introduced

Elderly:Elderly: 60 years or over, and not in receipt of a pension 60 years or over, and not in receipt of a pension Persons with Disabilities Persons with Disabilities Pregnant and Lactating Women Pregnant and Lactating Women Poor Adults 18-59 yearsPoor Adults 18-59 years

Trinidad has a similar programme called their Trinidad has a similar programme called their Conditional Cash Transfer Programme (CCTP) Conditional Cash Transfer Programme (CCTP) uses a swipe carduses a swipe card

PATHPATH PATH monthly cash transfers for children paid every

other month (1 June 2010) Grade Boys Girls

1 to 6 $825.00 $750.007 to 9 $1,075.00 $975.0010 to13 $1,265.00 $1,150.00

Children 0 to 6 years receive $750.00 per month. All other beneficiaries receive $900.00 per month.

For secondary school children GOJ may pay the auxillary fees if parents apply to PATH for assistance, but this help is not automatic.

PATHPATH Between December 2002 and August 2008, the Between December 2002 and August 2008, the

value of the PATH grants was standardized for value of the PATH grants was standardized for all categories of beneficiaries. all categories of beneficiaries.

In December 2008, the system of differentiated In December 2008, the system of differentiated benefits was introduced for children receiving benefits was introduced for children receiving Education Grants, to encourage school Education Grants, to encourage school attendance and school retention at the attendance and school retention at the secondary level.secondary level.

PATHPATH Children who do not meet the attendance

requirements will be deemed non-compliant and the PATH benefit will be withdrawn.

A base benefit of $400.00 per month was introduced in June 2010 to assist non-compliant beneficiaries.

The remainder of the benefit is paid upon The remainder of the benefit is paid upon achievement of the required compliance achievement of the required compliance conditionalities.conditionalities.

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PATHPATH Children who go to school receive nutritional

support.

PATH sends money to school for lunch for PATH beneficiaries but money only covers lunch for 2-3 days per week

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PATHPATH

Cabinet gave approval in March 2011 for Cabinet gave approval in March 2011 for 4,000 children in government-run pre-primary 4,000 children in government-run pre-primary institutions to be added to PATH’s Nutritional institutions to be added to PATH’s Nutritional Support Project. Support Project.

Twenty eight point eight million dollars was Twenty eight point eight million dollars was allocated for the programme in the 2011/2012 allocated for the programme in the 2011/2012 budget.budget.

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PATHPATH

Post Secondary School GrantPost Secondary School Grant In October 2009, PATH introduced a grant of In October 2009, PATH introduced a grant of

$15,000 to assist PATH students who are $15,000 to assist PATH students who are transitioning from a secondary to a post-transitioning from a secondary to a post-secondary institution.secondary institution.

This is a one-time grant which is provided to This is a one-time grant which is provided to assist PATH students who have graduated assist PATH students who have graduated from a secondary school and who are moving from a secondary school and who are moving on to post secondary training.on to post secondary training.

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PATHPATH

JLP vowed to revise PATH to include post-JLP vowed to revise PATH to include post-secondary level students during the last secondary level students during the last election campaign.election campaign.

The PM (Andrew Holness) felt that persons The PM (Andrew Holness) felt that persons are most vulnerable to making bad decisions are most vulnerable to making bad decisions between the ages of 16 and 20, but there is no between the ages of 16 and 20, but there is no social welfare programme for those in this age social welfare programme for those in this age group.group.

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Industrial Achievement-Performance ModelIndustrial Achievement-Performance Model

Historically the IAP model operated in state-controlled Historically the IAP model operated in state-controlled economies such as former Socialist countries, but it also economies such as former Socialist countries, but it also operates in capitalist states of Germany, France and operates in capitalist states of Germany, France and Asian Tigers and other countries worldwide.Asian Tigers and other countries worldwide.

Social policy provisions are tied closely to economy Social policy provisions are tied closely to economy (handmaiden model) and production goals.(handmaiden model) and production goals.

The 'handmaiden' model, sees welfare as an essential The 'handmaiden' model, sees welfare as an essential complement to industrial development: social policy complement to industrial development: social policy helps the economy to grow by serving the workforce, helps the economy to grow by serving the workforce, providing services to industry and offering a secure basis providing services to industry and offering a secure basis for development. for development.

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Based on Keynesian economics that sees Based on Keynesian economics that sees spending on welfare as a useful economic spending on welfare as a useful economic regulator, helping to balance the economy in regulator, helping to balance the economy in periods of recession.periods of recession.

However, Atkinson (1995) shows that although However, Atkinson (1995) shows that although developed countries generally spend more on developed countries generally spend more on welfare than less developed countries, developed welfare than less developed countries, developed countries with higher welfare spending do not countries with higher welfare spending do not generally do better or worse than developed generally do better or worse than developed countries which spend less.countries which spend less.

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Merit and performance guide provision of social security Merit and performance guide provision of social security payments like payments like public pensions, social insurance. E.g. in Ja public pensions, social insurance. E.g. in Ja include National Insurance Scheme (NIS) NI Gold Health include National Insurance Scheme (NIS) NI Gold Health Insurance for pensioners, National Housing Trust. Insurance for pensioners, National Housing Trust. Pension and housing benefits depend on level of contributionPension and housing benefits depend on level of contribution

On 15 February 2012 Min. of Health Dr. Fenton Ferguson said On 15 February 2012 Min. of Health Dr. Fenton Ferguson said that free health care will go. “Those who can pay should be that free health care will go. “Those who can pay should be required to pay. Those who cannot afford to pay, the State has required to pay. Those who cannot afford to pay, the State has an inescapable obligation to cover the cost associated with that an inescapable obligation to cover the cost associated with that care… GOJ card does not indicate whether patients have used care… GOJ card does not indicate whether patients have used their cards before in Sav-la-mar…” their cards before in Sav-la-mar…”

Industrial-Achievement Performance modelIndustrial-Achievement Performance model

Other forms of income maintenance, e.g. Other forms of income maintenance, e.g. unemployment benefits, invalidity and disability unemployment benefits, invalidity and disability benefits are provided in the modelbenefits are provided in the model

Education and Healthcare provided for all, e.g. Education and Healthcare provided for all, e.g. Cuba, Barbados, to build human capitalCuba, Barbados, to build human capital..

Social policy is an important partner to the Social policy is an important partner to the economy. Aim is to develop human capital, economy. Aim is to develop human capital, ensure unity, solidarity and commitment of ensure unity, solidarity and commitment of workers. workers. 4646

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Institutional Redistributive ModelInstitutional Redistributive Model(Welfare State)(Welfare State)

This model developed after World War II to This model developed after World War II to facilitate rebuilding lives, supporting growth and facilitate rebuilding lives, supporting growth and full employment. British welfare state introduced full employment. British welfare state introduced in 1948. in 1948.

Premised on notion that citizens of a country have Premised on notion that citizens of a country have a basic right to welfare (Marshall). a basic right to welfare (Marshall).

Social welfare institutions are integrated and Social welfare institutions are integrated and institutionalized parts of societyinstitutionalized parts of society

Institutional Redistributive ModelInstitutional Redistributive Model

The Institutional model sees need and states The Institutional model sees need and states of dependency e.g. infancy, childhood and old of dependency e.g. infancy, childhood and old age, as normal aspects of social life.age, as normal aspects of social life.

This approach is based on acceptance of This approach is based on acceptance of mutual social responsibility for these needs mutual social responsibility for these needs and the general provision for all. (Spicker, and the general provision for all. (Spicker, 2008). 2008).

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Provides universalistic services outside of the market and is based on individual needs.

Scandanavian countries have the best welfare Scandanavian countries have the best welfare states today.states today.

Sweden: The Institutional-Sweden: The Institutional-Redistributive modelRedistributive model

Titmuss' 'institutional-redistributive' model Titmuss' 'institutional-redistributive' model combines the principles of comprehensive social combines the principles of comprehensive social provision with egalitarianism. provision with egalitarianism.

This is an "ideal type", rather than a description of This is an "ideal type", rather than a description of reality. reality.

Social protection is not necessarily associated Social protection is not necessarily associated with equality; the French and German systems with equality; the French and German systems offer differential protection according to one's offer differential protection according to one's position in the labour market. position in the labour market.

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The Swedish model can be seen as an ideal form The Swedish model can be seen as an ideal form of 'welfare state', offering institutional care in the of 'welfare state', offering institutional care in the sense that it offers universal minima to its sense that it offers universal minima to its citizens. citizens.

It goes further than the British model in its It goes further than the British model in its commitment to social equality. Sweden has the commitment to social equality. Sweden has the highest level of spending on social protection in highest level of spending on social protection in the OECD, and the lowest proportion of income the OECD, and the lowest proportion of income left to independent households - less than half its left to independent households - less than half its national income.national income. 5151


The Swedish system, looked at in greater detail, The Swedish system, looked at in greater detail, has many of the same characteristics: Ringen has many of the same characteristics: Ringen describes the system as "selective by occupational describes the system as "selective by occupational experience". experience".

However, the importance of equality - sometimes However, the importance of equality - sometimes identified with 'solidarity', in the sense of identified with 'solidarity', in the sense of organised co-operation - is considerable. organised co-operation - is considerable.

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The model of this is the 'solidaristic wage policy' The model of this is the 'solidaristic wage policy' advocated by the labour movement, which advocated by the labour movement, which emphasised improving standards, limited emphasised improving standards, limited differentials, and redistribution.differentials, and redistribution.

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In Jamaica, examples of this type include: In Jamaica, examples of this type include: free primary education, free primary education, free tuition at secondary level, (not free education)free tuition at secondary level, (not free education) free healthcare in public facilities,free healthcare in public facilities, Jamaica Drugs for the Elderly and the National Health Jamaica Drugs for the Elderly and the National Health

Fund subsidies on prescriptionsFund subsidies on prescriptions School textbook programmesSchool textbook programmes

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Central government to limit itself to the making of general policy, and the laying down of general rules, for the government cannot know the intricacies of individual merits and factors within a situation.

Weaknesses of welfare provision:

· individual initiatives are sapped

· Freidman - expenditures have increased markedly, with ‘better off’ being favoured; political

expediency drives the welfare state, and therefore voucher system would be of benefit, especially to poor

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Public tends to support the welfare state while opposing state intervention in the economy

Thus:

· privatisation to be encouraged (IMF)

· spending as a proportion of GDP to be reduced (IMF)

· there should be a return to real family values

· there should be a reduction in taxation

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Ideological factors: welfare cuts - likely to gain approval if:

· presented in the context of approval of non-intervenionist state rather than attack on social provision

· cuts more likely to be favoured if focussed on unfavoured groups

· community care more marketable if presented as rolling back of state rather than imposition on middle

aged women (bulk of care-givers)

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Long term goals:

· remove state monopoly on welfare provision

· transform state from provider to regulator

· facilitate state provision only for those who ‘need’ it

· ensure changes introduced are unassailable

· supply side must be expanded to include many suppliers, and ownership must be to private

provision.

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Gosta Esping-Andersen’s Model of Gosta Esping-Andersen’s Model of Welfare (1990)Welfare (1990)

Updated Titmuss’ modelUpdated Titmuss’ model

1. Liberal – similar to Residual model1. Liberal – similar to Residual model 2. Conservative-Corporatist – similar to 2. Conservative-Corporatist – similar to

Industrial Achievement-Performance modelIndustrial Achievement-Performance model 3. Social democratic – similar to Institutional 3. Social democratic – similar to Institutional

Redistributive modelRedistributive model 4.4. Mediterranean modelMediterranean model

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Gosta Esping-Andersen’s Model of Gosta Esping-Andersen’s Model of Welfare (1990)Welfare (1990)

Thinking point - students to review the three Thinking point - students to review the three models and look at the Mediterranean model.models and look at the Mediterranean model.

Note critiquesNote critiques

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Liberal Regime – Liberal Regime – US, CanadaUS, Canada Modest public welfare spending Modest public welfare spending Private social services on the free market and Private social services on the free market and

occupational welfare encouraged occupational welfare encouraged Heavy reliance on family, church and charitiesHeavy reliance on family, church and charities Minimizes decommodification (degree to which Minimizes decommodification (degree to which

individuals or households can enjoy an individuals or households can enjoy an acceptable standard of living independently of acceptable standard of living independently of engaging in the market)engaging in the market)

Welfare payments to poor are means-tested, Welfare payments to poor are means-tested, conditional transfersconditional transfers

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Conservative-Corporatist Conservative-Corporatist Regime Regime – Germany, France– Germany, France

Heavy reliance on social security provisions Heavy reliance on social security provisions e.g. pensions, health insurance.e.g. pensions, health insurance.

Also involves a social contract between the Also involves a social contract between the state, labour and private sector to control state, labour and private sector to control wages and prices. wages and prices.

Church, family, voluntary organisations also Church, family, voluntary organisations also involved in social service provisionsinvolved in social service provisions

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Social Democratic Regime Social Democratic Regime – Scandinavian countries– Scandinavian countries

High level of state social protection for allHigh level of state social protection for all

Sweden arguably the highest level of state Sweden arguably the highest level of state provisionprovision

The “Swedish Model”, is intended to secure a fair, The “Swedish Model”, is intended to secure a fair, socially acceptable distribution of income and wealth socially acceptable distribution of income and wealth and the eradication and absence of poverty without and the eradication and absence of poverty without jeopardizing economic efficiency and growth in the jeopardizing economic efficiency and growth in the long run. long run. (Gylfason et al, 1997: 13 cited in Tepe, (Gylfason et al, 1997: 13 cited in Tepe, 2005)2005)

Social Democratic Regime Social Democratic Regime – Scandinavian countries– Scandinavian countries

Secured gender equality in the labour marketSecured gender equality in the labour market

Pension reform repealed the income test and Pension reform repealed the income test and pension payments became universal, flat-rate pension payments became universal, flat-rate and state-financed - men and women had and state-financed - men and women had equality in retirement pensions (Tepe, 2005)equality in retirement pensions (Tepe, 2005)

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Mediterranean Regime Mediterranean Regime – Italy, Greece, Spain– Italy, Greece, Spain

The family’s role in the provision of social The family’s role in the provision of social welfare is important.welfare is important.

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Political/Ideological InfluencesPolitical/Ideological Influences Left-leaning – includes collectivists like the Left-leaning – includes collectivists like the

Social Democrats, Socialists, and MarxistsSocial Democrats, Socialists, and Marxists These groups tend to favour institutional welfare These groups tend to favour institutional welfare

systemssystems

Right leaning- includes Christian Democrats, Right leaning- includes Christian Democrats, Conservatives, Neo-liberals - they are Conservatives, Neo-liberals - they are individualist and tend to favourindividualist and tend to favour residual welfare.residual welfare. Privatized or market provision of social servicesPrivatized or market provision of social services

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Political/Ideological backgroundPolitical/Ideological background

Political centre- believes in the “social Political centre- believes in the “social market”, e.g. Germanymarket”, e.g. Germany Negative effects of free market should be Negative effects of free market should be

moderated by strategic state intervention in the moderated by strategic state intervention in the economy and the use of strong social protection economy and the use of strong social protection systems. These use the IAP and also the Social systems. These use the IAP and also the Social Democratic model.Democratic model.

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Residual ModelResidual ModelStrengthsStrengths Low Cost Low Cost Reduces burden on stateReduces burden on state

WeaknessesWeaknesses StigmatizationStigmatization Access – limited advertising of benefits, those Access – limited advertising of benefits, those

in need may not be aware of programmesin need may not be aware of programmes

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Selectivity requires expensive administrative Selectivity requires expensive administrative process process

Leakage Leakage

Safety nets can lead to a poverty trap, as a rise Safety nets can lead to a poverty trap, as a rise in income usually leads to a loss of welfare in income usually leads to a loss of welfare benefitsbenefits

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Industrial-Achievement performanceIndustrial-Achievement performanceModelModel

StrengthsStrengths Incentivizes workIncentivizes work Protects against contingencies like disability Protects against contingencies like disability

and unemploymentand unemployment

WeaknessesWeaknesses Neglects those outside the labour market Neglects those outside the labour market Pensions and insurance usually dependent on Pensions and insurance usually dependent on

position in the labour market - lower paid position in the labour market - lower paid workers may be marginalised.workers may be marginalised.

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Institutional ModelInstitutional ModelStrengthsStrengths

Strong Protection for allStrong Protection for all High investment in human capitalHigh investment in human capital

WeaknessesWeaknesses Expensive, requires high taxesExpensive, requires high taxes May reinforce the status quo, may not achieve May reinforce the status quo, may not achieve

equityequity Public health and education provisions are Public health and education provisions are

often rigid and may not address specialised often rigid and may not address specialised needsneeds 7171

1 session iii - sw23a theoretical framework/ models of social policy

Documents

welfare state state

welfare provision

welfare spending

universal welfare

different states

different countries

social protection

ideal model of provision