1 section 1-4 click the mouse button or press the space bar to display the information. the world is...

1

Section 1-4

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• The world is filled with physical changes.

• Any aspect of or change in the environment to which an organism responds is called a stimulus.

• An alarm, an electric light, and an aching muscle are all stimuli for human beings.

What Is Sensation?

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Section 1-5


• A stimulus can be measured in many physical ways, including its size, duration, intensity, or wavelength.

sensationwhat occurs when a stimulus activates a receptor

• A sensation occurs anytime a stimulus activates one of your receptors.

What Is Sensation? (cont.)

• The sense organs detect physical changes in energy such as heat, light, sound, and physical pressure.

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Section 1-6


• A sensation may be combined with other sensations and your past experience to yield a perception.

perceptionthe organization of sensory information into meaningful experiences

• A perception is the organization of sensory information into meaningful experiences.


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Figure -1-1

Fraser’s SpiralFraser’s spiral illustrates the difference between sensation and perception. Our perception of this figure is that of a spiral, but it is actually an illusion. Trace the circle carefully. Your finger will always come back to its starting point.

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Section 1-7

• What is the relationship between color and wavelength?

psychophysicsthe study of the relationships between sensory experiences and the physical stimuli that cause them

• How does changing a light’s intensity affect your perception of its brightness?



• The psychological study of such questions is called psychophysics.

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Section 1-8


• In order to establish laws about how people sense the external world, psychologists first try to determine how much of a stimulus is necessary for a person to sense it at all.

absolute thresholdthe weakest amount of a stimulus that a person can detect half the time

• Experiments can detect the absolute threshold–the weakest amount of a stimulus required to produce a sensation.

Threshold

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Figure 1-2

The Human Senses

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Section 1-9

• Another type of threshold is the difference threshold.

difference thresholdthe smallest change in a physical stimulus that can be detected between two stimuli

• The difference threshold refers to the minimum amount of difference a person can detect between two stimuli.

• A related concept is the just noticeable difference, or JND.

Sensory Differences and Ratios

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Section 1-10


• Weber’s law states that the larger or stronger a stimulus, the larger the change required for a person to notice that anything has happened to it.

Weber’s lawthe principle that the larger or stronger a stimulus, the larger the change required for an observer to notice a difference

• By experimenting with variations in sounds, temperatures, pressures, colors, tastes, and smells, psychologists are learning more about how each sense responds to stimulation.

Sensory Differences and Ratios (cont.)

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Figure 1-3

The Disappearing Circle

Sensation depends on change and contrast in the environment. Hold your hand over one eye and stare at the dot in the middle of the circle on the right. You should have no trouble maintaining the image of the circle. If you do the same with the circle on the left, however the image will fade. The circle reappears only if you close and reopen your eye or you shift your gaze to the X.

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Section 1-14


• There is no sharp boundary between stimuli that you can perceive and stimuli you cannot perceive.

signal-detection theorythe study of people’s tendencies to make correct judgments in detecting the presence of stimuli

• The signal-detection theory studies the relations between motivation, sensitivity, and decision making in detecting the presence or absence of a stimulus (Green & Swets, 1966).

Signal-Detection Theory

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Name the color of the squares.

Figure 1-4a

The Stroop Effect

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Name the color of the words in the figure below.

Figure 1-4b

The Stroop Effect (cont.)

Why was it more difficult to name the color of the words?

End of Section 1

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Section 2-3


• Why can you see your hand moving even in total darkness?

• You have just experienced kinesthesis– one of the senses.

• Although people are thought to have five senses, there are actually more.

• In addition to vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, there are several skin senses and two “internal” senses: vestibular and kinesthetic.

Introduction

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Section 2-4


• Each type of sensory receptor takes some sort of external stimulus and converts it into a chemical-electrical message that can be understood by the brain.

• So far, we know most about these processes in vision and hearing.

• The other senses have received less attention and are more mysterious in their functioning.

Introduction (cont.)

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Section 2-5


• Vision is the most studied of all the senses, reflecting the high importance we place on our sense of sight.

pupilthe opening in the iris that regulates the amount of light entering the eye

lensa flexible, transparent structure in the eye that changes its shape to focus light on the retina

• How does vision occur?

Vision

• Light enters the eye through the pupil and reaches the lens, a flexible structure.

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Section 2-6


• The lens then focuses light on the retina.

retinathe innermost coating of the back of the eye, containing the light-sensitive receptor cells

optic nervethe nerve that carries impulses from the retina to the brain

• The retina contains two types of light-sensitive receptor cells: rods and cones.

Vision (cont.)

• These cells are responsible for changing light energy into neuronal impulses, which then travel over the optic nerve to the brain, where it is routed to the occipital lobe.

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Figure 2-1

The Human Eye

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Figure 2-2

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Section 2-9


• When some or all of a person’s cones do not function properly, he or she is said to be color-deficient.

• There are several kinds of color deficiency, and most color-deficient people do see some colors.

• Very few people are totally color-deficient.

• Color deficiency affects about 8 percent of American men and less than 1 percent of American women and is a hereditary condition.

Color Deficiency

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Section 2-10


• Because we have two eyes, located about 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) apart, the visual system receives two images.

binocular fusionthe process of combining the images received from the two eyes into a single, fused image

• Instead of seeing double, however, we see a single image, probably a composite of the views of two eyes.

Binocular Fusion

• The combination of the two images into one is called binocular fusion.

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Section 2-11


• Not only does the visual system receive two images but there is also a difference between the images on the retinas.

retinal disparitythe differences between the images stimulating each eye

• This difference is called retinal disparity.

Binocular Fusion (cont.)

• Retinal disparity is essential to your sense of depth perception.

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Section 2-12


• Some of us are born with perfectly shaped eyeballs and have almost perfect vision.

• If your eyeball is a little too long, however, you are nearsighted.

• If your eyeball is too short, you are farsighted.

Binocular Fusion (cont.)

Nearsightedness and Farsightedness

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Figure 2-3a

A Changing Flag

Proceed to the next slide and stare steadily at the image of the flag for about 1 minute. Then go to the next slide and note what you see on that slide.

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Figure 2-3b

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Figure 2-3c

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Figure 2-3c

A Changing Flag

What did you notice when the screen appeared? What happens when you shift your glance to a blank wall some distance away? Why?

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Section 2-13


• Hearing depends on vibrations of the air, called sound waves.

auditory nervethe nerve that carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the sensation of sound

• Hair cells change sound vibrations into neuronal signals that travel through the auditory nerve to the brain.

Hearing

• Loudness of sound is determined by the amplitude, or height, of sound waves.

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Figure 2-5

Decible Levels

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Section 2-15


• The ear is designed to capture sound waves.

• The outer ear receives sound waves, and the earflap directs the sounds down a short tube called the auditory canal.

• The middle ear is an air-filled cavity, and its main structures are three tiny bones–the hammer, anvil, and stirrup.

• The cochlea–a bony tube containing fluids and neurons–makes up the inner ear.

The Pathway of Sound

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Figure 2-4

The Human Ear

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Section 2-16


• There are two types of deafness.

• Conduction deafness occurs when anything hinders physical motion through the outer or middle ear or when the bones of the middle ear become rigid and cannot carry sounds inward.

• Sensorineural deafness occurs from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory neurons.

Deafness

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Section 2-17


• The body’s sense of balance is regulated by the vestibular system inside the inner ear.

vestibular systemthree semicircular canals that provide the sense of balance, located in the inner ear and connected to the brain by a nerve

• Its prominent feature is the three semicircular canals.

• The stimuli for vestibular responses include movements such as spinning, falling, and tilting the body or head.

Balance

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Section 2-18


• Smell and taste are known as the chemical senses because their receptors are sensitive to chemical molecules rather than to light energy or sound waves.

olfactory nervethe nerve that carries smell impulses from the nose to the brain

• Smell receptors in the nose send messages about smells through the olfactory nerve to the brain.

Smell and Taste

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Figure 2-6

The Human Tongue

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Section 2-20


• Receptors in the skin are responsible for providing the brain with at least four kinds of information about the environment: pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.

• Some skin receptors (such as neurons) are particularly sensitive to hot or cold stimuli.

• Many kinds of stimuli–scratches, punctures, severe pressure, heat, and cold–can produce pain.

The Skin Senses

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Section 2-22


• The sense of movement and body position is kinesthesis.

kinesthesisthe sense of movement and body position

• It cooperates with the vestibular and visual senses to maintain posture and balance.

• Without kinesthetic sensations, your movements would be jerky and uncoordinated.

The Body Senses

End of Section 2


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Section 3-4


• People do not merely have sensory experiences; we perceive objects.

• The brain receives information from the senses and organizes and interprets it into meaningful experiences–unconsciously.

• This process is called perception.

Introduction (cont.)

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Section 3-5


• Through the process of perception, the brain is always trying to make sense out of the confusion of stimuli.

Gestaltthe experience that comes from organizing bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes

• The brain makes sense of the world by creating “wholes” out of bits and pieces of information in the environment.

Principles of Perceptual Organization

• Each “whole” that is organized by the brain is called a Gestalt.

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Figure 3-1

Gestalt Principles

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Section 3-7


• One form of perceptual organization is the division of experience into figure and ground.

• Figure-ground perception is the ability to discriminate properly between a figure and its background.

• Figure and ground are important in hearing as well as in vision.

Figure-Ground Perception

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Figure 3-2

What Is It?What did you see the first time you looked at this illustration–a vase or two profiles? People invariably organize their experience into figure and ground.

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Section 3-9


• In large part, perceiving is something that people learn to do.

• Experiments with human beings have also shown that active involvement in one’s environment is important for accurate perception.

• Learning to perceive is influenced by our needs, beliefs, and expectations.

Learning to Perceive

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Figure 3-3

Defying Basic Geometric Laws

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Section 3-10


• In 1957, Vance Packard divulged that advertisers were using a revolutionary breakthrough in marketing techniques: subliminal advertising.

subliminal messagesbrief auditory or visual messages that are presented below the absolute threshold

• This concept used subliminal messages, brief auditory or visual messages presented below the absolute threshold so that there is less than a 50 percent chance that they will be perceived.

Subliminal Perception

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Figure 3-4

The Necker Cube

The Necker cube is an ambiguous figure. You can will yourself to see it as if you were looking down on it, with corner X closest to you, or as if you were looking up at it, with corner Y closest to you.

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Section 3-14


• Another cue is motion parallax–the apparent movement of objects that occurs when you move your head from side to side or when you walk around.

motion parallaxthe apparent movement of stationary objects relative to one another that occurs when the observer changes position

• Two other distance cues are linear perspective and relative motion.

Monocular Depth Cues (cont.)

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Section 3-16


• When we have learned to perceive certain objects in our environment, we tend to see them in the same way, regardless of changing conditions.

constancythe tendency to perceive certain objects in the same way regardless of changing angle, distance, or lighting

• Despite changing physical conditions, people are able to perceive objects as the same by the processes of size, shape, brightness and color constancy.

Constancy

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Figure 3-5

Shape Constancy

We perceive the opening door as being rectangular in shape, although our view of the shape of it changes as it opens.

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Section 3-18


• Illusions are incorrect perceptions.

illusionsperceptions that misrepresent physical stimuli

• Illusions can be useful in teaching us about how our sensation and perceptual systems work.

• Illusions are created when perceptual cues are distorted so that our brains cannot correctly interpret space, size, and depth cues.

Illusions

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Section 3-19


• We are fascinated by things that cannot be seen, easily explained, or often even verified, such as flying saucers, atoms, genes, and extrasensory perception.

extrasensory perception (ESP)an ability to gain information by some means other than the ordinary senses

• Extrasensory perception (ESP)–receiving information about the world through channels other than the normal senses–is a hotly debated topic.

Extrasensory Perception

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Section 3-20


Extrasensory Perception (cont.)

• There are four types of ESP: – Clairvoyance is perceiving objects or

information without sensory input.

– Telepathy involves reading someone else’s mind or transferring one’s thoughts.

– Psychokinesis involves moving objects through purely mental effort.

– Precognition is the ability to foretell events.

• Many people are convinced that ESP exists because of an intense personal experience that can never be scientifically validated.

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Section 3-21


• Many scientists do not accept the results of experiments supporting ESP because the findings are highly unstable.

• One basic principle of scientific research is that one scientist should be able to replicate another scientist’s results.

• Not only do different ESP experiments yield contradictory findings but also the same individual seems to show ESP on one day but not on the next.

Extrasensory Perception (cont.)

End of Section 3


End of Chapter Summary


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