1. formation of reinsurance agreements

8/10/2019 1. Formation of Reinsurance Agreements

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Kajpthr ?

N@_IJSB@L @N _HBL[X_JLKH JE_HHIHLS[

JXSA@_B[JSB@L @N _HBL[X_H_[Sah juta`rbsjtb`l rhqubrhihltSah Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt ?=== rheufjths tah suppfy `n nbljlkbjf shrvbkhs bl tah XD ijrdht. Jly phrs`l wa` wbsahs t`kjrry `l j rheufjthc jktbvbty bl tah XD js j prblkbpjf iust oh juta`rbshc t` c` s` oy tah Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs Juta`rbty (shktb`l :2), jlcjl juta`rbshc phrs`l ijy `lfy kjrry `l j rheufjthc jktbvbty bl rhsphkt `n wabka tah juta`rbsjtb`l jppfbhs (shktb`l ?=). K`ltrjvhltb`l`n tah ehlhrjf pràbobtb`l bl shktb`l :2 bs j krbibljf `nnhlkh, jftaùea k`ltrjvhltb`l `n shktb`l ?= c`hs l`t jttrjkt krbibljfsjlktb`ls. Jl blsurhr wabka bs hstjofbsahc jlc juta`rbshc hfshwahrh bl tah HHJ c`hs l`t rhqubrh juta`rbsjtb`l oy tah Nbljlkbjf[hrvbkhs Juta`rbty jlc ijy tjdh jcvjltjeh `n HHJ pjssp`rt rbeats oy hbtahr n`rible jl hstjofbsaihlt bl tah XD `r suppfybleblsurjlkh cbrhktfy t` kustìhrs bl tah XD nrì hstjofbsaihlts hfshwahrh bl tah HHJ. Hqujffy, jl blsurhr wabka bs juta`rbshc jlchstjofbsahc bl tah XD ajs hqubvjfhlt pjssp`rt rbeats t` hstjofbsa, `r t` shff blsurjlkh cbrhktfy, bl jly `tahr HHJ kùltry, wbtaùtajvble t` shhd juta`rbsjtb`l nrì tajt kùltrys rheufjt`ry juta`rbtbhs (Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt ?===, skahcufh ;, jlc tahNbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt ?=== (HHJ ]jssp`rt _beats) _heufjtb`ls ?==:, [.B. ?==: L`. ?8::).

Blsurjlkh bs chsbeljthc js j rheufjthc jktbvbty n`r tah purp`shs `n tah ?=== Jkt oy tah Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt ?===(_heufjthc Jktbvbtbhs) @rchr ?=== ([.B. ?=== L`. 833, ijch ulchr s. ?? `n tah ?=== Jkt), s` tajt juta`rbsjtb`l bs rhqubrhc n`r

hnnhktble jlc kjrryble ùt k`ltrjkts `n blsurjlkh. Blsurjlkh ousblhss bs cbvbchc blt` := kfjsshs `n f`le thri (fbnh jlc rhfjthc)ousblhss jlc :1 kfjsshs `n ehlhrjf (pr`phrty, fbjobfbty, eujrjlthh, htk.) ousblhss, jlc juta`rbsjtb`l bs t` oh òtjblhc n`r hjka blcbvbcujfkfjss. Js j rhsuft `n HX rufhs, bt bs l` f`lehr p`ssbofh n`r j lhw blsurhr t` oh juta`rbshc t` kjrry `l o`ta f`le thri jlc ehlhrjfousblhss. _hblsurjlkh bs trhjthc js blsurjlkh n`r tah purp`shs `n tah Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt ?===, s` tajt rhblsurhrs jrhsbibfjrfy rhqubrhc t` oh juta`rbshc t` kjrry `l blsurjlkh ousblhss bl tah X.D. `l j kfjss-oy-kfjss ojsbs.

_h L_E ^bkt`ry Blsurjlkh T:228Y : Jff H._. 8;;Sah kìpjly phtbtb`lhc tah kùrt n`r bts jppr`vjf `n j skahih `n jrrjlehihlt ulchr wabka tah f`le thri (fbnh jlc rhfjthc) rhblsurjlkh jlc rhtr`khssb`l

ousblhss wùfc oh trjlsnhrrhc t` jl`tahr blsurhr, H_F. Zuhstb`ls jr`sh js t` wahtahr tahsh n`ris `n ousblhss whrh blsurjlkh ousblhss jlc taus suoghkt

t` rheufjt`ry pr`vbsb`ls. Sah kjsh wjs chkbchc ulchr tah Blsurjlkh Kìpjlbhs Jkt :21?, tah prhchkhss`r `n tah Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt

?===.

Ahfc (Fblcsjy G.)7 (:) rhblsurjlkh ousblhss wjs t` oh trhjthc js blsurjlkh ousblhss n`r rheufjt`ry purp`shs4 (?) rhblsurjlkh ousblhss nhff blt` tah kfjss

`n cbrhkt ousblhss t` wabka bt rhfjthc, s` tajt rhblsurjlkh `n f`le thri rbsds wjs btshfn t` oh trhjthc js f`le thri ousblhss4 (;) rhtr`khssb`l wjs jfs` t` oh

trhjthc js blsurjlkh ousblhss.

_h Nrbhlcs ]r`vbchlt Fbnh @nnbkh T:222Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ 835Bl :21; N]F@, j fbnh blsurhr, rhblsurhc bts f`le thri ousblhss wbta N]FJJ, j wa`ffy-`wlhc suosbcbjry n`rihc n`r tah purp`sh. Sah trjlsjktb`l wjs

put bl pfjkh n`r tjx rhjs`ls. N]FJJ ajc l` hipf`yhhs `n bts `wl jlc bts nulktb`ls whrh kjrrbhc ùt oy `tahr ihiohrs `n tah k`rp`rjth erùp.

N`ff`wble kajlehs t` tah tjx rhebih bl :22=, tah pjrtbhs pr`p`shc t` orble tah trjlsjktb`l t` jl hlc oy trjlsnhrrble N]FJJs rhblsurjlkh ousblhss t`

N]F@, jlc jl jppfbkjtb`l wjs ijch t` tah kùrt n`r tah jppr`vjf `n tah trjlsnhr ulchr tah Blsurjlkh Kìpjlbhs Jkt :21?, wabka rhqubrhc jppr`vjf `n trjlsnhrs `n blsurjlkh ousblhss (shh l`w, Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt ?===, ss. :=3 t` ::5).

Ahfc (Lhuohrehr G. jlc K.J.)7 (:) rhnhrhlkhs t` blsurjlkh bl tah fhebsfjtb`l blkfuchc rhblsurjlkh, s` tajt tah k`lshlt `n tah kùrt wjs rhqubrhc n`r tah

trjlsnhr `n rhblsurjlkh ousblhss4 (?) tah skahih qujfbnbhc js j trjlsnhr `n ousblhss, js bt blv`fvhc tah trjlsnhr `n nulktb`ls js whff js tah trjlsnhr `n j

k`ltrjkt4 (;) tah trjlsnhr saùfc oh jppr`vhc js bt wjs j ehlublh trjlsjktb`l jlc cbc l`t jnnhkt tah rbeats `n p`fbky a`fchrs.

Ousblhss bs kjrrbhc `l bl tah X.D. bn rbsds jrh jkkhpthc `r kfjbis jrh pjbc bl tah X.D., jlc bt bs biijthrbjf tajt tah rbsds bl quhstb`ljrh f`kjthc bl sìh `tahr gurbscbktb l `r tajt tah k`ltrjkts jrh e`vhrlhc oy j fjw `tahr tajl Hlefbsa fjw.

J EXBCH S@ _HBL[X_JLKH FJU - :st Hcbtb`l, ?==5KAJ]SH_ ? N@_IJSB@L @N _HBL[X_JLKH JE_HHIHLS[

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_h Erhjt Uhsthrl Blsurjlkh K`. [J T:222Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ ;55Sah kjsh k`lkhrlhc nùr blsurjlkh kìpjlbhs@nnsa`rh : (blk`rp`rjthc bl Ojrojc`s), @nnsa`rh ? (blk`rp`rjthc bl Ohfebui) jlc Kyprus : jlc ?

(blk`rp`rjthc bl Kyprus)l`lh `n wabka wjs juta`rbshc t` kjrry `l blsurjlkh ousblhss bl tah XD. Ousblhss wjs òtjblhc bl tah XD oy tw` shts `n

or`dhrs, jlc tabs wjs cbrhkthc t` @nnsa`rh : jlc ? tarùea Kyprus : jlc ?. Xlchrwrbtble chkbsb`ls whrh ijch `nnsa`rh oy Kyprus : jlc ?. Sah

[hkrhtjry `n [tjth sùeat wblcble up `rchrs jejblst jff sbx kìpjlbhs `l tah ojsbs tajt tahy whrh kjrryble `l uljuta`rbshc blsurjlkh ousblhss bl tah

XD.

Ahfc (K.J.)7 (:) @nnsa`rh : jlc ? whrh kjrryble `l blsurjlkh ousblhss bl tah XD. Sah ihrh njkt tajt ulchrwrbtble chkbsb`ls whrh ijch `nnsa`rh cbc

l`t prhvhlt tah `phrjtb`l `n tah XD fhebsfjtb`l, js tah jktbvbty rheufjthc wjs tah hnnhktble jlc kjrryble ùt `n blsurjlkh k`ltrjkts, jlc tabs blkfuchc

lhe`tbjtb`l `n suka k`ltrjkts4 (?) tah or`dhrs `phrjtble bl tah XD whrh bl prjktbkh phrn`rible nulktb`ls `l ohajfn `n @nnsa`rh : jlc ?, blkfucble

jppfyble ulchrwrbtble krbthrbj, jcvbsble prhibui rjths jlc thris, rhkhbvble l`tbnbkjtb l `n kfjbis jlc shttfble kfjbis wbtabl jerhhc nbljlkbjf

fbibtstahsh jktbvbtbhs k`lstbtuthc tah kjrryble `l `n blsurjlkh ousblhss oy @nnsa`rh : jlc ? tarùea tah or`dhrs, jftaùea tah or`dhrs tahishfvhs

whrh l`t kjrryble `l blsurjlkh ousblhss js tahy whrh ihrhfy jehlts4 (;) bt wjs l`t jppr`prbjth t` wblc up tah kìpjlbhs, js @nnsa`rh : jlc ? whrh

jktble fjwnuffy js rhejrcs l`l-XD ousblhss jlc tahrh wjs l` hvbchlkh tajt XD p`fbky a`fchrs ajc ohhl ajrihc oy tah kjrryble `l `n uljuta`rbshc XD

ousblhss.

_heufjtb`l `n purh rhblsurhrs, b.h., kìpjlbhs wabka c` l`t kjrry `l cbrhkt ousblhss, wbff oh rhqubrhc tarùeaùt tah HX oy tah_hblsurjlkh Cbrhktbvh, Hur`phjl ]jrfbjihlt jlc Kùlkbf Cbrhktbvh ??=8/>1/HK, wabka bs t` oh bipfhihlthc oy Ihiohr [tjths oy :=

Chkhiohr ?==5. Sah Cbrhktbvh pr`vbchs n`r7 juta`rbsjtb`l `n rhblsurhrs, wabka rhqubrhs tah suoibssb`l `n j sjtbsnjkt`ry skahih `n `phrjtb`ls t` tah aìh stjth rheufjt`r4 tah prblkbpfh `n aìh stjth k`ltr`f, wabka jff`ws j rhblsurhr juta`rbshc bl bts aìh stjth t`hstjofbsa orjlkahs `r t` shff rhblsurjlkh cbrhktfy hfshwahrh bl tah HX wbta iblbijf blthrvhltb`l oy tah a`st stjth rheufjt`r4kìpfbjlkh wbta rufhs `l thkalbkjf rhshrvhs jlc tah ijblthljlkh `n j s`fvhlky ijrebl4 rhstrbktb`ls `l tah phrs`ls wa` ijy ohsajrha`fchrs bl jlc k`ltr`ffhrs `n rhblsurjlkh ulchrtjdbles4 jlc fbibthc rheufjtb`l `n khrtjbl n`ris `n Jfthrljtbvh _bsd Srjlsnhrjrrjlehihlts, sphkbnbkjffy nbljlkbjf rhblsurjlkh jlc sphkbjf purp`sh vhabkfhs ushc n`r rjbsble nulcs bl tah kjpbtjf ijrdhts.

K`ltrjkts ijch oy uljuta`rbshc blsurhrs jlc rhblsurhrsSah Kùrt `n Jpphjf, bl ]a`hlbx Ehlhrjf Jssurjlkh `n Erhhkh v. Jciblbstrjtbj Jsbeurjrbf`r ch [tjt T:21>Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. 88?,blkfblhc t` tah vbhw tajt k`ltrjkts ijch oy jl blsurhr wa` njbfhc t` òtjbl tah juta`rbsjtb l rhqubrhc oy tah Blsurjlkh Kìpjlbhs Jkt:21? whrh bffhejf jlc tajt l` kfjbi kùfc oh ijch oy tah jssurhc n`r jly f`ss. Bt n`ff`whc tajt jl uljuta`rbshc blsurhr wa` ajcrhblsurhc bts fbjobfbty wjs uljofh t` rhk`vhr nrì bts rhblsurhrs bl tah hvhlt tajt pjyihlt wjs ijch ulchr jl uljuta`rbshc blsurjlkhk`ltrjkt, js (j) tah blsurhrs pjyihlt wùfc ajvh ohhl hx erjtbj jlc cbc l`t ebvh rbsh t` j fhejf fbjobfbty wbtabl tah ihjlble `n tahrhblsurjlkh4 jlc (o) j kfjbi jejblst rhblsurhrs wùfc oh bl rhfbjlkh `l tah blsurhrs `wl bffhejf jkt. Sabs chkbsb`l wjs rhvhrshc oyshktb`l :;? `n tah Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs Jkt :21>, wabka rhi`vhc tah bffhejfbty nrì k`ltrjkts ijch oy uljuta`rbshc blsurhrs jlc

jff`whc cbrhkt p`fbky a`fchrs t` rhk`vhr ulchr tahbr k`ltrjkts, jftaùea juta`rbshc blsurhrs whrh hltbtfhc t` hln`rkh tahbr k`ltrjkts`lfy wbta j kùrt `rchr. Sah shktb`l jfs` pr`vbchc tajt jl uljuta`rbshc blsurhr kùfc rhk`vhr ulchr bts rhblsurjlkhs wahrh bt wjsrhqubrhc t` pjy j kfjbi t` j cbrhkt p`fbky a`fchr. [hktb`l :;? `n tah :21> Jkt wjs ahfc t` oh rhtr`jktbvh oy tah Kùrt `n Jpphjf bl Ojths v. _òhrt Ojrr`w Ftc T:228Y : Ff`ycs _hp. >1=.

[hktb`l :;? wjs suphrshchc oy shktb`ls ?> t` ?1 `n tah Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt ?===, wabka rhpr`cukh tajt shktb`l bljl jipfbnbhc n`ri. Sah or`jc hnnhkts `n tah shktb`ls jrh tajt7 (j) jl uljuta`rbshc blsurhr kjll`t hln`rkh bts blsurjlkh k`ltrjkts jejblstp`fbky a`fchrs, wa` jrh jofh t` rhk`vhr pjyihlts ijch oy tahi jlc kìphlsjtb`l4 (o) tah kùrt ijy ijdh jl `rchr phribttblehln`rkhihlt oy tah blsurhr4 jlc (k) tah p`fbky a`fchr ijy hln`rkh tah k`ltrjkt jejblst tah uljuta`rbshc blsurhr. Sahrh bs l` ihltb`l`n tah hln`rkhjobfbty `n jl uljuta`rbshc blsurhrs rhblsurjlkh k`ltrjkts, jftaùea bt bs taùeat tajt suka k`ltrjkts jrh hln`rkhjofh jsjly pjyihlt oy tah blsurhr kjll`t oh rhejrchc js hx erjtbj jlc tahrh bs l` bffhejfbty blv`fvhc bl ijdble pjyihlts ulchr cbrhktp`fbkbhs s` tajt tah blsurhr c`hs l`t ajvh t` pfhjc bts `wl bffhejfbty t` kfjbi jejblst bts rhblsurhrs.

Bt saùfc oh l`thc tajt j phrs`l wa` bs juta`rbshc t` kjrry `l rheufjthc jktbvbtbhs, out wa` kjrrbhs `l jktbvbtbhs ohy`lc tah sk`ph `n tah juta`rbsjtb`l k`ltrjry t` shktb`l ?= `n tah ?=== Jkt, sunnhrs l` kbvbf k`lshquhlkhs js rhejrcs bts k`ltrjkts. Saus jl juta`rbshc

blsurhr wa` kjrrbhs `l blsurjlkh ousblhss `n j kfjss n`r wabka bt bs l`t juta`rbshc bs hltbtfhc t` hln`rkh bts k`ltrjkts. Sah stjtut`ryrufhs `l tah hln`rkhihlt `n k`ltrjkts jppfbhs `lfy t` phrs`ls kjrryble `l blsurjlkh ousblhss wa` ajvh l` juta`rbsjtb`l jt jff, blk`ltrjvhltb`l `n tah ehlhrjf pràbobtb`l bl shktb`l :2 `n tah ?=== Jkt.

Hxtrjkts nrì tah Nbljlkbjf [hrvbkhs jlc Ijrdhts Jkt ?=== Jerhhihlts ijch oy uljuta`rbshc phrs`ls

?>.(:) Jl jerhhihlt ijch oy j phrs`l bl tah kùrsh `n kjrryble `l j rheufjthc jktbvbty bl k`ltrjvhltb`l `n tah ehlhrjfpràbobtb`l bs ulhln`rkhjofh jejblst tah `tahr pjrty.

(?) Sah `tahr pjrty bs hltbtfhc t` rhk`vhr

(j) jly i`lhy `r `tahr pr`phrty pjbc `r trjlsnhrrhc oy abi ulchr tah jerhhihlt4 jlc(o) kìphlsjtb`l n`r jly f`ss sustjblhc oy abi js j rhsuft `n abi ajvble pjrthc wbta bt.


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3/28

Jerhhihlts ijch ulhln`rkhjofh oy shktb`l ?>

?5.(:) Sabs shktb`l jppfbhs t` jl jerhhihlt wabka bs ulhln`rkhjofh ohkjush `n shktb`l ?>

(?) Sah jiùlt `n kìphlsjtb`l rhk`vhrjofh js j rhsuft `n tajt shktb`l bs

(j) tah jiùlt jerhhc oy tah pjrtbhs4 `r(o) `l tah jppfbkjtb`l `n hbtahr pjrty, tah jiùlt chthriblhc oy tah kùrt.

(;) Bn tah kùrt bs sjtbsnbhc tajt bt bs gust jlc hqubtjofh bl tah kbrkuistjlkhs `n tah kjsh bt ijy jff`w

(j) tah jerhhihlt t` oh hln`rkhc4 `r(o) i`lhy jlc pr`phrty pjbc `r trjlsnhrrhc ulchr tah jerhhihlt t` oh rhtjblhc.

(3) Bl k`lsbchrble wahtahr t` jff`w tah jerhhihlt t` oh hln`rkhc `r (js tah kjsh ijy oh) tah i`lhy `r pr`phrty pjbc `r trjlsnhrrhculchr tah jerhhihlt t` oh rhtjblhc tah kùrt iust

(j) bn tah kjsh jrbshs js j rhsuft `n shktb`l ?>, ajvh rhejrc t` tah bssuh ihltb`lhc bl suoshktb`l (8)

(8) Sah bssuh bs wahtahr tah phrs`l kjrryble `l tah rheufjthc jktbvbty k`lkhrlhc rhjs`ljofy ohfbhvhc tajt ah wjs l`t k`ltrjvhlbletah ehlhrjf pràbobtb`l oy ijdble tah jerhhihlt.

(5) Bn tah phrs`l jejblst waì tah jerhhihlt bs ulhln`rkhjofh

(j) hfhkts l`t t` phrn`ri tah jerhhihlt4 `r(o) js j rhsuft `n tabs shktb l, rhk`vhrs i`lhy pjbc `r `tahr pr`phrty trjlsnhrrhc oy abi ulchr tah jerhhihlt

ah iust rhpjy jly i`lhy jlc rhturl jly `tahr pr`phrty rhkhbvhc oy abi ulchr tah jerhhihlt.

(2) Sah kìibssb`l `n jl juta`rbsjtb l `nnhlkh c`hs l`t ijdh tah jerhhihlt k`lkhrlhc bffhejf `r blvjfbc t` jly erhjthr hxthlt tajlbs pr`vbchc oy shktb`l ?>

[uiijryBlsurhrs jlc rhblsurhrs iust oh juta`rbshc t` kjrry `l blsurjlkh ousblhss bl tah Xlbthc Dblecì ulfhss tahy jrh juta`rbshc

hfshwahrh bl tah HHJ. Krbibljf sjlktb`ls ijy oh bip`shc up`l uljuta`rbshc phrs`ls.Sah chnblbtb`l `n kjrryble `l blsurjlkh ousblhss bs j wbch `lh, jlc ousblhss ijy oh kjrrbhc `l bl tah Xlbthc Dblecì oy

blsurhrs wa` jrh sbtujthc jor`jc out wa` ush Xlbthc Dblecì jehlts.

Sah p`fbky a`fchrs `n uljuta`rbshc blsurhrs jrh jofh t` hln`rkh tahbr p`fbkbhs, out uljuta`rbshc blsurhrs c` l`t ajvh tah rbeatt` hln`rkh p`fbkbhs jejblst tahbr p`fbky a`fchrs.Sah rhblsurhrs `n uljuta`rbshc blsurhrs jrh ulfbdhfy t` oh jofh t` jv`bc ijdble pjyihlt.

]FJKBLE ]_@KHCX_H[ BL SAH F@LC@L IJ_DHSSah sfbp suoskrbptb`l pr`khcurhSah usujf ihta`c `n pfjkble rhblsurjlkh ousblhss bl tah F`lc`l ijrdht bs oy ihjls `n suoskrbptb`l t` tah sfbp. Sah or`dhr jpp`blthcoy tah rhblsurhc wbff prhpjrh j sfbp wabka suiijrbshs tah rbsd, jlc tahl prhshlts tah sfbp t` blcbvbcujf Ff`ycs sylcbkjths `r blsurjlkhkìpjlbhs `phrjtble bl tah ijrdht. Sah or`dhr wbff blbtbjffy jppr`jka j [ylcbkjth `r Ff`ycs ulchrwrbthr wa` bs whff rhejrchc bl tahijrdht, jlc wbff ijdh j prhshltjtb`l t` abi wabka wbff oh pjrtfy `rjf jlc ojkdhc up oy c`kuihltjtb`l. Bn tah rhblsurhr bs sjtbsnbhctajt tah rbsd bs jkkhptjofh, ah wbff jttjka abs [ylcbkjth `r kìpjly stjip t` tah sfbp jlc sbel tah sfbp, j pr`khss dl`wl js skrjtkable.Sah rhblsurhr bs ulfbdhfy t` jkkhpt :==% `n tah rbsd, jlc wbff jfi`st khrtjblfy skrjtka tah sfbp n`r j njr sijffhr jiùlt, sjy ohtwhhl:= jlc ?8%. Sah or`dhr, jrihc wbta tah sfbp jlc tah blbtbjf skrjtkable, iust tahl tjdh tah sfbp rùlc tah ijrdht t` jkabhvh nurtahrsuoskrbptb`ls. Bl tah rhblsurjlkh ijrdht bt bs blkrhjsblefy kìi`l n`r tahrh t` oh j rhfjtbvhfy sijff luiohr `n suoskrbohrs.

@lkh tah pr`khss ajs ohhl kìpfhthc, tah or`dhr ijy bssuh j k`vhr l`th t` tah rhblsurhc, shttble ùt tah thris up`l wabkasuoskrbptb`l ajs ohhl jkabhvhc jlc tah bchltbty `n tah rhblsurhrs. Sah k`vhr l`th bs l`t, a`whvhr, j k`ltrjktujf c`kuihlt, out bsihrhfy j l`tbnbkjtb`l oy tah or`dhr t` tah rhblsurhc js t` wajt ajs ohhl c`lh, jlc tah rhblsurhrs jrh l`t pjrty t` tah k`vhr l`th.Jkk`rcblefy, saùfc j cbsputh ohtwhhl rhblsurhrs jlc rhblsurhc jrbsh, tah k`vhr l`th kjll`t oh rhfbhc up`l js hvbchlkh `n tah thris `n tah rhblsurjlkh jerhhihlt. Bl cuh kùrsh tah sfbp ijy oh rhpfjkhc oy j n`rijf p`fbky w`rcble, jftaùea bt bs tah prjktbkh `n tahF`lc`l ijrdht bl tah pfjkble `n njkuftjtbvh rhblsurjlkh n`r tah sfbpwbta tah p`fbky ohble rhblsurhc jttjkahc t` btt` oh ushc js tah`lfy k`ltrjktujf c`kuihlt7 njkuftjtbvh rhblsurjlkh sfbps jrh taus `nthl chskrbohc js sfbp p`fbkbhs jlc bt bs stjthc `l tah sfbp tajt l`n`rijf p`fbky w`rcble bs t` oh bssuhc.

Sah ijdble `n tah k`ltrjkt Ijdble j k`ltrjkt wbtaùt skrjtkable j sfbpJnthr j phrb`c `n sìh cùot (ijblfy js j rhsuft `n tah chkbsb`l bl Gjefì v. Hxkhss Blsurjlkh K`. T:25:Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. :5: ), bt bs


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l`w shttfhc fjw tajt j oblcble k`ltrjkt `n blsurjlkh kìhs blt` hxbsthlkh js s``l js j sfbp bs skrjtkahc oy jl ulchrwrbthr. Sah sfbp bsrhejrchc js tah `nnhr, jlc tah skrjtkable oy tah ulchrwrbthr bs rhejrchc js tah jkkhptjlkh. Jftaùea tabs bs l`t tah `lfy ihkajlbsi oywabka j k`ltrjkt `n rhblsurjlkh ijy oh hnnhkthc, bt bs khrtjblfy tah i`st bip`rtjlt. Bl prblkbpfh bt bs p`ssbofh n`r j k`ltrjkt t` kìhblt` hxbsthlkh js s``l js tah rhblsurhr jlc tah rhblsurhc ajvh rhjkahc jerhhihlt, jlc tabs ijy oh bl jcvjlkh `n tah sfbp ohbleskrjtkahc, jftaùea j kùrt bs ulfbdhfy t` nblc tajt j k`ltrjkt ajs ohhl orùeat blt` hxbsthlkh jt sìh p`blt bl j kajbl `n lhe`tbjtb lfhjcble t` tah skrjtkable `n j sfbp.

[ul Fbnh Jssurjlkh K`. `n Kjljcj v. KQ _hblsurjlkh K`. Ftc T?==;Y HUKJ Kbv ?1;, T?==3Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ 1>[ul Fbnh ajc bl :211 g`blhc j X[-ojshc rhblsurjlkh p``f wabka wjs ijljehc oy B@J _h. Jl`tahr `n tah p``fs ihiohrs wjs KKK, tah pjrhlt `n

KLJ. Sah p``f sphkbjfbshc bl ulchrwrbtble jkkbchlt jlc ahjfta rhblsurjlkh. [ul Fbnh ajc chfhejthc ulchrwrbtble juta`rbty t` B@J _h jlc ajc jfs`

juta rbshc B@J _h t` shttfh kfjbis `l bts ohajfn. Sah p``f pr`sphrhc, jlc bl :22> bt ohejl t` kjrry `l rhblsurjlkh ousblhss bl F`lc l. Jl blcbvbcujf,

L, ajc jt `lh tbih ohhl hipf`yhc oy [ul Fbnh jlc tahl B@J _h, trjlsnhrrhc t` F`lc`l bl :221 jlc ohejl w`rdble n`r B@J Efòjf. Jt tabs tbih, KLJ

whrh pjrtbhs t` j Ijljehihlt jlc Jciblbstrjtb`l Jerhhihlt ulchr wabka KLJ ajc chfhejthc tah ulchrwrbtble `n tahbr XD jkkbchlt jlc ahjfta

rhblsurjlkh t` jl`tahr blsurhr, BEB, ulchr tah suphrvbsb`l `n B@J Efòjf. L k`ltjkthc O, wa` wjs hipf`yhc oy [ul Fbnh, jlc `nnhrhc ahr j 3=% fblh bl

j lhw ihcbkjf jkkùlt wabka B@J Efòjf wjs chvhf`pble, jlc jfs` j :=% fblh `l j phrs`ljf jkkbchlt qu`tj sajrh jerhhihlt nrì KLJ. @l ?= Gufy

:221 L shlt O j sfbp n`r ihcbkjf rhblsurjlkh7 tabs sphkbnbkjffy stjthc tajt bt wjs e`vhrlhc oy tah thris `n tah Ijljehihlt jlc Jciblbstrjtb`l

Jerhhihlt ohtwhhl BEB, B@J jlc KLJ. O sbelhc tah sfbp n`r tah ihcbkjf rhblsurjlkh ousblhss `l ?2 @ktòhr :221. Jt tabs tbih l` sfbp ajc ohhlprhpjrhc n`r tah phrs`ljf jkkbchlt k`vhr, js tah rhfhvjlt trhjty w`rcble ajc l`t yht ohhl crjnthc. @l ?? Ijrka :222 j k`py `n j trhjty n`r phrs`ljf

jkkbchlt k`vhr sbelhc oy KLJ wjs shlt t` [ul Fbnh n`r bts jppr`vjf jlc sbeljturh. Sajt w`rcble blkfuchc jl jrobtrjtb`l kfjush. O rjbshc tw` quhrbhs `l

tah w`rcble. Sah nbrst wjs tah cjth `n tah kjlkhffjtb`l kfjush bl tah trhjty. Sah shk`lc rhfjthc t` tah njkt tajt tah crjnt w`rcble cbc l`t k`ltjbl jl

jkkhss t` rhk`rcs kfjush, s` tajt [ul Fbnh wùfc ajvh l` jkkhss t` KLJs rhk`rcs. L cbskusshc hjka `n tahsh p`blts wbta [ul Fbnhs ihcbkjf jlc

jkkbchlt ousblhss ulchrwrbthr, @, jt j ihhtble `l 5 Jprbf :222, jlc L jerhhc t` i`cbny tah trhjty w`rcble oy kajleble tah kjlkhffjtb`l cjth jlc

blshrtble jl jkkhss t` rhk`rcs kfjush. Jt tajt p`blt l` lhw w`rcble wjs prhpjrhc, jlc tah ijtthr wjs fhnt tajt w`rcble wùfc n`ff`w. @l :> Gulh :222

L cufy shlt t` O jl jcchlcui t` tah trhjty w`rcble blk`rp`rjtble tah kajlehs t` tah w`rcble wabka ajc ohhl rhquhsthc oy @. [ul Fbnh hxprhsshc bts

jppr`vjf t` tah lhw w`rcble. A`whvhr, lhbtahr tah trhjty l`r tah jcchlcui wjs hvhr sbelhc oy [ul Fbnh. @l ?5 [hpthiohr :222 @ shlt tw` njxhs t`

L, `lh rhnhrrble t` tah phrs`ljf jkkbchlt trhjty jlc tah `tahr t` tah ihcbkjf qu`tj sajrh trhjty. Sa`sh njxhs purp`rthc t` ebvh 2= cjys l`tbkh `n

kjlkhffjtb`l `n hjka `n tah trhjtbhs. Jt tajt p`blt bt ohkjih jppjrhlt tajt l` sfbp n`r tah trhjty ajc hvhr ohhl sbelhc, jlc tajt tah trhjty jlc jcchlcui

ajc tahishfvhs lhvhr ohhl n`rijffy hxhkuthc oy [ul Fbnh. Sah prhshlt jktb`l wjs orùeat oy [ul Fbnh, prhsuijofy n`r chkfjrjt`ry rhfbhn bl rhfjtb`l t`

tah phrs`ljf jkkbchlt trhjty. KLJ sùeat j stjy `n tah pr`khhcbles ulchr shktb`l 2 `n tah Jrobtrjtb`l Jkt :22> `l tah strhleta `n tah jrobtrjtb`l kfjush

bl tah crjnt trhjty w`rcble. Bn tah trhjty w`rcble wjs oblcble, pfjblfy KLJ whrh hltbtfhc t` tahbr stjy. A`whvhr, bn tah hltbrh rhfjtb`lsabp ohtwhhl tah

pjrtbhs wjs e`vhrlhc oy tah Ijljehihlt jlc Jciblbstrjtb`l Jerhhihlt tahrh wjs l` òfbejtb`l t` e` t` jrobtrjtb`l jlc tah gucbkbjf pr`khhcbles

kùfc k`ltbluh.

Ahfc (K.J.)7 tajt tah trhjty w`rcble wjs l`t oblcble `l [ul Fbnh. Sah kjsh wjs rhkèlbshc t` oh jl ulusujf `lh, js tahrh wjs l` cbsputh js t` tah

hxbsthlkh `n j trhjty7 tah pròfhi wjs bts k`lthlt. Sah Kùrt `n Jpphjf, n`ff`wble tah rhjs`lble `n tah trbjf guceh, ahfc tajt tah dhy quhstb`l wjs l`t

tah juta`rbty `n I jlc @ t` oblc [ul Fbnh (js bt wjs kfhjr tajt tahy ajc tah rhfhvjlt juta`rbty t` sbel j sfbp `r trhjty w`rcble `l ohajfn `n [ul Fbnh) out

rjtahr wahtahr tah cbskussb`ls ohtwhhl tahi jlc L ajc pr`khhchc `l tah ojsbs tajt tah trhjty w`rcble wùfc l`t oh oblcble ulfhss bt wjs n`rijffy

hxhkuthc oy [ul Fbnhs sbeljturh. Sah Kùrt `n Jpphjf ahfc tajt tabs wjs tah kjsh. KLJs jreuihlt wjs tajt tah joshlkh `n j n`rijf k`ltrjkt wjs

brrhfhvjlt, js tah pjrtbhs ajc rhjkahc k`lshlsus. Sah Kùrt `n Jpphjf jkkhpthc tajt bt wjs phrnhktfy p`ssbofh n`r tahrh t` oh j oblcble `rjf k`ltrjkt `n

blsurjlkh (hxkhpt, `n kùrsh, bl tah kjsh `n j ijrblh p`fbky, wahrh j p`fbky bs rhqubrhc oy shktb`l ?; `n tah Ijrblh Blsurjlkh Jkt :2=>) jftaùea tabswùfc oh ulusujf. Uajt wùfc l`rijffy oh hxphkthc wjs j sbelhc sfbp n`ff`whc oy jl jerhhc trhjty w`rcble7 tabs pr`khcurh ihjlt tajt, wabfh bl tah

kjsh `n jl `rcbljry kìihrkbjf k`ltrjkt tah kùrt wùfc oh k`lthlt t` nblc tajt lhe`tbjtb`ls whrh l`t suoghkt t` n`rijf k`lnbrijtb`l, tajt nblcble

wùfc oh rhfjtbvhfy ulusujf bl jl blsurjlkh `r rhblsurjlkh kjsh ebvhl tajt tahrh wjs jl jkkhpthc ihta`c `n c`ble ousblhss. Bl tah joshlkh `n j sfbp, tah

pjrtbhs ajc ka`shl t` rheufjth tahbr rhfjtb`lsabp `l tah thris `n tah blk`rp`rjthc Ijljehihlt jlc Jciblbstrjtb`l Jerhhihlt. Sajt ohble tah kjsh, tah

Ijljehihlt jlc Jciblbstrjtb`l Jerhhihlt wjs tah e`vhrlble c`kuihlt ulfhss jlc ultbf tahrh ajc ohhl jl jerhhc i`cbnbkjtb`l `n bt. Sah hvbchlkh

wjs tajt tah `lfy jkkhptjofh jerhhc i`cbnbkjtb`l wjs j sbelhc trhjty, out bl tah joshlkh `n jl hxhkuthc n`rijf c`kuihlt tah Ijljehihlt jlc

Jciblbstrjtb`l Jerhhihlt rhijblhc bl pfjkh. Sah Kùrt `n Jpphjf hipajsbshc tah cbstblktb`l ohtwhhl jsshlt t` thris ohble blkfuchc bl j k`ltrjkt,

jlc jsshlt t` tah k`ltrjkt btshfn.


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KLJ sùeat t` `vhrkìh tabs rufble oy jreuble tajt [ul Fbnh wjs hst`pphc nrì chlyble tah vjfbcbty `n tah trhjty thris, bl tajt @ ajc ohhl ahfc ùt

oy [ul Fbnh t` ajvh tah juta`rbty t` oblc [ul Fbnh wbtaùt tah lhhc n`r jly n`rijf sbeljturh `l tahbr pjrt. Sah Kùrt `n Jpphjf rhejrchc tabs jreuihlt

js ulsustjbljofh. @s juta`rbty wjs l`t tah p`blt. Uajt wjs bl bssuh wjs wahtahr @ kùfc oh tjdhl t` ajvh blthlchc t` oblc [ul Fbnh t` tah w`rcble

suoibtthc t` ahr wbtaùt j n`rijf trhjty w`rcble ohble sbelhc, jlc tajt quhstb`l ajc ohhl jlswhrhc bl tah lhejtbvh.

Jssbkurjzb`lb Ehlhrjfb [pJ v. Jrjo Blsurjlkh Erùp (O[K) T?==;Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ :;:Sah kfjbijlt wjs tah rhblsurhr `n j X.[. blsurhr, XBE. Sah kfjbijlts or`dhrs sùeat rhtr`khssb`l k`vhr nrì tah chnhlcjlt, jlc njxhc jl blvbtjtb`l t`

tah chnhlcjlt t` pjrtbkbpjth bl tah rhtr`khssb`l. Sah chnhlcjlt rhpfbhc oy njx, stjtble bts wbffblelhss t` jkkhpt j 5.8% fblh js f`le js vjrbùs k`lcbtb`ls

whrh iht jlc rhquhstble tah suoibssb`l `n nbljf sfbps n`r bts sbeljturh. [fbps whrh cufy njxhc t`, jlc skrjtkahc oy, tah chnhlcjlt. Sah bssuh wjs

wahtahr j k`ltrjkt ajc ohhl ijch oy tah hxkajleh `n njxhs `r wahtahr tah k`ltrjkt ajc ohhl ijch jt tah cjth `n tah skrjtkable `n tah sfbps.

Ahfc (K.J.)7 tajt tah k`ltrjkt ajc ohhl ijch wahl tah sfbps whrh skrjtkahc. Hvhl bn tah or`dhrs njx ajc ohhl jl `nnhr (wabka wjs ulfbdhfy js bt wjs

l`t sunnbkbhltfy sphkbnbk) tah chnhlcjlts njx ajc l`t ohhl jl jkkhptjlkh js k`lcbtb`ls up`l nbljf jkkhptjlkh ajc ohhl bip`shc. Sah Kùrt `n Jpphjf

rhkèlbshc tajt tah usujf ihta`c `n k`ltrjktble wjs oy tah skrjtkable `n j sfbp, out ahfc tajt tabs wjs l`t tah `lfy ihta`c oy wabka j oblcble k`ltrjkt

kùfc oh rhjkahc.

L`t hvhry skrjtkahc sfbp bs j oblcble k`ltrjkt. Sah or`dhr ijy put n`rwjrc j sfbp purhfy n`r j qu`tjtb`l, jlc tah skrjtkable `n jqu`tjtb`l sfbp bs sbipfy j stjthihlt oy tah ulchrwrbthr `n tah thris up`l wabka ah wùfc oh wbffble t` c` ousblhss bl tah hvhlt tajt jpr`p`sjf wjs t` oh put t` abi. Uahtahr j sfbp bs j nbljf sfbp `r j qu`tjtb`l sfbp bs l`t jfwjys jppjrhlt nrì tah njkh `n tah c`kuihlt,jlc bt bs t` oh jssuihc tajt tah sfbp bs j nuff `nnhr ulfhss bt sphkbnbkjffy stjths `tahrwbsh. Hvhl wahrh tah sfbp c`hs k`lstbtuth jl `nnhr,tah ulchrwrbthrs skrjtka ijy oh k`lcbtb`ljf, h.e., suoghkt t` jppr`vjf oy j tabrc pjrty.

Hjefh [tjr Blsurjlkh v. [prjtt T:25:Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. ::>J sfbp n`r jl jvbjtb`l rbsd wjs prhshlthc t` jl ulchrwrbthr n`r abs sbeljturh. Sah sfbp wjs skrjtkahc oy abi, out ah ulchrfblhc tah sbeljturh bl jl

jtthipt t` blcbkjth t` suoshquhlt ulchrwrbthrs tajt ah ajc rhshrvjtb`ls js t` tah rbsd. Sah quhstb`l wjs wahtahr tabs jiùlthc t` j qujfbnbkjtb`l `l tah

ulchrwrbthrs skrjtka `r wahtahr tah k`ltrjkt wjs oblcble jt tajt p`blt.

Ahfc (K.J.)7 tajt tahrh wjs j oblcble k`ltrjkt. F``dble jt tah ijtthr òghktbvhfy, tahrh wjs l`table t` blcbkjth tajt tah ulchrwrbthrs jkkhptjlkh ajc

ohhl jlytable `tahr tajl ulk`lcbtb`ljf. Uabfh tah ulchrfblble ibeat ajvh ihjlt sìhtable t` `tahr ulchrwrbthrs wbtabl tah sjih sylcbkjth, bt kùfc

l`t oh rhejrchc js ajvble jly k`ltrjktujf hnnhkt.

Sahrh ajs t` oh jl jktujf skrjtkable `r sbeljturh7 tah ihrh jnnbxble `n j stjip bs l`t hlùea.

Chloy v. Hlefbsa jlc [k`ttbsa Ijrbtbih Blsurjlkh K`. Ftc T:222Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ ;3;J Ff`ycs ulchrwrbthr wjs erjlthc juta`rbty oy tw` `tahr sylcbkjths t` jkkhpt rbsds `l tahbr ohajfvhs. J sfbp wjs suoibtthc t` tah ulchrwrbthr, jlc ah

jnnbxhc tah stjips `n o`ta sylcbkjths t` tah sfbp out `lfy jpphlchc abs sbeljturh t` `lh `n tah stjips. Sah bssuh wjs wahtahr o`ta sylcbkjths whrh

oùlc t` tah sfbp, `r `lfy tah sylcbkjth wa`sh stjip ajc ohhl sbelhc oy tah ulchrwrbthr.

Ahfc (K.J.)7 tajt tah sylcbkjth wa`sh stjip ajc l`t ohhl sbelhc wjs l`t oùlc oy tah sfbp. J k`ltrjkt wbff oh ijch `lfy wahrh tah sfbp bs jktujffy

skrjtkahc oy tah ulchrwrbthr, jlc bt bs l`t hlùea tajt bt ajs ohhl stjiphc wbtaùt sbeljturh. Bt kùfc l`t oh ahfc `l tah njkts tajt tah ulchrwrbthrs

sbeljturh wjs blthlchc t` hxthlc t` o`ta stjipbles.

Bl O`llhr v. K`x Chcbkjthc K`rp`rjth Ihiohr Blk T?==>Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ ;18 I`rbs`l G. ahfc tajt j skrjtkable bl phlkbf wjs jsoblcble js j skrjtkable bl bld. Sahrh wjs l` jpphjf jejblst tabs jsphkt `n tah chkbsb`l, T?==8Y HUKJ Kbv :8:?. Bl H_K Nrjld`lj _hblsurjlkh v. Jihrbkjl Ljtb`ljf Blsurjlkh K`. T?==>Y Ff`ycs _hp B_ :85 bt wjs ahfc tajt tah jccbtb`l `n tah fhtthrs SOH (t` ohhlthrhc) t` j skrjtkable cbc l`t sbelbny tajt tah skrjtkable wjs k`lcbtb`ljf bl jly wjy out sbipfy `phrjthc js j rhiblchr t` tahulchrwrbthr abishfn tajt tah suoskrbptb`l wjs t` oh hlthrhc blt` abs `wl rhk`rcs.


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6/28

Hnnhkt `n skrjtkable j sfbp@lkh jl ulk`lcbtb`ljf rhblsurjlkh sfbp ajs ohhl skrjtkahc, j k`ltrjkt jrbshs js ohtwhhl tah rhblsurhrs jlc tah rhblsurhc n`r tahpr`p`rtb`l `n tah rbsd jkkhpthc oy tah suoskrboble ulchrwrbthr. Sah oblcble k`ltrjkt ohtwhhl tah pjrtbhs bs uljnnhkthc oy fjthrchvhf`pihlts bl tah pfjkhihlt pr`khss. Sah njkt tajt tah sfbp ajs ohhl suoskrbohc oy jl ulchrwrbthr c`hs l`t ihjl tajt tahulchrwrbthr ohkìhs biihcbjthfy fbjofh n`r f`sshs, js tah rbsd btshfn wbff ehlhrjffy oh stjthc t` blkhpt nrì j ebvhl cjth rjtahr tajlnrì tah cjth `n skrjtkable7 tahrh bs j cbstblktb`l t` oh crjwl ohtwhhl tah ijdble `n tah k`ltrjkt jlc tah kìihlkhihlt `n tah rbsd.Sah ijdble `n tah k`ltrjkt c`hs, a`whvhr, chthriblh tah rhblsurhcs cuty `n uti`st e``c njbta, s` tajt cbskf`surh `n ijthrbjf njktswabka ajvh jrbshl jnthr tah skrjtkable bs l`t rhqubrhc.

Sah prblkbpfhs tajt tah skrjtkable `n j sfbp krhjths j k`ltrjkt `n rhblsurjlkh, jlc tajt hjka suoshquhlt skrjtkable wbff orble j nrhsak`ltrjkt `n rhblsurjlkh blt` hnnhkt js nrì tah cjth `n j skrjtkable s` tajt tahrh jrh js ijly k`ltrjkts js tahrh jrh pjrtbkbpjtblesuoskrbohrs jlc ijch jt cbnnhrhlt tbihs, ebvhs rbsh t` tah n`ff`wble pr`p`sbtb`ls7

Lhbtahr pjrty ijy ulbfjthrjffy wbtacrjw nrì tah sfbp jnthr bt ajs ohhl skrjtkahc hvhl bn tah or`dhr bs uljofh t` òtjblsunnbkbhlt suoshquhlt suoskrbptb`ls t` k`vhr :== phr khlt `n tah rbsd.

Sah rhblsurhcs cuty `n e``c njbta bs `whc t` hjka ulchrwrbthr bl turl, jlc hjka ijy shpjrjthfy rhfy up`l ibsrhprhshltjtb`ls`r njbfurhs t` cbskf`sh bl tah lhe`tbjtb`ls wbta abi.

Bn kajlehs jrh ijch t` tah sfbp oy suoshquhlt ulchrwrbthrs ta`sh kajlehs kjll`t oh rhfbhc up`l oy ulchrwrbthrs wa` ajvhhjrfbhr suoskrbohc t` tah sfbp ulfhss tah k`lshlt `n tah jssurhc t` j vjrbjtb`l bl tahbr thris kjl oh òtjblhc.

Ehlhrjf _hblsurjlkh K`rp`rjtb`l v. N`rsbdrblesjdtbho`fjeht Nhllbj ]jtrbj T:21;Y : Ff`ycs _hp. ?15N], j Nbllbsa blsurhr, ajc jerhhc t` blsurh j kjre` `n pjphr jlc o`jrc ulchr jl `phl k`vhr, jlc rhblsurhc wbta tah kfjbijlt jlc `tahr rhblsurhrs ulchr

tw` shpjrjth p`fbkbhs7 j wa`fh jkkùlt k`vhr `nnhrble jff rbsds pr`thktb`l4 jlc j sphkbnbk rbsds k`vhr wabka k`lnblhc fbjobfbty t` f`ss oy nbrh jlc nf``c.

Sah wa`fh jkkùlt k`vhr wjs n`r NI:? ibffb`l, wbta j chcuktbofh `n NI; ibffb`l. Sah sphkbnbk rbsds k`vhr, wabka ajc ohhl suoskrbohc t` oy ?5

rhblsurhrs, wjs jl hxkhss `n f`ss k`ltrjkt, jlc pr`vbchc n`r k`vhr `n NI:8 ibffb`l bl hxkhss `n NI:8 ibffb`l. Jnthr blkhptb`l `n tahsh p`fbkbhs, N]

òtjblhc jl blkrhjsh bl tah nbljlkbjf fbibts `n tah wa`fh jkkùlt k`vhr, blkrhjsble tah sui blsurhc t` NI?= ibffb`l bl hxkhss `n NI8 ibffb`l. Js j

rhsuft `n tabs jihlcihlt tahrh wjs jl `vhrfjp bl k`vhrjeh wahrh tah f`ss wjs kjushc oy nbrh `r nf``c. Jkk`rcblefy, `l :3 Nhorujry :255 N]s or`dhrs

prhpjrhc jl jihlcihlt sfbp n`r tah sphkbnbk rbsds k`vhr wabka wjs chsbelhc t` rhi`vh tah `vhrfjp7 tah sphkbnbk rbsds k`vhr wjs t` ohkìh `lh n`r

NI:8 ibffb`l bl hxkhss `n NI?8 ibffb`l (tah sui blsurhc pfus chcuktbofh ulchr tah wa`fh jkkùlt k`vhr). Jl jihlcihlt sfbp wjs prhpjrhc, jlc tabs

wjs skrjtkahc oy tah kfjbijlt jlc `lh `tahr rhblsurhr, out l`t oy jly `tahr `n tah rhijblble ?8 suoskrbohrs t` tah sphkbnbk rbsds k`vhr. A`whvhr, jt tabs

p`blt bt ohkjih jppjrhlt tajt j f`ss ajc `kkurrhc, jiùltble t` sìh NI?5 ibffb`l. Bt wjs jerhhc oy tah pjrtbhs tajt, wbtaùt tah jihlcihlt t` tah

sphkbnbk rbsds k`vhr, tah f`ss wùfc ajvh ohhl o`rlh bl tah sui `n NI:8 ibffb`l oy tah wa`fh jkkùlt rhblsurhrs jlc NI:= ibffb`l oy tah sphkbnbk

rbsds rhblsurhrs. A`whvhr, ajc tah jihlcihlt tjdhl hnnhkt, tah wa`fh jkkùlt rhblsurhrs wùfc ajvh o`rlh NI?= ibffb`l `n tah f`ss jlc tah sphkbnbk

rbsds blsurhrs `lfy NI? ibffb`l.

N] sùeat t` wbtacrjw tah jihlcihlt sfbp, jreuble tajt js bt ajc l`t ohhl nuffy suoskrbohc bt wjs l`t oblcble. Sah kfjbijlt rhnushc t` jerhh t` tah

wbtacrjwjf, jlc jreuhc tajt tah jihlcihlt sfbp wjs oblcble up`l ta`sh rhblsurhrs wa` ajc skrjtkahc bt. Jkk`rcblefy, tah kfjbijlts sajrh `n tah f`ss

ulchr tah sphkbnbk rbsds k`vhr kùfc `lfy oh bts pr`p`rtb`l `n tah blsurhc sui `n NI? ibffb`l.

Ahfc (K.J.)7 tajt tah jihlcihlt sfbp kùfc l`t oh wbtacrjwl jlc tajt bt wjs oblcble `l ta`sh rhblsurhrs wa` ajc sbelhc bt out wjs l`t oblcble `l tah

rhst `n tah ijrdht wa` ajc l`t sbelhc bt.

(:) Sah prhshltjtb`l `n tah sfbp oy tah or`dhr k`lstbtuthc tah `nnhr jlc tah wrbtble `n hjka fblh k`lstbtuthc jl jkkhptjlkh `n tabs `nnhr oy tah

ulchrwrbthr. Lhbtahr pjrty kùfc ulbfjthrjffy wbtacrjw nrì tah sfbp `r vjry bts thris.

(?) Sah hvbchlkh cbc l`t supp`rt tah jsshrtb`l tajt tahrh wjs j oblcble ijrdht kustì hltbtfble j rhblsurhc ulbfjthrjffy t` wbtacrjw nrì j sfbp wabka

ajc ohhl pjrtbjffy suoskrbohc7 tah fjw wjs tajt j suoskrbptb`l krhjthc j oblcble k`ltrjkt. Bl tah joshlkh `n jly kustì, N] ajc l` rbeat t` kjlkhf tah

jihlcihlt sfbp jlc tah chnhlcjlt wjs hltbtfhc t` rhfy up`l tajt sfbp.

(;) Sahrh wjs l` ojsbs n`r bipfyble j thri wabka phribtthc tah rhblsurhc t` wbtacrjw nrì j pjrtfy suoskrbohc sfbp. Sah Kùrt `n Jpphjf bl Nhllbj

]jtrbj jppjrhltfy rhkèlbshc tajt tah fjw ibeat oh blk`lvhlbhlt, bl tajt bt ejvh rbsh t` tah p`ssbobfbty tajt tah rhblsurhc ibeat oh oùlc oy jl

ulchrsuoskrbohc sfbp, `r tajt rhblsurhrs ibeat oh oùlc `l cbnnhrhlt thris bn tahrh whrh vjrbjtb`ls curble tah pfjkhihlt pr`khss, out tabs cbc l`t ijdh

tah bipfbkjtb`l `n j rbeat `n wbtacrjwjf lhkhssjry t` ebvh ousblhss hnnbkjky t` tah k`ltrjkt.


_òhrt Ihrdbl


7/28

(3) Sah rhjs`lble `n C`ljfcs`l G. bl Gjefì v. Hxkhss Blsurjlkh K`. T:25:Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. :5: , tajt tah suoibssb`l `n j sfbp oy tah or`dhr t` tah

ulchrwrbthr wjs jl blvbtjtb`l t` trhjt, tajt tah skrjtkable `n tah sfbp wjs jl `nnhr oy tah ulchrwrbthr jlc tajt tah `nnhr wjs jkkhpthc oy tah jssurhc `lkh

tah sfbp wjs nuffy suoskrbohc, wùfc l`t oh n`ff`whc.

[belble c`wlSahrh bs `lh hxkhptb`l t` tah rufh tajt j skrjtkahc sfbp bs j oblcble k`ltrjkt wabka kjll`t oh ulbfjthrjffy vjrbhc. Sabs jrbshs wahrh tah

sfbp ajs ohhl `vhrsuoskrbohc. Bt bs j kustì `n Ff`ycs tajt bn j sfbp ajs ohhl sbelhc n`r i`rh tajl :==% tah or`dhr bs hltbtfhc t`rhcukh tah fbjobfbtbhs `n tah suoskrbohrs pr`p`rtb`ljthfy t` tah p`blt jt wabka tah suoskrbptb`l ajs ohhl rhcukhc t` :==%. Sabshxkhptb`l wjs rhkèlbshc oy tah Kùrt `n Jpphjf bl Ehlhrjf _hblsurjlkh K`rp`rjtb l v. N`rsbdrblesjdtbho`fjeht Nhllbj ]jtrbjT:21;Y : Ff`ycs _hp. ?15 jlc wjs k`lnbrihc oy tah Kùrt `n Jpphjf bl Ehlhrjf Jkkbchlt Nbrh jlc Fbnh Jssurjlkh K`rp`rjtb`l v.Sjlthr, Sah Whpayr T:218Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. 8?2. Sah njkts `n tabs kjsh jrh ebvhl ohf`w.

Sah rbeats `n rhblsurhrs ulchr j iuftbpfh suoskrbptb`lJ typbkjf sfbp wbff ajvh iuftbpfh suoskrbohrs, hjka `n waì ajs j shpjrjth k`ltrjkt wbta tah rhblsurhc. Sah rbeats jlc fbjobfbtbhs `n tahsuoskrboble rhblsurhrs jrh, tahrhn`rh, qubth cbstblkt (jftaùea, js wbff oh shhl ohf`w, tahrh ijy oh jl hxkhptb`l bl tah kjsh `n ibsrhprhshltjtb`l t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr).

Sùkah _`ss & K`. v. Ojdhr T:22?Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. ?=5Sah kfjbijlts, j nbri `n jkkùltjlts, t``d ùt pr`nhssb`ljf blchilbty blsurjlkh wabka k`lsbsthc `n j prbijry fjyhr `n k`vhr jlc shvhrjf hxkhss fjyhrs.

Sah chnhlcjlt, wa` rhprhshlthc [ylcbkjth :?> jt Ff`ycs, pjrtbkbpjthc bl tah prbijry k`vhr jlc bl j luiohr `n tah fjyhrs. Sah p`fbky k`ltjblhc j

cbsk`vhry hxthlsb`l kfjush wabka stjthc tajt bn tah ulchrwrbthrs rhnushc t` rhlhw tah k`vhr ohy`lc bts hxpbry cjth, tah kfjbijlts wùfc ajvh tah

rbeat, up`l pjyihlt `n jl jccbtb`ljf prhibui, t` òtjbl jl hxthlsb`l `n k`vhr bl rhsphkt `n jly kfjbis ijch jejblst tahi curble tah sukkhhcble

phrb`c `n ;> i`ltas bl rhsphkt `n jkts kìibtthc ohn`rh tah thribljtb`l cjth. I`st `n tah ulchrwrbthrs jerhhc t` rhlhw tah k`vhr, out tah chnhlcjlts

sylcbkjth rhnushc t` c` s`. Sah kfjbijlts sùeat j chkfjrjtb`l tajt tahy whrh hltbtfhc t` jvjbf tahishfvhs `n tah cbsk`vhry hxthlsb`l kfjush. Sah

chnhlcjlt jsshrthc tajt tah kfjush wjs j k`ffhktbvh kfjush, wabka kùfc oh `phrjthc `lfy bn jff `n tah suoskrboble ulchrwrbthrs rhnushc t` rhlhw tah

p`fbky7 js i`st `n tah ulchrwrbthrs ajc jerhhc t` rhlhw, tah kfjush wjs bl`phrjtbvh.

Ahfc (A.F.)7 tajt tah jreuihlt oy tah chnhlcjlt tajt tah cbsk`vhry hxthlsb`l kfjush kùfc oh hxhrkbshc hbtahr jejblst jff `n tah ulchrwrbthrs wahrh

tahrh wjs j k`ffhktbvh rhnusjf t` rhlhw tah blsurjlkh, `r l`lh `n tahi bn tahy jff rhlhwhc, wjs blk`rrhkt. Sah fbjobfbty `n j suoskrboble ulchrwrbthr wjs

cbvbsbofh nrì tajt `n tah `tahr ulchrwrbthrs, jlc wjs l`t g`blt. Sabs wjs bl jly hvhlt k`lnbrihc oy tah hxprhss w`rcble `n tah k`vhrs wabka stjthc tajt

Uh, tah Xlchrwrbthrs ahrhoy oblc ùrshfvhs hjka n`r abs `wl pjrt jlc l`t `lh n`r jl`tahr bl rhsphkt `n abs cuh pr`p`rtb`l `lfy

Sah cuty `n cbskf`surh bl j ijrdht pfjkhihltHjka pfjkhihlt bs j shpjrjth k`ltrjkt jlc tahrhn`rh tah cuty `n uti`st e``c njbta bs `whc t` hjka blcbvbcujf suoskrboble ulchrwrbthr.Sah ihrh njkt tajt tahrh ajs ohhl j njbfurh t` cbskf`sh ijthrbjf njkts t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr c`hs l`t phribt tah n`ff`wble ijrdhtt` jv`bc tah p`fbky js whff, js bt rhijbls lhkhssjry n`r tahi t` pr`vh tajt tah sjih njkts whrh jfs` wbtaahfc nrì tahi.

Ojld Fhuib Fh Bsrjhf OI v. Orbtbsa Ljtb`ljf Blsurjlkh K`. Ftc T:211Y : Ff`ycs _hp. 5:Sah kfjbijlt ojld jerhhc t` fhlc X[$8.8 ibffb`l t` [jebttjrbus Nbfis t` nbljlkh tah pr`cuktb`l `n j nbfi. Sah f`jl wjs shkurhc oy j fhtthr `n krhcbt bl

njvùr `n tah o`rr`whrs jlc jssbelhc t` tah ojld, pjyihlt t` oh ijch `l tah pr`cuktb`l `n nùr sphkbnbhc c`kuihlts. Sah ojld stjthc tajt bt wjs `lfy

prhpjrhc t` jcvjlkh tah i`lhy bn bt wjs jfs` shkurhc jejblst tah rbsd tajt tarhh ùt `n tah nùr lhkhssjry c`kuihlts wùfc l`t oh n`rtakìble. Sahojld òtjblhc k`ltblehlky blsurjlkh wbta tah chnhlcjlt blsurhrs. Sah f`jl wjs l`t rhpjbc jlc j kfjbi wjs ijch jejblst tah blsurhrs, wa` purp`rthc t`

jv`bc tah p`fbky `l tah erùlc tajt tah ojld ajc njbfhc t` cbskf`sh tajt tah nbfi wjs l` f`lehr t` oh pr`cukhc oy [jebttjrbus Nbfis jlc tajt [jebttjrbus

ajc khjshc t` oh tah `wlhr `n rbeats bl tah nbfi.

Ahfc ([jvbffh G.)7 tajt tah jffhejtb`ls `n ibsrhprhshltjtb`l jlc l`l-cbskf`surh wùfc oh cbsibsshc `l tah njkts. Bl tah kùrsh `n abs guceihlt [jvbffh G.

cbskusshc jl jreuihlt put n`rwjrc oy tah or`dhrs (wa` ajc ohhl g`blhc t` tah pr`khhcbles), t` tah hnnhkt tajt tahrh ajc ohhl l` hvbchlkh oy khrtjbl

ihiohrs `n tah n`ff`wble ijrdht t` supp`rt tahbr jsshrtb`ls `n l`l-cbskf`surh.

Bt bs l` cùot tah p`sbtb`l (jt fhjst bl sìh blsurjlkh ijrdhts) tajt n`ff`wble ulchrwrbthrs `nthl c` suoskrboh sbipfy `r fjrehfy `l tah ojsbs `n trustble


_òhrt Ihrdbl


8/28

tah sdbff jlc gucehihlt `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr jlc up`l tah jssuiptb`l tajt tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr ajs suoskrbohc `lfy jnthr k`lsbchrble nuff jlc

jkkurjth bln`rijtb`l joùt tah rbsd. Saus bt ibeat oh tajt, bl jly kjsh wahrh tabs bs hstjofbsahc, tah supp`shc rufh kùfc phrajps oh supp`rthc oy

pr`vble j kustì `r usjeh bl tah pjrtbkufjr ijrdht, `r oy bip`rtble jl bipfbhc thri blt` tah k`ltrjkts `n tah n`ff`wble ulchrwrbthrs, `r hvhl phrajps

oy trhjtble tah rufh js rhstble up`l sìh bipfbhc rhprhshltjtb`l ijch t` n`ff`wble ulchrwrbthrs tajt jff ijthrbjf kbrkuistjlkhs ajvh ohhl jkkurjthfy

pr`vbchc t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr. Hvhl tahl tah supp`shc rufh kùfc kjush cbnnbkuftbhs7 n`r hxjipfh, wùfc bt jppfy wahl tah n`ff`wble ulchrwrbthrs

(out l`t tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr) ajvh ohhl ebvhl nuff jlc jkkurjth chtjbfs `n tah rbsd0 Bt iust jfwjys oh rhihiohrhc tajt hjka suoskrboble ulchrwrbthr

ijdhs j shpjrjth k`ltrjkt n`r abishfn (`r n`r ta`sh ah rhprhshlts) s` tajt bt bs cbnnbkuft t` jkkhpt tah pr`p`sbtb`l tajt tah ihrh njkt tajt tah fhjcble

ulchrwrbthr ijy oh jofh t` jv`bc abs k`ltrjkt saùfc jff`w tah `tahrs, k`ltrjktble shpjrjthfy wbta tah jssurhc, jfs` t` c` s`.

J sfbeatfy cbnnhrhlt sbtujtb`l jrbshs wahrh j ijthrbjf njfsh stjthihlt ajs ohhl ijch t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr, out l` hqubvjfhltnjfsh stjthihlt ajs ohhl ijch t` tah n`ff`wble ijrdht. Sahrh bs j cbvbsb`l `n `pblb`l bl tah kjshs js t` wahtahr tah n`ff`wble ijrdhtjrh hltbtfhc t` rhfy up`l tah njfsh stjthihlt. @lh vbhw bs tajt tahrh bs l` suka rbeat7 tabs wjs tah k`lkfusb`l `n tah Kùrt `n Jpphjf blEhlhrjf Jkkbchlt Nbrh jlc Fbnh Jssurjlkh K`rp`rjtb`l v. Sjlthr, Sah Whpayr T:218Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. 8?2. Sah jfthrljtbvh vbhw, tjdhljt nbrst blstjlkh bl j sukkhssb`l `n suoshquhlt kjshs, bs tajt tah n`ff`wble ijrdht kjl rhfy up`l tah njfsh stjthihlt t` tah fhjcbleulchrwrbthr hbtahr ohkjush7 (j) tah njkt tajt j njfsh stjthihlt ajs ohhl ijch t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr bs `n btshfn j ijthrbjf njkt, jlctabs ajs t` oh cbskf`shc t` tah n`ff`wble ijrdht4 `r (o) bn tah k`vhr bs sphkbjfbshc, bt bs t` oh jssuihc tajt tah n`ff`wble ijrdht ajvhrhfbhc up`l tah prhshltjtb`l t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr jlc tah ulchrwrbtble gucehihlt hxhrkbshc oy abi bl tah k`lsbchrjtb`l `n tahrbsd.

Ehlhrjf Jkkbchlt Nbrh jlc Fbnh Jssurjlkh K`rp`rjtb`l v. Sjlthr, Sah Whpayr T:218Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. 8?2J or`dhr wjs blstrukthc t` pfjkh cbrhkt blsurjlkh `l j vhsshf. Blsthjc `n jppr`jkable blsurhrs cbrhktfy, tah or`dhr ka`sh t` shhd rhblsurjlkh nbrst s` tajt

ah wùfc oh jofh t` `nnhr cbrhkt blsurhrs o`ta tah rbsd jlc jfs` shkurbty n`r k`vhrjeh bl tah n`ri `n rhblsurjlkh. Sah or`dhr prhshlthc tah rbsd t` tah

chnhlcjlt, tah ulchrwrbthr n`r j Ff`ycs sylcbkjth. Sah or`dhr wjs jsdhc wahtahr ah blthlchc t` shhd t` ajvh tah sfbp `vhrsuoskrbohc, jlc tah or`dhr

bln rihc tah chnhlcjlt tajt bt wjs abs blthltb l t` c` s` jlc tajt suoskrboble rhblsurhrs wùfc oh sbelhc c`wl t` `lh-tabrc `n tahbr `rbebljf

suoskrbptb`l. Bl rhfbjlkh `l tabs sbelble blcbkjtb`l, tah chnhlcjlt suoskrbohc t` tah sfbp. Sah or`dhr tahl prhshlthc tah sfbp t` tw` nurtahr rhblsurjlkh

ulchrwrbthrs7 l` sbelble blcbkjtb`l wjs ijch t` tahi, out tahy suoskrbohc t` tah sfbp `l tah jssuiptb`l tajt j sbelble blcbkjtb`l ajc ohhl ebvhl t` tah

fhjcble ulchrwrbthr. Sah or`dhr wjs tahrhjnthr jofh t` pfjkh tah blsurjlkh rbsd wbta `tahr ulchrwrbthrs. Bl tah hvhlt, tah or`dhr wjs l`t jofh t` òtjbl

tah jltbkbpjthc fhvhf `n suoskrbptb`l n`r tah rhblsurjlkh, jlc tah nbljf wrbtthl c`wl pr`p`rtb`l `n tah suoskrbptb`l wjs 11.31 phr khlt rjtahr tajl tah

prìbshc `lh-tabrc. Sah chnhlcjlt jlc tah tw` `tahr ihiohrs `n tah n`ff`wble ijrdht, ajvble ohhl ahfc fbjofh t` blchilbny tah rhblsurhcs (shh

ohf`w), sùeat cjijehs jejblst tah or`dhr.

Ahfc (K.J.)7 tajt tah or`dhr wjs fbjofh t` tah fhjcble rhblsurjlkh ulchrwrbthr n`r orhjka `n k`ltrjkt, out tajt tahrh wjs l` fbjobfbty t` tah n`ff`wble

ijrdht.

(:) Sah or`dhr, bl ebvble tah sbelble blcbkjtb`l, ulchrt``d j k`ffjthrjf k`ltrjktujf òfbejtb`l t` tah hnnhkt tajt ah wùfc ush abs ohst hlc hjvùrs t`

òtjbl tah fhvhf `n `vhrsuoskrbptb l wabka ah ajc blcbkjthc wùfc oh òtjblhc. Sahrh wjs l` lhhc t` bipfy j cuty `n kjrh bl t`rt ebvhl tajt tahrh wjs

k`ltrjktujf fbjobfbty.

(?) Sah n`ff`wble ijrdht whrh uljofh t` rhfy up`l tah rhprhshltjtb`l ijch t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr out l`t t` tahi. Sah n`ff`wble ijrdht ajc l`

bchj `n hxjktfy wajt stjthihlt ajc ohhl ijch t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr, s` tahrh kùfc l`t oh rhfbjlkh. Nurtahr, bn oy tah tbih tajt tah or`dhr ajc

jppr`jkahc tah n`ff`wble ijrdht bt ajc ohkìh kfhjr tajt tah sbelble blcbkjtb`l ebvhl t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr wjs ulrhjfbstbk, bt kùfc l`t oh rbeat

tajt tah n`ff`wble ijrdht kùfc purp`rt t` kfjbi cjijehs n`r j stjthihlt ijch t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr jt tah vhry stjrt `n tah pr`khss.

Jlhk` _hblsurjlkh Xlchrwrbtble Ftc v. Gàls`l & Abeebls T:221Y : Ff`ycs _hp. 8>8Sah chnhlcjlt or`dhrs pfjkhc rhtr`khssb`l k`vhr n`r rhtr`khcjlts wa` ajc suoskrbohc t` j rhblsurjlkh trhjty. Sah prhshltjtb`l ijch t` tah fhjcble

rhtr`khssb`ljbrh ulchrwrbthr wjs njfsh, js bt blcbkjthc tajt tah fbjobfbty njkhc oy tah rhtr`khcjlt wjs ulchr jl òfbejt`ry trhjty wahrhjs tah trhjty wjs bl

njkt j njkuftjtbvh òfbejt`ry trhjty ulchr wabka tah rhtr`khcjlt wjs rhqubrhc t` jkkhpt suka rbsds js bts p`fbky a`fchrs ka`sh t` khch. Sabs wjs j

ijthrbjf njkt jlc tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr ajc tah rbeat t` jv`bc. Sah nurtahr quhstb`l wjs wahtahr tah n`ff`wble ijrdht `n rhtr`khssb`ljbrhs ajc tah


_òhrt Ihrdbl


9/28


10/28

Ff`ycs _hp. 8?2 , jo`vh, tajt bt bs l`t ulkìi`l bl tah F`lc`l ijrdht n`r rhblsurjlkh t` oh jrrjlehc bl jcvjlkh `n tah blsurjlkh t`wabka bt rhfjths. Sabs ijy `kkur wahl tah or`dhr jpprhkbjths tajt bt ijy oh cbnnbkuft t` pfjkh tah rbsd ulfhss blsurhrs jrh eujrjlthhcpr`thktb`l bl tah n`ri `n rhblsurjlkh jlc taus ka``shs t` jppr`jka rhblsurhrs nbrst, `r wahrh ah jtthipts t` pfjkh blsurjlkh cbrhktfyjlc bs bln`rihc oy tah ulchrwrbthrs tajt tahy jrh `lfy prhpjrhc t` jkt js rhblsurhrs n`r jly cbrhkt ulchrwrbthrs tajt tah or`dhr bs jofht` nblc. Bt bs jfs` j kìi`l prjktbkh n`r blsurjlkh jlc rhblsurjlkh t` oh lhe`tbjthc jt tah sjih tbih, wbta tah sjih prhshltjtb`l ohbleushc n`r o`ta tah blsurjlkh jlc rhblsurjlkh jlc wbta tah k`ltrjkts ohble sbelhc jt tah sjih tbih. Sah prjktbkh `n òtjblblerhblsurjlkh bl jcvjlkh `n blsurjlkh ebvhs rbsh t` fhejf kìpfhxbtbhs.

Ehlhrjf Jkkbchlt Nbrh jlc Fbnh Jssurjlkh K`rp`rjtb`l v. Sjlthr, Sah Whpayr T:218Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. 8?2([hh jfs` jo`vh.) J or`dhr, ajvble ohhl blstrukthc t` pfjkh blsurjlkh `l j vhsshf, sùeat t` òtjbl tah suoskrbptb`l `n rhblsurhrs nbrst. Bl òtjblble tah

suoskrbptb`l `n tah fhjcble rhblsurble ulchrwrbthr, tah or`dhr ejvh j sbelble blcbkjtb`l `n `lh-tabrc, fhjvble tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr wbta tah ohfbhn tajt

abs jerhhc suoskrbptb`l wùfc oh rhcukhc t` `lh-tabrc `n tah stjthc sui. A`whvhr, tah or`dhr njbfhc t` òtjbl tah rhfhvjlt fhvhf `n `vhrsuoskrbptb`l,

jlc tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr wjs blsthjc sbelhc c`wl t` 11.31% `n tah sui jerhhc. Sah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr sùeat t` jv`bc tah rhblsurjlkh jerhhihlt

jejblst tah blsurhrs wa` ajc suoshquhltfy suoskrbohc t` tah cbrhkt rbsd `r, bl tah jfthrljtbvh, t` kfjbi cjijehs nrì tah or`dhr. Js wjs shhl jo`vh, tah

fhjcble ulchrwrbthr wjs ahfc t` oh hltbtfhc t` kfjbi cjijehs nrì tah or`dhr. Sah jsphkt `n tah Kùrt `n Jpphjfs chkbsb`l k`lsbchrhc ahrh bs tah

kfjbi n`r tah rbeat t` jv`bc jejblst tah blsurhrs.

Ahfc (Aòaùsh G. jlc K.J.)7 tajt tahrh wjs l` rbeat t` jv`bc tah rhblsurjlkh jerhhihlt.

(:) Sah ehlhrjf rufh wjs tajt tah or`dhr wjs tah jehlt `n tah phrs`l wa` jpp`blthc abi t` òtjbl rhblsurjlkh. Sah or`dhr wjs l`t, tahrhn`rh, tah jehlt

`n tah rhblsurhrs, jlc jkk`rcblefy bt kùfc l`t oh jreuhc tajt tah sbelble blcbkjtb`l wjs j fbibtjtb`l `l tah or`dhrs juta`rbty t` jkt n`r tah rhblsurhrs,

rhstrbktble tah or`dhr t` oblcble tahi t` `lh-tabrc `n tah rbsd.

(?) Bl prhshltble tah rbsd t` rhblsurhrs, tah or`dhr wjs t` oh rhejrchc js tah jehlt `n tah rhblsurhcs (wa` ajc l`t yht kìh blt` hxbsthlkh). A`whvhr,

tah rhblsurjlkh kùfc l`t oh jv`bchc n`r ibsrhprhshltjtb`l js tah or`dhr ajc ihrhfy ebvhl j stjthihlt `n abs blthltb`l jlc ohfbhn rjtahr tajl j

ibsrhprhshltjtb`l `n njkt, jlc bl jly hvhlt tah sbelble blcbkjtb`l cbc l`t n`ri j pjrt `n tah prhshltjtb`l n`r rhblsurjlkh. @l tah jehlky bssuh,

Aòaùsh G. l`thc tajt7

TJY or`dhr wa` jppr`jkahs jl blsurhr wbta jl `nnhr `n rhblsurjlkh bs `nnhrble t` jkt js tah jehlt `n tah blsurhr. Bn tah blsurhr jkkhpts tah rhblsurjlkh

`nnhrhc ah tahrhoy k`lstbtuths tah or`dhr abs jehlt t` òtjbl tah k`vhr `nnhrhc.

(;) @lkh tah rhblsurjlkh ajc ohhl jerhhc, tahl phlcble tah ijdble `n tah cbrhkt blsurjlkh k`ltrjkts t` wabka bt wjs chsbelhc t` rhfjth tah rhblsurhrs

whrh l`t phribtthc t` wbtacrjw tah `nnhr `n rhblsurjlkh js tah k`lsbchrjtb`l n`r tahbr prìbsh t` pr`vbch rhblsurjlkh wjs j k`rrhsp`lcble bipfbhc

prìbsh `l tah pjrt `n tah or`dhr l`t t` pfjkh tah rhblsurjlkh wbta `tahr rhblsurhrs.

Bl fjthr kjshs Aòaùsh G.s p`blt (?) ajs ohhl jppr`vhc (shh Rùhff v. Ofjlc Uhfka & K`. (L`. ?) T:22=Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. 3;: jlcDbleskr`nt Blsurjlkh K`. Ftc v. Lbssjl Nbrh & Ijrblh Blsurjlkh K`. Ftc (L`. ?) T:222Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ >=;) out abs rhjs`lble `lp`blt (;) ajs ohhl i`cbnbhc. Sah vbhw wabka ajs l`w kìh blt` njvùr bs tajt tah rhblsurhr, oy jerhhble t` pr`vbch rhblsurjlkh n`rcbrhkt blsurhrs wa` ka`sh t` jkkhpt tah rbsd, ajc hlthrhc blt` j ulbfjthrjf k`ltrjkt wahrhoy jl `nnhr wjs ijch t` tah w`rfc jlc kùfckrystjffbsh blt` j oblcble k`ltrjkt oy jly phrs`l wa` iht bts k`lcbtb`ls. Sah `nnhr kùfc l`t oh wbtacrjwl `lkh bt ajc ohhl jkkhpthcoy jl blsurhr wa` ajc ka`shl t` wrbth tah cbrhkt rbsd. Sabs jppr`jka wjs jc`pthc oy I``rh-Obkd G. bl Dbleskr`nt Blsurjlkh K`. Ftc v. Lbssjl Nbrh & Ijrblh Blsurjlkh K`. Ftc (L`. ?) T:222Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ >=;. [hh jfs` O`llhr v. K`x Chcbkjthc K`rp`rjth Ihiohr Blk T?==>Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ ;18, jnnbrihc T?==8Y HUKJ Kbv :8:?, wahrh rhblsurhrs ajc skrjtkahc j rhblsurjlkh sfbp jlcsuoshquhltfy kfjbihc tah rbeat t` jv`bc bt n`r l`l-cbskf`surh `n j cbrhkt f`ss. I`rbs`l G. ahfc tajt tah rhblsurhcs ajc jkkhpthc tahrhblsurhrs stjlcble `nnhr ohn`rh tah f`ss ajc ohkìh dl`wl t` tahbr or`dhr, s` tajt tahrh wjs l` orhjka `n tah cuty `n uti`st e``cnjbta. Sah tah`rhtbkjf pròfhi `n tah blkbchlkh `n jehlky `n j or`dhr wa` ajs ohhl jpp`blthc t` òtjbl blsurjlkh out wa` nbrst jppfbhsn`r rhblsurjlkh ajs l`t ohhl trhjthc oy tah kùrts js j ijg`r bssuh. Bl Srye Ojftbkj Blthrljtb`ljf (XD) Ftc v. O`st`l Kìpjlbj ch[heur`s [J T?==8Y Ff`ycs _hp B_ 3= tah bssuh wjs wahtahr tah Hlefbsa kùrt ajc gurbscbktb`l t` ahjr jl jktb`l oy Hlefbsa rhblsurhrsjejblst Jrehltblbjl blsurjlkh kìpjlbhs. Sah rhblsurjlkh ajc ohhl pfjkhc bl F`lc`l oy F`lc`l ijrdht or`dhrs jktble `lblstruktb`ls nrì tah blsurjlkh kìpjlbhs jlc nr i or`dhrs bl Jrehltblj. Sah ahjc `n gurbscbktb`l rhfbhc up`l wjs tajt tahrhblsurjlkh ajc ohhl pfjkhc bl Hlefjlc oy jl jehlt rhsbcble bl Hlefjlc jlc jktble n`r tah blsurhrs. K``dh G., wbtaùt jly jljfysbs `n tah p`blt, rhfbhc `l Sah Whpayr t` a`fc tajt tah F`lc`l pfjkble or`dhrs iht tabs chskrbptb`l hvhl taùea jt tah tbih tah rhblsurjlkhwjs pfjkhc tahrh wjs l` cbrhkt blsurjlkh bl hxbsthlkh.

[uiijry_hblsurjlkh bs ehlhrjffy pfjkhc bl tah F`lc`l ijrdht `l j suoskrbptb l ojsbs blv`fvble tah ush `n j sfbp, jftaùea `tahr


_òhrt Ihrdbl


11/28

ihta`cs ijy oh ushc.Sahrh bs l` lhhc n`r j p`fbky t` oh bssuhc, js tah sfbp bs j oblcble k`ltrjkt, jftaùea bn tahrh bs j p`fbky tahl tah sfbp jlc

p`fbky iust oh rhjc tèhtahr.Hjka suoskrbptb`l t` j sfbp bs j oblcble k`ltrjkt bl bts `wl rbeat, jlc hjka ulchrwrbthr ajs bts `wl chnhlkhs jejblst tah

jssurhc.J njfsh stjthihlt ijch t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr ijy ehlhrjffy oh rhfbhc up`l oy ihiohrs `n tah n`ff`wble ijrdht.@lkh j sfbp ajs ohhl skrjtkahc, lhbtahr tah rhblsurhc l`r tah suoskrboble ulchrwrbthr kjl jfthr tah thris `n tah suoskrbptb`l

ulbfjthrjffy7 tah k`lshlt `n o`ta pjrtbhs bs lhhchc.Sah `lfy hxkhptb`l t` tabs prblkbpfh jrbshs wahrh j sfbp ajs ohhl `vhrsuoskrbohc, bl wabka kjsh tah or`dhr ijy sbel c`wlpr`p`rtb`ljthfy tah suoskrbptb`ls `n hjka rhblsurhr.

Bn rhblsurjlkh bs pfjkhc bl jcvjlkh `n blsurjlkh, tah rhblsurhrs jrh trhjthc js ajvble ijch j stjlcble `nnhr t` jff p`thltbjfblsurhrs, jlc tah k`ltrjkt `n rhblsurjlkh bs kìpfhthc wahl jl blsurhr jerhhs t` jkkhpt tah cbrhkt rbsd.

SAH X[H @N JEHLKR JE_HHIHLS[ BL SAHF@LC@L IJ_DHS Fblh sfbpsSah tbih-k`lsuible ljturh `n j typbkjf ijrdht pfjkhihlt, jlc tah fhejf kìpfhxbtbhs wabka jrbsh nrì suka pfjkhihlts, ijy blprjktbkh oh jv`bchc oy tah ush `n jehlky jerhhihlts, `lh typh `n wabka bs tah fblh sfbp. J fblh sfbp bs bl hsshlkh jl jerhhihlt wabkajuta`rbshs `lh ulchrwrbthr t` jkkhpt ousblhss `l ohajfn `n `tahr ulchrwrbthrs. Jkk`rcblefy wahl j or`dhr jppr`jkahs j pjrtbkufjrulchrwrbthr t` suoskrboh t` j rbsd, tajt ulchrwrbthr ijy whff oh juta`rbshc t` jkkhpt suoskrbptb`ls `l ohajfn `n `tahr ulchrwrbthrs.Sah pr`khcurh bl rhblsurjlkh kjshs bs tajt tah fblh sfbp k`lstbtuths tah jehlky rhfjtb`lsabp ohtwhhl tah ulchrwrbthrs, jlc tajt wahl jrbsd bs jkkhpthc jl `nn sfbp bs bssuhc7 tabs hvbchlkhs tah k`ltrjkt `n blsurjlkh jlc k`lnbris tajt tah rbsd bs rhblsurhc. J fblh sfbp bs taus

l`t j k`ltrjkt `n rhblsurjlkh out rjtahr bs jl jerhhihlt ohtwhhl rhblsurhrs, jlc bt n`ff`ws tajt tah rhblsurhc kjll`t rhfy up`l bt jshvbchlkh `n tah thris up`l wabka rhblsurjlkh ajs ohhl pr`vbchc t` abi (shh Sùkah _`ss & K`. v. Ojdhr T:22?Y ? Ff`ycs _hp.?=5).

Ojfnùr v. Ohjui`lt T:213Y : Ff`ycs _hp. ?5?IkC`llhff Cùefjs K`rp rjtb l, jbrkrjnt ijlunjkturhrs, wjs blsurhc jejblst pr`cukt fbjobfbty ulchr nùr p`fbkbhs jrrjlehc bl fjyhrs. Sah kfjbijlt,

[ylcbkjth >:2 jt Ff`ycs, wjs j pjrtbkbpjlt bl tah tarhh hxkhss fjyhr p`fbkbhs. N`ff`wble tah krjsa `n jl jbrkrjnt lhjr t` ]jrbs bl Ijrka :253, [ylcbkjth

>:2 blchilbnbhc IkC`llhff jejblst tabrc pjrty kfjbis. Sah chnhlcjlts, tw` Ff`ycs sylcbkjths jlc jl blsurjlkh kìpjly, whrh suoskrbohrs t` jl

hxkhss `n f`ss rhblsurjlkh p`fbky wabka rhblsurhc [ylcbkjth >:2. Sah rhblsurjlkh wjs bl n`rkh n`r tah phrb`c n`r :? i`ltas jt : Chkhiohr :25?. J

kfjbi wjs ijch ulchr tah rhblsurjlkh jerhhihlt out tah Kùrt `n Jpphjf ahfc tajt tah rhblsurhrs whrh l`t fbjofh js tah p`fbky ajc ohhl wrbtthl `l j

f`sshs `kkurrble ojsbs wabka ihjlt tajt tah rhblsurhrs whrh fbjofh `lfy n`r f`sshs wabka `kkurrhc curble tah :? i`ltas jnthr : Chkhiohr :25?4 tahp`fbky ajc l`t ohhl wrbtthl `l j rbsds jttjkable ojsbs wahrhoy tah rhblsurjlkh jppfbhc t` cbrhkt p`fbkbhs bl n`rkh curble tah :? i`ltas jnthr :

Chkhiohr :25?. Bl tah kùrsh `n abs guceihlt, F`rc C`ljfcs`l I_ chskrbohc tah fblh sfbp pr`khss js n`ff`ws7

Sah rhblsurjlkh p`fbky btshfn t``d tah n`ri `n wajt bs kjffhc j sfbp p`fbky. Sabs, js bts ljih bipfbhs, bs j sfbp wabka ajs ohhl k`lvhrthc blt` j p`fbky

oy tah jccbtb`l `n j stjlcjrc w`rcble sbelhc oy Ff`ycs ]`fbky [belble @nnbkh. L`table turls `l tabs stjlcjrc w`rcble jlc tah sfbp bs t` oh k`lstruhc

jlc tjdhs hnnhkt js j p`fbky `n rhblsurjlkh.

Sah rhblsurjlkh p`fbky rhnhrs, ulchr tah ahjcble `n blthrhst, t` j fblh sfbp. Sabs kjffs n`r j w`rc `n hxpfjljtb`l. Bt bs j kurbùs c`kuihlt, out `lh

wabka shrvhs bl tah prhshlt k`lthxt j kìihrkbjf purp`sh bl jccbtb`l t` bts ijbl nulktb`l js jl juta`rbty hljofble fhjcble ulchrwrbthrs t` ouy-bl

n`rhbel ulchrwrbthrs. [upp`sh tajt j or`dhr jppr`jkahs jl ulchrwrbthr jsdble abi t` wrbth j rbsd. Sah ulchrwrbthr ijy oh ulwbffble t` c` s` ulfhss ah

bs khrtjbl tajt ah kjl rhblsurh pjrt `n tajt rbsd. A`whvhr, bn ah c`hs l`t jkkhpt tah rbsd, ah ajs l`table t` rhblsurh jlc bn ah c`hs jkkhpt bt ah ijy nblc

tajt ah kjll`t hnnhkt rhblsurjlkh. Sah fblh sfbp jlc jss`kbjthc rhblsurjlkh p`fbky pr`vbch jl hskjph nrì tabs cbfhiij. Sah rhblsurjlkh p`fbkyhvbchlkhs tah jerhhihlt `n tah rhblsurhr t` rhblsurh `rbebljf rbsds jkkhpthc oy ulchrwrbthrs bl jkk`rcjlkh wbta tah fblh sfbp. Uahrh rbsds jrh s` blsurhc,

tah k`ltrjkt ohtwhhl tah jssurhc jlc tah `rbebljf prbijry ulchrwrbthr bs k`ltjblhc bl j shpjrjth k`ltrjkt kjffhc jl `nn sfbp, blcbkjtble tajt bt bs

k`lkfuchc ulchr tah juspbkhs `n tah fblh sfbp jlc bs rhblsurhc ulchr tah rhblsurjlkh p`fbky. J fjwyhr wùfc rbeatfy sjy tajt jly f`ss sunnhrhc oy tah

prbijry ulchrwrbthr wjs sunnhrhc ulchr tah `nn sfbp k`ltrjkt jlc l`t ulchr tah fblh sfbp, out bl tah ijrdht suka f`sshs jrh rhnhrrhc t` js `kkurrble

ulchr tah fblh sfbp.


_òhrt Ihrdbl


12/28

Chloy v. Hlefbsa jlc [k`ttbsa Ijrbtbih Blsurjlkh K`. Ftc T:222Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ ;3;Sw` [ylcbkjths jt Ff`ycs ajc wrbtthl pr`nhssb`ljf blchilbty k`vhr ulchr fblh sfbps, jlc ajc rhblsurhc tahbr fbjobfbty wbta tah chnhlcjlt rhblsurhrs.

Sah rhblsurjlkh pr`vbchc tajt bt wjs t` jppfy t` rbsds wrbtthl prb`r t` ?? @ktòhr :22?. Sah fblh sfbps whrh bl n`rkh ohn`rh tabs cjth, out l` rbsds

whrh jkkhpthc oy tah [ylcbkjths ulchr tah fblh sfbps ultbf jnthr tajt cjth. Sah bssuh wjs wahtahr tah cjth `n ?? @ktòhr :22? rhnhrrhc t` tah fblh sfbps

tahishfvhs, s` tajt jff rbsds wahlhvhr wrbtthl whrh suoghkt t` tah rhblsurjlkh, `r wahtahr tah cjth rhnhrrhc t` rbsds jkkhpthc ulchr tah fblh sfbps. Sah

[ylcbkjths jreuhc n`r tah n`rihr k`lstruktb`l, wahrhjs tah rhblsurhrs jreuhc n`r tah fjtthr k`lstruktb`l.

Ahfc (K.J.)7 tajt tah chnhlcjlts k`lstruktb`l wjs k`rrhkt. J fblh sfbp wjs sbipfy tah nbrst stjeh bl tah ijdble `n j rhblsurjlkh k`ltrjkt, jlc wjs l`t j

k`ltrjkt `n rhblsurjlkh bl bts `wl rbeat. Sah fblh sfbp btshfn sbipfy krhjthc tah ijkablhry wahrhoy k`ltrjkts `n rhblsurjlkh kùfc oh hnnhkthc, oy ihjls

`n chkfjrjtb`ls bl tah n`ri `n `nn sfbps. Jkk`rcblefy, tah k`ltrjkts `n rhblsurjlkh wabka whrh k`vhrhc oy tah rhblsurjlkh jerhhihlts whrh ta`sh wabka

ajc kìh blt` n`rkh ohn`rh ?? @ktòhr :22? oy ihjls `n chkfjrjtb`l t` tah fblh sfbp. Js tahrh whrh l` suka chkfjrjtb`ls, tah rhblsurhrs whrh ulchr l`

fbjobfbty.

Fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjushs [k`ph `n juta`rbty `n fhjcble ulchrwrbthrSah kìi`l fjw rufhs `l tah pfjkhihlt pr`khcurh jc`pthc bl tah F`lc`l ijrdht, jlc bl pjrtbkufjr tah prblkbpfh tajt j sfbp `r p`fbkyhvbchlkhs j shrbhs `n pjrjffhf obfjthrjf k`ltrjkts ohtwhhl tah rhblsurhc jlc hjka pjrtbkbpjtble rhblsurhr, ihjl tajt tah jciblbstrjtb`l`n tah rhblsurjlkh jerhhihlt bs p`thltbjffy ulwbhfcy js hvhry rhblsurhr iust jerhh t` hvhry chkbsb`l wabka bs tjdhl `r rhquhst wabkabs ijch. S` `vhrkìh tabs pròfhi, bt bs vhry kìi`l bl tah F`lc`l ijrdht n`r rhblsurjlkh sfbps t` blkfuch fhjcble ulchrwrbthrkfjushs, wabka juta`rbsh tah or`dhr t` jppr`jka tah lìbljthc fhjcble ulchrwrbthr `l ohajfn `n tah ijrdht js j wa`fh. [uka kfjushsjrh l`t bl stjlcjrc n`ri, jlc ijy k`vhr ijtthrs suka js jihlcihlts `r hxthlsb`ls t` tah blsurhc phrbf, rhkhbvble l`tbkh nrì tahjssurhc wahrh tabs bs rhqubrhc oy tah p`fbky jlc, bl sìh kjshs, shttfhihlts. Sah ush `n fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjushs bs ehlhrjffyhlkùrjehc oy tah F`lc`l ijrdht ulchr tah F`lc`l Ijrdht ]rblkbpfhs ?==: Blbtbjtbvh, jlc tah i`st rhkhlt cbrhkt ijrblh auffs jlcijkablhry kfjushs puofbsahc bl @ktòhr ?==? chfhejth j rjleh `n jccbtb`ljf nulktb`ls t` tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr.

Fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjushs jrh typbkjffy blkfuchc bl tah sfbp wabka bs prhshlthc t` tah ijrdht n`r suoskrbptb`l. Sah kfjush tjdhshnnhkt js j k`ltrjkt ohtwhhl tah rhblsurhc jlc hjka `n tah rhblsurhrs tajt tah rhblsurhrs wbff oh oùlc oy tah chkbsb`ls `n tah fhjcbleulchrwrbthr bl tah kbrkuistjlkhs pr`vbchc n`r oy tah kfjush. Saus, bn tah kfjush rhqubrhs tah n`ff`wble ijrdht t` n`ff`w tahshttfhihlts `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr, tah rhblsurhc ajs tah rbeat t` blsbst tajt jff rhblsurhrs c` gust tajt, js f`le js tah shttfhihlt njffswbtabl tah sk`ph `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthrs juta`rbty.

Ojrfhh Ijrblh K`rp`rjtb`l v. Iùltjbl, Sah Fhhejs T:215Y : Ff`ycs _hp. 35:Sah kfjbijlts whrh tah `wlhrs `n tah vhsshf Fhhejs , wabka wjs blsurhc n`r j phrb`c `n nùr i`ltas nrì 2 Nhorujry :218 ulchr j wjr rbsds p`fbky.

Sah blsurjlkh k`vhrhc auff jlc ijkablhry, f`ss `n hjrlbles jlc hxphlshs n`r v`yjehs t` tah ]hrsbjl Eufn. Sah sfbp k`ltjblhc j fhjcble ulchrwrbthr

kfjush wabka pr`vbchc tajt tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kùfc oblc tah n`ff`wble ijrdht bl rhsphkt `n Jly jihlcihlts jccbtb`ls chfhtb`ls blkfucble lhw

jlc `r ijljehc jlc `r kajrthrhc l`tbkh `n jssbelihlt rjtbles jlc jfthrjtb`ls `n jly chskrbptb`l. Sah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr, out l`t tah n`ff`wble

ijrdht, skrjtkahc jl hlc`rshihlt ulchr wabka tah phrb`c `n blsurjlkh wjs hxthlchc ultbf ;: Ijy :21>. Sah vhsshf wjs f`st ulchr nbrh bl Jprbf :21>,

jlc tah n`ff`wble ijrdht chlbhc fbjobfbty `l tah ojsbs tajt tahy ajc l`t jerhhc t` tah hxthlsb`l `n k`vhr.

Ahfc (Abrst G.)7 tajt tah kfjbijlts whrh hltbtfhc t` suiijry guceihlt jejblst tah n`ff`wble ijrdht. Sah kjsh turlhc `l tah k`lstruktb`l `n tah fhjcble

ulchrwrbthr kfjush, jlc bt wjs kfhjr nrì tah w`rcble `n tah kfjush tajt bt hiorjkhc jff `n tah kfjsshs `n rbsd blsurhc jlc tajt tahrh wjs l` fbibtjtb`l `l

tah parjshs jihlcihlts, jccbtb`ls jlc chfhtb`ls `r jfthrjtb`ls `n jly chskrbptb`ls. Jkk`rcblefy, tah n`ff`wble ijrdht wjs oùlc oy tah fhjcble

ulchrwrbthrs chkbsb`l t` hxthlc tbih.

_`jcw`rds (:28?) Ftc v. Kajrijl T:223Y ? Ff`ycs _hp. 22Sah kfjbijlts whrh tah kajrthrhrs `n j ojreh wabka wjs t` oh ushc t` trjlsp`rt erjlbth. Sah ojreh wjs t` oh ohjkahc, jlc tah jssurhc òtjblhc j survhy

`n tah pr`p`shc ohjkable jrhj. Sah jssurhc tahl blstrukthc tah or`dhr t` òtjbl blsurjlkh jejblst tah p`ssbofh fbjobfbty `n tah jssurhc t` tah `wlhrs `n

tah ojreh bl tah hvhlt `n cjijeh kjushc oy tah ohjkable. Sah sfbp stjthc tajt t`wble jrrjlehihlts whrh suoghkt t` F`lc`l [jfvjeh Jss`kbjtb`l

jppr`vjf. Sah sfbp jfs` k`ltjblhc j fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush wabka pr`vbchc tajt Jff jfthrjtb`ls, jccbtb`ls, chfhtb`ls, hxthlsb`ls, jerhhihlts, rjths

jlc kajlehs bl k`lcbtb`ls t` oh jerhhc oy tah fhjcble Ff`ycs ulchrwrbthr, jlc bl cuh kùrsh tabs ohkjih nuffy suoskrbohc. Sah or`dhr tahl sùeat t`


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13/28

jrrjleh j survhy oy tah F[J, out tajt o`cy rhnushc t` jppr`vh tah ohjkable `phrjtb`ls. Njkhc wbta tabs rhnusjf, tah or`dhr t``d tah sfbp ojkd t` tah

fhjcble ulchrwrbthr jlc shkurhc abs skrjtkable `l jl hlc`rshihlt wabka rhi`vhc tah rhqubrhihlt n`r F[J jppr`vjf. Sahrhjnthr tah ojreh wjs

cjijehc bl tah kùrsh `n ohjkable `phrjtb`ls. Ihiohrs `n tah n`ff`wble ijrdht jreuhc tajt tahy whrh l`t oùlc oy tah shk`lc sfbp.

Ahfc (A.A.G. Dhrsajw ZK)7 tajt tah lhw jerhhihlt oùlc o`ta tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr jlc tah n`ff`wble ijrdht.

(:) Sah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush t``d hnnhkt js j k`ltrjkt ohtwhhl tah jssurhc jlc tah suoskrboble ulchrwrbthrs.

(?) Sah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr wjs tah jehlt `n tah n`ff`wble ijrdht, jlc wjs juta`rbshc oy tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush t` wjbvh tah blsphktb`l

k`lcbtb`l.

(;) Sah fhjcble ulchrwrbthrs jihlcihlt wjs l`t blthlchc t` oh oblcble `lfy `l abs sylcbkjth7 tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr ajc blthlchc t` hxhrkbsh tah

p`whrs ulchr tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush jlc t` oblc tah hltbrh ijrdht. Saus, tah khrtbnbkjtb`l k`lcbtb`l wjs t` oh tjdhl t` ajvh ohhl wjbvhc.

_`jr Ijrblh Ftc v. Obiha Brjl Blsurjlkh K`. T:221Y : Ff`ycs _hp. 3?;Sah kfjbijlts ahfc vjrbùs blthrhsts bl tah vhsshf Cjyfji jlc tahbr blthrhsts whrh blsurhc ulchr j auff jlc ijkablhry p`fbky bssuhc oy j luiohr `n

ulchrwrbthrs nrì tah F`lc`l, Nrhlka jlc Ohfebjl ijrdhts js whff js jl blsurhr sbtujthc bl Jou Cajob, tah chnhlcjlt. Sah rbsd wjs fhc oy tah F`lc`l

ijrdht, jlc tah thris up`l wabka tah blsurjlkh wjs pfjkhc blkfuchc tah stjthihlt7 Bt bs jerhhc wbta `r wbtaùt prhvbùs l`tbkh t` n`ff`w fhjcble

Orbtbsa ulchrwrbthrs bl rhejrc t` shttfhihlts bl rhsphkt `n kfjbis Sah vhsshf sunnhrhc jl hleblh orhjdc`wl, jlc tah kfjbi wjs shttfhc oy tah

F`lc`l ijrdht `l tah ojsbs tajt tah f`ss ajc ohhl kjushc oy krhw lhefbehlkh. Sah chnhlcjlt rhnushc t` pjy.

Ahfc (Ijlkh G.)7 tajt tah chnhlcjlts whrh fbjofh jlc tah kfjbijlts whrh hltbtfhc t` suiijry guceihlt.

(:) Sah w`rcble `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush wjs kfhjr tajt shttfhihlts jerhhc oy tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr whrh oblcble `l tah n`ff`wble ijrdht.

(?) Sahrh wjs l` kustì bl tah F`lc`l ijrdht wabka k`lnblhc tah òfbejtb`l t` n`ff`w shttfhihlts t` kjshs bl wabka tah kfjbi wjs pr`vhc t` oh

fhebtbijth.

(;) Sah òfbejtb`l t` n`ff`w shttfhihlts wjs l`t suoghkt t` jl bipfbhc fbibtjtb`l tajt tah shttfhihlt rhjkahc oy tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthrs ajc t` oh

k`lkfuchc bl j o`lj nbch jlc ousblhssfbdh njsab`l. Xlfbdh tah p`sbtb`l ulchr j n`ff`w tah shttfhihlts kfjush k`ltjblhc bl j rhblsurjlkh jerhhihlt

wahrh tah rhblsurhrs jerhhc tah n`ff`w tah shttfhihlts `n tah rhblsurhc, tah blsurhrs bl tah prhshlt kjsh ajc j iutujfbty `n blthrhst, jlc jkk`rcblefy

tahrh wjs l` bipfbhc fbibtjtb`l `l tah cbskrhtb`l `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthrs. Hvhl bn tabs wjs wr`le jlc tahrh wjs jl bipfbhc fbibtjtb`l t` tabs hnnhkt,

`l tah njkts tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthrs ajc jkthc pr`phrfy bl blvhstbejtble tah kfjbi jlc shttfble wbta tah kfjbijlts.

Sah hnnhkt `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush js ohtwhhl tah ulchrwrbthrs tahishfvhs bs j ijtthr `n sìh chojth. Bl _`jcw`rds(:28?) Ftc v. Kajrijl (shh jo`vh) A.A.G. Dhrsajw ZK hxprhsshc tah vbhw tajt

j fhjcble ulchrwrbthr bs tah jehlt `n tah n`ff`wble ulchrwrbthrs. Oy tjdble j fhjcble fblh ah dl`ws tajt tahrh wbff oh n`ff`wble ulchrwrbthrs jlc ah

shhs tah thris `n jly F/X kfjush `l tah sfbp. Ah ijy rhqubrh tah F/X kfjush t` oh jfthrhc bn ah bs t` tjdh j fblh. Sah n`ff`wble ulchrwrbthrs shh nrì tah

sfbp tah bchltbty `n tah fhjchr `r fhjchrs. Sahy shh tah thris `n tah F/X kfjush. Oy tjdble j fblh tahy l`t `lfy ijdh j k`ltrjkt wbta tah blsurhc out jfs`

ijdh ta`sh fhjchr `r fhjchrs tahbr jehlt `r jehlts n`r tah purp`sh sa`wl bl tah F/X kfjush.

A`whvhr, tabs rhjs`lble wjs rhghkthc oy _bx G. bl Ijlchr v. Kìihrkbjf Xlb`l Jssurjlkh K`. pfk T:221Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ 2;, wa`sùeat t` chly tajt tah n`ff`wble ijrdht wùfc ajvh jly kjush `n jktb`l jejblst tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr bn abs jktb`ls oùlc tahi blj ijllhr wabka tahy cbc l`t jltbkbpjth jlc wa` jfs` chlbhc tajt tah rhblsurhc kùfc orble jl jktb`l jejblst tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthrn`r orhjka `n wjrrjlty `n juta`rbty bl tah hvhlt tajt abs jktb`ls `l ohajfn `n tah n`ff`wble ijrdht whrh ùtsbch tah sk`ph `n absjuta`rbty.

Ijlchr v. Kìihrkbjf Xlb`l Jssurjlkh K`. pfk T:221Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ 2;Sah kfjbijlt, j rhprhshltjtbvh `n j Ff`ycs sylcbkjth, ajc jkthc js rhblsurhr bl rhsphkt `n ijrblh fbjobfbty p`fbkbhs. Sah [ylcbkjth bl turl hlthrhc blt` j

rhtr`khssb`l jerhhihlt ulchr jl `phl k`vhr suoskrbohc t` oy j luiohr `n ulchrwrbthrs. Sa`sh ulchrwrbthrs rhnushc t` blchilbny tah kfjbijlt,


_òhrt Ihrdbl


14/28

jsshrtble tajt tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr ajc l`t ohhl juta`rbshc t` oblc tahi t` jkkhptble tah rbsd prhshlthc oy tah kfjbijlt `r, jfthrljtbvhfy, tajt tah

chkfjrjtb`l t` tah `phl k`vhr kùfc oh jv`bchc. Sah prhshlt jktb`l wjs jejblst or`dhrs wa` ajc purp`rthc t` pfjkh tah k`vhr, jlc jfs` jejblst tah

fhjcble ulchrwrbthr `l tah ojsbs tajt ah wjs bl orhjka `n abs wjrrjlty `n juta`rbty bl blcbkjtble tajt ah wjs juta`rbshc oy tah `tahr ulchrwrbthrs t`

wrbth tah rbsd `l tahbr ohajfvhs.

Ahfc (_bx G.)7 tajt guceihlt wùfc oh ebvhl jejblst tah or`dhrs out l`t jejblst tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr. Uabfh bt wjs tah kjsh tajt tah fhjcble

ulchrwrbthr ajc l`t ohhl juta`rbshc t` oblc tah n`ff`wble ijrdht, tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr cbc l`t jkt js jehlt `n tah n`ff`wble ijrdht out rjtahr`phrjthc js tah trbeehr oy wabka tah n`ff`wble ijrdht wùfc ohkìh oùlc.

Sah k`lnfbkt ohtwhhl tah jehlky jlc trbeehr tah`rbhs wjs rhnhrrhc t`, out l`t rhs`fvhc, oy tah Kùrt `n Jpphjf bl Xlui Fbnh Blsurjlkh K`. `n Jihrbkj v. Bsrjhf ]a`hlbx Jssurjlkh K`. Ftc T?==?Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ ;53 (shh ohf`w).

Jpp`bltihlt jlc rhi`vjf `n fhjcble ulchrwrbthrSah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr ijy oh chsbeljthc oy tah sfbp, jftaùea bn tabs bs l`t tah kjsh tahl tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr bs l`rijffy tahnbrst ulchrwrbthr t` suoskrboh t` tah sfbp. Sahrh bs l` lhhc n`r tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr t` ajvh tah fjrehst suoskrbptb`l. @lkh tahfhjcble ulchrwrbthr ajs ohhl bchltbnbhc, tah njkt tajt tah kfjush bs j k`ltrjkt ohtwhhl tah jssurhc jlc tah n`ff`wble ijrdht ihjls tajttah n`ff`wble ijrdht kjll`t ulbfjthrjffy thribljth tah juta`rbty `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr, jlc tajt juta`rbty wbff survbvh tahthribljtb`l `n tah p`fbky bls`njr js tahrh jrh ùtstjlcble quhstb`ls js t` kfjbis jlc cbsputh rhs`futb`l pr`khsshs. A`whvhr, bn tahp`fbky bs jv`bchc jo blbtb` n`r l`lcbskf`surh `r ibsrhprhshltjtb`l, tah juta`rbty `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr wbff sbibfjrfy oh rhv`dhcjs tahrh bs l` ojsbs up`l wabka suka juta`rbty kjl hxbst.

Xlui Fbnh Blsurjlkh K`. `n Jihrbkj v. Bsrjhf ]a`hlbx Jssurjlkh K`. Ftc T?==?Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ ;53Sah kfjbijlts whrh tah rhblsurhrs `n tah chnhlcjlts ulchr qu`tj sajrh rhblsurjlkh trhjtbhs bl rhsphkt `n phrs`ljf jkkbchlt ousblhss. Sah k`vhr ajc ohhl

pfjkhc oy sfbp bl :228, tah sfbp stjtble tajt tah w`rcble wjs t` oh jerhhc oy tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr `lfy. Sah nbrst ulchrwrbthr t` skrjtka tah sfbp wjs

Fbohrty, wabka t``d j suoskrbptb`l `n 8%. Sah sfbp wjs kìpfhthc oy suoskrbptb`ls nrì tah n`ff`wble ijrdht. Bl Gufy ?=== tah kfjbijlts jv`bchc tah

rhblsurjlkh trhjtbhs, jffheble tajt ijthrbjf njkts rhfjtble t` tah sk`ph `n tah k`vhr pr`vbchc oy tah ulchrfyble p`fbkbhs ajc l`t ohhl cbskf`shc jlc tajt

tahrh ajc ohhl ibsstjthihlts joùt prhvbùs f`sshs. Bl Chkhiohr ?=== Fbohrty jerhhc wbta tah chnhlcjlts tajt tah ijtthr saùfc e` t` jrobtrjtb`l Sah

kfjbijlts bl tah prhshlt jktb`l sùeat j chkfjrjtb`l tajt tahy ajc vjfbcfy jv`bchc tah trhjtbhs jlc tajt tah jerhhihlt n`r jrobtrjtb`l ajc ohhl ijch oy

tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr wbtaùt tah juta`rbsjtb`l `n tah n`ff`wble ijrdht jlc wjs taus v`bc.

Ahfc (Jlcrhw [ibta G. jlc K.J.)7 tajt tah jrobtrjtb`l pr`vbsb`l wjs l`t oblcble `l tah n`ff`wble ijrdht.

(:) Sah K.J. ahfc tajt `lkh tah trhjtbhs ajc ohhl jv`bchc, tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr l` f`lehr p`sshsshc jly juta`rbty t` jkt `l ohajfn `n tah n`ff`wble

ijrdht, jlc jkk`rcblefy tah jrobtrjtb`l jerhhihlt ajc ohhl rhjkahc wbtaùt juta rbsjtb l. Bt wjs l`t lhkhssjry t` chkbch wahtahr tah jobfbty `n tah

fhjcble ulchrwrbthr t` oblc tah n`ff`wble ijrdht wjs ojshc `l jehlky `r tah trbeehr tah`ry.

(?) Jlcrhw [ibta G. ijch vjrbùs kìihlts `l tah ljturh `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush, t` wabka tah Kùrt `n Jpphjf nùlc bt ullhkhssjry t`

ijdh rhnhrhlkh7

(j) `l tah ojfjlkh `n pròjobfbtbhs, Fbohrty whrh tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthrs hvhl taùea Fbohrty ajc suoskrbohc t` `lfy 8% `n tah rbsd4

(o) tah sfbp k`lthipfjthc tajt tahrh wùfc oh j fhjcble ulchrwrbthr, jlc tahrh wjs l`table bl tah sfbp wabka prhvhlthc tahjpp`bltihlt `n j fhjcble ulchrwrbthr jnthr tah sfbp ajc ohhl nuffy suoskrbohc4

(k) tahrh wjs l` bipfbhc thri bl tah jerhhihlt tajt tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush kùfc fjpsh hvhl taùea bt wjs l`t

bipfhihlthc, jlc bt wjs l`t usujffy tah kjsh tajt j fhjcble ulchrwrbthr pr`vbsb`l wùfc oh rhv`kjofh4(c) tah kìihlkhihlt `n fbtbejtb`l cbc l`t `n btshfn jnnhkt tah `phrjtb`l `n tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr kfjush.

Oblcble juta`rbtbhsJ oblcble juta`rbty bs jl jehlky jerhhihlt ohtwhhl jl blsurhr `r rhblsurhr jlc jl blthrihcbjry wahrhoy tah blthrihcbjry bsjuta`rbshc t` jkkhpt rbsds `l ohajfn `n tah ulchrwrbthr7 tah blthrihcbjry bs `nthl stjthc t` a`fc tah phl n`r tah ulchrwrbthr. Bl sìhkjshs tah blthrihcbjry ijy jkt n`r j luiohr `n ulchrwrbthrs wa` ajvh n`rihc j rhblsurjlkh p``f (shh _hblsurjlkh ]``fs jlcXlchrwrbtble Jehlkbhs, ohf`w). J oblcble juta`rbty, `r oblchr, bs typbkjffy bssuhc t` j or`dhr oy j rhblsurhr, jlc juta`rbshs tahor`dhr t` jkkhpt ousblhss `n pjrtbkufjr kfjsshs up t` ebvhl nbljlkbjf fbibts. Sah usujf k`ltrjktujf strukturh bs n`r tah or`dhr t` ohjuta`rbshc t` jkkhpt rbsds, jlc tahl t` chkfjrh tahi t` tah rhblsurhr, tah rhblsurhr ohkìble jutìjtbkjffy oùlc oy tah or`dhrsjkkhptjlkhs.


_òhrt Ihrdbl


15/28

Sah ush `n oblcble juta`rbtbhs ohtwhhl rhblsurhrs jlc or`dhrs ebvhs rbsh t` j luiohr `n bssuhs. Nbrst, wajt bs tah sk`ph `n tahor`dhrs rbeat t` jkkhpt rbsds `l ohajfn `n tah rhblsurhr0 Sabs wbff chphlc up`l tah pr`phr k`lstruktb`l `n tah oblcble juta`rbty. Oywjy `n bffustrjtb`l `n tah fbibts wabka ijy oh bip`shc, bl Blvhrsb`lhs Ijlrbj [J v. [pahrh Crjdh Blsurjlkh K`. pfk, Sah C`rjT:212Y : Ff`ycs _hp. >2, j oblcble juta`rbty k`lnhrrhc up`l tah or`dhr tah rbeat `lfy t` jkkhpt yjkat blsurjlkh rbsds pfjkhc oyBtjfbjl blsurhrs.

[hcewbkd Sìhls`l Blk v. ]S _hjsrjlsb Xlui Blc`lhsbj , :22=, ulrhp`rthcSah nbrst jlc shk`lc chnhlcjlts jerhhc tajt tahy wùfc g`bltfy juta`rbsh j or`dhr, ulchr j oblcble juta`rbty, t` jkkhpt rbsds. Sah nbrst chnhlcjlt

bip`shc j ijxbiui nbljlkbjf fbibt `n X[$8=,=== phr rbsd, out tabs fbibtjtb`l wjs l`t kìiulbkjthc t` tah or`dhr oy tah shk`lc chnhlcjlt, wbta tah

rhsuft tajt tah or`dhr jkkhpthc j luiohr `n rbsds bl hxkhss `n X[$8=,===.

Ahfc (Hvjls G.)7 tajt tah shk`lc chnhlcjlt ajc hxkhhchc bts juta`rbty nrì tah nbrst chnhlcjlt, jlc jkk`rcblefy tajt rbsds jkkhpthc oy tah or`dhr wabka

whrh bl hxkhss `n X[$8=,=== whrh l`t oblcble `l tah nbrst chnhlcjlt. A`whvhr, js hjka chkfjrjtb`l t` tah `phl k`vhr oy tah or`dhr t``d hnnhkt js j

shpjrjth k`ltrjkt, tahrh wjs ojsbs up`l wabka tah nbrst chnhlcjlt kùfc rhnush t` ijdh pjyihlt bl rhsphkt `n chkfjrjtb`ls `n rbsd n`r X[$8=,=== `r fhss.

Sah shk`lc bssuh k`lkhrls tah kjpjkbty bl wabka tah or`dhr jkts wahl jkkhptble chkfjrjtb`ls ulchr j oblcble juta`rbty. Sahhstjofbsahc jehlky rufh bl Hlefbsa fjw bs tajt tah or`dhr bs jssuihc t` oh tah jehlt `n tah phrs`l shhdble blsurjlkh `r rhblsurjlkh, jstah kjsh ijy oh, wahrhjs ulchr j oblcble juta`rbty tah or`dhr bs juta`rbshc oy tah rhblsurhr t` ulchrwrbth rbsds `l ohajfn `n tahrhblsurhr. Sah Hlefbsa kùrts ajvh yht t` jskhrtjbl, bl j i`chrl k`lthxt, wa`sh jehlt tah or`dhr ijy oh bl suka kbrkuistjlkhs,jftaùea bt wùfc shhi tajt js j ijtthr `n strbkt fjw tah or`dhr k`ltbluhs t` jkt js tah jehlt `n tah jssurhc jlc c`hs l`t `wh tahrhblsurhr jly cuty `n kjrh bl tah k`lsbchrjtb`l jlc jkkhptjlkh `n rbsds js jly suka cuty `n kjrh wùfc ebvh rbsh t` j k`lnfbkt `n blthrhst( Hiprhss Jssurjlkh K`rp`rjtb`l Ftc v. O`wrble & K`. Ftc (:2=8) :: Kì. Kjs. :=5). Sahrh ijy lhvhrtahfhss oh j cuty `n kjrhbip`shc bl rhsphkt `n j oblcble juta`rbty wahrh l` k`lnfbkt `n blthrhst bs blv`fvhc.

]rydh v. Eboos Ajrtfhy K``phr T:22:Y : Ff`ycs _hp. >=?Jl ulchrwrbtble jehlt, Jtfjs, ajc ohhl juta`rbshc ulchr oblcble juta`rbtbhs t` jkkhpt rbsds `l ohajfn `n ulchrwrbthrs. Jtfjs jkkhpthc khrtjbl X.[.

rbsdsnbljlkbjf eujrjlthh blsurjlkhwabka whrh ùtsbch tah sk`ph `n bts juta`rbty, jlc whrh jsdhc oy tah ulchrwrbthrs t` kjlkhf tah p`fbkbhs. Bl njkt,

Jtfjs njbfhc t` c` s` chspbth ajvble bln`rihc tah ulchrwrbthrs tajt kjlkhffjtb`l ajc ohhl hnnhkthc. Sah ulchrwrbthrs jpp`blthc tah chnhlcjlt or`dhrs t`

blvhstbejth tah sbtujtb`l bl tah X[, out tah chnhlcjlts njbfhc t` bln`ri tah ulchrwrbthrs tajt tah p`fbkbhs rhijblhc bl pfjkh. Kfjbis whrh hvhltujffyijch jejblst tah ulchrwrbthrs, jlc blchilbty wjs sùeat oy tah ulchrwrbthrs nrì tah chnhlcjlts `l tah ojsbs tajt tah or`dhrs ajc njbfhc t` cbskf`sh

tah truh p`sbtb`l bl tah X.[. jlc taus ajc kjushc tah ulchrwrbthrs l`t t` tjdh nurtahr jktb`l `n tahbr `wl. Sah erùlcs `l wabka tah blchilbty wjs

sùeat whrh tajt (:) tah or`dhrs ajc tjdhl `vhr tah jciblbstrjtb`l `n tah oblcble juta`rbty nrì Jtfjs jlc whrh taus tah jehlts `n tah ulchrwrbthrs `r,

bl tah jfthrljtbvh, (?) tah or`dhrs `whc tah ulchrwrbthrs j cuty `n kjrh bl rhsphkt `n tahbr jssuiptb`l `n rhsp`lsbobfbty t` kahkd tah p`sbtb`l bl tah X[.

Ahfc (Ujffhr G.)7 tajt tah or`dhrs whrh fbjofh.

(:) Sahrh wjs l` jerhhihlt ohtwhhl tah or`dhrs jlc tah ulchrwrbthrs wahrhoy tah or`dhrs ajc jssuihc rhsp`lsbobfbty t` jciblbsthr tah `phl k`vhr.

Sah ehlhrjf p`sbtb`l, js hxprhsshc bl Hiprhss Jssurjlkh v. O`wrble , wjs tajt tahrh wjs l` jehlky rhfjtb`lsabp ohtwhhl j or`dhr jktble ulchr j

oblcble juta`rbty jlc tah ulchrwrbthrs. Js tahrh wjs l` k`ltrjkt bip`sble j cuty `n kjrh, bt n`ff`whc tajt tahrh kùfc oh l` t`rtbùs cuty `n kjrh bl tah

jkkhptjlkh `n rbsds ulchr tah oblcble juta`rbty.

(?) Js j oblcble juta`rbty wjs l`t j k`ltrjkt `n blsurjlkh, bt wjs l`t j k`ltrjkt `n uti`st e``c njbta. Jkk`rcblefy, tahrh wjs l` cuty `l j or`dhr t`

cbskf`sh ijthrbjf njkts t` jl ulchrwrbthr wahl tah jerhhihlt wjs ohble lhe`tbjthc.

(;) Sahrh wjs, a`whvhr, j cuty `n kjrh `whc oy tah or`dhrs js rhejrc tah pr`vbsb`l `n bln`rijtb`l. Sah or`dhrs ajc ulchrtjdhl phrs`ljf rhsp`lsbobfbty

t` pr`vbch bln`rijtb`l t` tah ulchrwrbthrs `l tah `phrjtb`ls `n Jtfjs, jlc tahrh wjs l` rhjs`l way tah or`dhrs saùfc l`t oh ulchr j cuty t` hxhrkbsh

rhjs`ljofh kjrh bl suppfyble tajt bln`rijtb`l.

Sabrcfy, bl tah kjsh `n j oblcble juta`rbty bssuhc t` j phrs`l wa` bs l`t j or`dhr jlc taus wa` c`hs l`t njkh k`lnfbkt `n blthrhstpròfhis, tahrh jrh quhstb`ls js t` tah sk`ph `n tah jehlts rhsp`lsbobfbtbhs t` tah ulchrwrbthrs. Bt bs l`w shttfhc tajt tah jehlt `whscutbhs bl k`ltrjkt, t`rt jlc bl hqubty t` tah rhblsurhr.


_òhrt Ihrdbl


16/28

[pahrh Crjdh Blsurjlkh Ftc v. Hur` Blthrljtb`ljf Xlchrwrbtble Ftc T?==;Y HUAK :>;> (Kìi), T?==;Y Ff`ycs_hp. B_ 8?8

[C hipf`yhc HBX js bts ulchrwrbtble jehlt ulchr j oblcble juta`rbty. HBX jerhhc t` jkkhpt rhblsurjlkh `n X.[. w`rdhrs kìphlsjtb`l kjrvh ut

ousblhss, wabka wjs ohble `nnhrhc oy or`dhrs [KO. Xlchr tah skahih chvbshc oy [KO jlc HBX, tah prhibui wabka wjs pjbc t` [C wjs njr fhss tajltah fbdhfy jiùlt `n kfjbis, jlc jkk`rcblefy tah rhblsurjlkh wjs chfbohrjthfy wrbtthl jt j f`ss. Sabs wjs cbseubshc oy ùtwjrcs rhtr`khssb`l7 i`st `n

tah ousblhss jkkhpthc oy [C wjs tahl rhtr`khchc t` `tahr blsurhrs bl tah ijrdht, jlc tahrh whrh nurtahr fhvhfs `n rhblsurjlkh jlc rhtr`khssb`l k`vhr,

fhjcble t` tah krhjtb`l `n j spbrjf. Bt wjs jltbkbpjthc oy HBX jlc [KO tajt [C wùfc ijdh j sijff pr`nbt `l tah cbnnhrhlkh ohtwhhl f`sshs wabka ajc t`

oh pjbc pfus ùtwjrc rhtr`khssb`l prhibuis, jlc tah suis rhkhbvhc nrì rhtr`khssb`ljbrhs. HBX ijch suostjltbjf pr`nbts oy wjy `n kìibssb`l

rhkhbvhc nrì [C, jlc [KO btshfn ijch suostjltbjf pr`nbts bl tah n`ri `n or`dhrjeh oy pfjkble rbsds jt vjrbùs fhvhfs bl tah spbrjf wabka ajc ohhl

hstjofbsahc jt tjdble up t` :8% `n tah prhibui jt hjka stjeh. Saìjs G. wjs sjtbsnbhc tajt tah skahih ajc ohhl chvbshc t` pr`nbt HBX jlc [KO. [C

wjs l`t bln`rihc tajt tah ousblhss wjs l`t ehlublh rhblsurjlkh, jlc tajt jly pr`nbts wùfc l`t oh chrbvhc nrì ulchrwrbtble out nrì ijdble j

turl. Sahrh whrh suostjltbjf kfjbis njkhc oy [C nrì tah X[, jlc bl tah prhshlt pr`khhcbles [C sùeat t` rhk`vhr ta`sh suis nrì HBX.

Ahfc 7 (:) Uabfh bt wjs bl prblkbpfh ulòghktb`ljofh n`r rhblsurjlkh t` oh wrbtthl jt j f`ss n`r kìphtbtbvh rhjs`ls, bt wjs t` oh hxphkthc tajt tah jiùlt

`n ousblhss wùfc oh sijff.

(?) HBXs nbcukbjry cutbhs t` [C whrh7 t` jkt bl e``c njbta jlc bl tah blthrhsts `n [C, jlc l`t t` ajvh rhejrc t` tah blthrhsts `n jly phrs`l `tahr tajl

[C4 jlc t` cbskf`sh jlc t` rhp`rt t` [C jff ijthrbjf bln`rijtb`l bl rhfjtb`l t` tah ousblhss wrbtthl ulchr bt.

(;) HBX wjs bl orhjka `n nbcukbjry cuty bl tah prhshlt kjsh, bl tajt7

(b) HBX `phrjthc tah oblchr bl chfbohrjth cbsrhejrc `n tah blthrhsts `n [C jlc suo`rcbljthc [Cs blthrhsts ta`sh `n HBX (bltahbr rhiulhrjtb`l) jlc t` ta`sh `n [KO s` tajt tah oblchr wjs `phrjthc js j njkbfbty n`r tahbr ohlhnbt4

(bb) HBX ijch l` ehlublh jsshssihlt `n tah prèrjiihs prhshlthc out jkkhpthc tahi wbtaùt rhejrc t` tahbr kìihrkbjfvbjobfbty js vbhwhc nrì [Cs stjlcp`blt4

(bbb) HBX jkkhpthc luihrùs prèrjiihs wabka l` a`lhst `r njbtanuf jehlt wùfc ajvh jkkhpthc4(bv) HBX hxp`shc [C t` j abea cherhh `n jkkuiufjtb`l4(v) HBX hxp`shc [C t` tah rbsds blahrhlt bl k`ltrbvhc rhblsurjlkh jlc bl spbrjfs4(vb) HBX ibsrhprhshlthc jlc k`lkhjfhc tah truh ljturh `n tah ousblhss wrbtthl4

(vbb) HBX hxkhhchc tah prhibui blkìh fbibts ulchr tah oblchr. Sabs k`lcukt ajc ohhl nrjucufhlt4 jlc(vbbb) [KO whrh fbjofh n`r dl`wble jssbstjlkh `n HBX bl orhjka `n HBXs nbcukbjry cutbhs. Nurtahr, tahrh wjs jl ulfjwnufk`lspbrjky ohtwhhl HBX jlc [KO.

(3) Sahrh ajc ohhl chkhbt oy o`ta HBX jlc [KO.

(8) Uabfh [C ajc btshfn ohhl lhefbehlt bl njbfble t` i`lbt`r tah jktbvbtbhs `n HBX, jlc bl pjrtbkufjr ajc sbelhc c`kuihlts wbtaùt shhdble hxpfjljtb`ls

`n tahi, tahrh wjs l` chnhlkh `n k`ltrbout`ry lhefbehlkh t` jl blthltb`ljf t`rt `r t` orhjka `n nbcukbjry cuty, jlc cjijehst` oh jsshsshcwùfc oh

jwjrchc n`r tah nuff jiùlt `n [Cs f`ss.

Uahtahr jl jerhhihlt n`r j oblcble juta`rbty ajs ohhl k`lkfuchc bs j ijtthr t` oh chthriblhc oy tah òghktbvh blthltb`ls `n tahpjrtbhs.

[ylcbkjth :?3? jt Ff`ycs v. I`rejl _hjc & [ajrijl T?==;Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ 3:?[ylcbkjth :?3? wjs n`rihc bl :221, wbta J js bts jktbvh ulchrwrbthr jlc L js tah kfjss ulchrwrbthr n`r phrs`ljf jkkbchlt ousblhss. Bl :222, `l tah

jcvbkh `n L, tah [ylcbkjth wbtacrhw nrì pr`vbcble trjvhf blsurjlkh ousblhss, `l tah ojsbs `n p``r rhsufts. Or`dhrs, rhprhshlthc oy H, `phrjthc j

oblcble juta`rbty n`r tah pr`vbsb`l `n trjvhf ousblhss, jlc H sùeat t` phrsujch L t` jff`w [ylcbkjth :?3? t` suoskrboh t` tah ousblhss. L rhnushc, jlc

bl tah suiihr `n :222 H k`ltjkthc J cbrhktfy. Js j rhsuft `n tajt ihhtble, H jejbl jppr`jkahc L, wbta crjnt w`rcbles n`r tah oblcble juta`rbty. L

k`ltbluhc t` rhnush pjrtbkbpjtb`l. Bl Nhorujry ?=== H ajc j nurtahr ihhtble wbta J jlc prhshlthc abi wbta crjnt w`rcble. J blbtbjffhc tah w`rcble bl

phlkbf, out jcchc L rhqubrhihlts iht. Sah or`dhrs jsshrthc tajt tabs sbeljturh jiùlthc t` jl jerhhihlt t` pjrtbkbpjth bl tah oblcble juta`rbty.


_òhrt Ihrdbl


17/28

Ahfc (Saìjs G.)7 tajt tahrh wjs l` jerhhihlt ulchr wabka [ylcbkjth :?3? ajc ohkìh j pjrty t` tah oblcble juta`rbty. Sah hvbchlkh sa`whc tajt J

wjs prhpjrhc t` jerhh t` pjrtbkbpjth `lfy wbta tah jppr`vjf `n L, jlc tah qujfbnbkjtb`l L rhqubrhihlts iht wjs j k`lcbtb`l wabka ajc t` oh sjtbsnbhc

ohn`rh tahrh wjs k`vhr7 bt wjs l`t j stjthihlt t` tah hnnhkt tajt Ls rhqubrhihlts whrh chhihc t` ajvh ohhl iht.

[uiijrySah suoskrbptb`l pr`khss ijy oh rhpfjkhc oy jehlky jerhhihlts.

@lh ulchrwrbthr ijy juta`rbsh jl`tahr t` oblc abi, oy tah ush `n fblh sfbps.Jl ulchrwrbthr ijy juta`rbsh j k`vhra`fchr `r or`dhr t` oblc abi, oy tah ush `n oblcble juta`rbtbhs (oblchrs).Uahrh tahrh bs j ijrdht pfjkhihlt blv`fvble j luiohr `n rhblsurhrs, tahy ijy oblc tahishfvhs, oy ihjls `n j fhjcble

ulchrwrbthr kfjush, t` jihlcihlts, i`cbnbkjtb`ls, wjbvhrs jlc hvhl shttfhihlts jerhhc wbta tah fhjcble ulchrwrbthr jf`lh.

_HBL[X_JLKH ]@@F[ JLC XLCH_U_BSBLE JEHLKBH[ Fhejf strukturhsJl ulchrwrbtble jehlt bs jl jehlt juta`rbshc oy j luiohr `n blsurhrs `r rhblsurhrs t` jkkhpt rbsds `l tahbr ohajfvhs7 tah erùp bsehlhrjffy rhnhrrhc t` js j p``f. J luiohr `n shpjrjth fhejf rhfjtb`lsabps jrh krhjthc wahrh j rhblsurjlkh p``f ajs ohhl hstjofbsahc,jlc tahsh wbff oh k`lsbchrhc bl i`rh chtjbf bl fjthr pjrts `n tabs kajpthr7

j shrbhs `n pjrjffhf obfjthrjf k`ltrjkts ohtwhhl tah ulchrwrbtble jehlt (p``f ijljehr) jlc hjka ihiohr `n tah p``f, shttbleùt tah sk`ph `n tah ulchrwrbtble jehlts juta`rbty t` oblc tah p``f ihiohr jlc tah ehlhrjf p`whrs, cutbhs jlc rbeats `n tah ulchrwrbtble jehlt4

j iuftbfjthrjf jerhhihlt ohtwhhl p``f ihiohrs wahrhoy tahy jff jerhh t` jcahrh t` tahbr blcbvbcujf jerhhihlts wbta tahulchrwrbtble jehltbn tahrh bs l` hxprhss jerhhihlt t` tabs hnnhkt, suka jl jerhhihlt wbff oh bipfbhc oy tah kùrts oyjljfèy wbta tah whff dl`wl juta`rbty Kfjrdh v. Culrjvhl, Sah [jtjlbtj T:12>Y J.K. 82 wabka a`fcs tajt hltrjlts blt` jkìphtbtb`l bipfbhcfy jerhh wbta hjka t` òhy tah rufhs `n tajt kìphtbtb`l (shh, h.e., L`rta Jtfjltbk Blsurjlkh K`. Ftc v. Ljtb`lwbch Ehlhrjf Blsurjlkh K`. T?==3Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ 553)4

suppfhihltjry jerhhihlts ohtwhhl p``f ihiohrs, rheufjtble ijtthrssuka js tah bls`fvhlky `n j p``f ihiohr `r tahulchrwrbtble jehlt4

rhblsurjlkh `n tah fbjobfbtbhs `n tah p``f js j wa`fh, l`rijffy t` oh jrrjlehc oy tah ulchrwrbtble jehlt4blthrljf rhblsurjlkh jrrjlehihlts ohtwhhl p``f ihiohrs, wabka wbff oh ushc wahrh `lh `r i`rh ihiohrs `n tah p``f jkkhpt

rbsds js nr`lts n`r `tahr p``f ihiohrs.

Sah r`fh `n tah ulchrwrbtble jehlt Cutbhs jlc rbeats `n ulchrwrbtble jehltsSah prbijry cuty `n jl ulchrwrbtble jehlt bs t` wrbth ousblhss `l ohajfn `n tah p``f, jlc t` pfjkh hxthrljf rhblsurjlkh t` k`vhr tahp``fs fbjobfbtbhs. Sah jehlt bs rhiulhrjthc oy kìibssb`l `l tah trjlsjktb`ls. Sah jehlt wbff oh rhqubrhc t` jciblbsthr tah p``f oy7jff`kjtble fbjobfbtbhs js ohtwhhl p``f ihiohrs4 rhkhbvble blwjrc prhibuis jlc pjyble ùtwjrc rhblsurjlkh prhibuis4 pjyble f`sshs

t` p`fbky a`fchrs jlc rhk`vhrble suis nrì hxthrljf rhblsurhrs4 jlc ijbltjblble rhk`rcs n`r blsphktb`l oy tah p``f ihiohrs. Sahòfbejtb`l t` ijbltjbl rhk`rcs k`ltbluhs jnthr tah hxpbry `n tah ulchrwrbtble jehlky jerhhihlts.

Rjsucj Nbrh jlc Ijrblh Blsurjlkh K`. `n Hur`ph Ftc v. @rb`l Ijrblh Blsurjlkh Xlchrwrbtble Jehlky Ftc T:228Y :Ff`ycs _hp. 8?8

Sw` ijrblh ulchrwrbtble jehlky jerhhihlts pr`vbchc tajt tah chnhlcjlt ulchrwrbtble jehlky wùfc ijbltjbl jff lhkhssjry o``ds, jkkùlts, rhk`rcs

jlc `tahr c`kuihltjtb`l jpphrtjblble t` tah ousblhss ulchrwrbtthl oy tah jehlky n`r tah ihiohrs `n tah p``f. Sah o``ds whrh tah pr`phrty `n tah

chnhlcjlts, jlc kùfc oh blsphkthc oy tah kfjbijlt p``f ihiohr jt jly rhjs`ljofh tbih. Sah jerhhihlts kjih t` jl hlc, jlc tah p``f whlt blt`

rul-`nn. Sah kfjbijlt sùeat t` blsphkt tah chnhlcjlts o``ds jlc rhk`rcs, out jkkhss t` pjrtbkufjr rhk`rcs wjs chlbhc oy tah chnhlcjlt. Sah kfjbijlt

jkk`rcblefy thribljthc tah rul-`nn jerhhihlt `l tah ojsbs tajt tah chnhlcjlt wjs bl rhpucbjt`ry orhjka. Sahrhjnthr tah kfjbijlt sùeat t` blsphkt tah

chnhlcjlts o``ds jlc rhk`rcs, out tah chnhlcjlt jreuhc tajt tah thribljtb`l `n tah jerhhihlt orùeat jl hlc t` bts òfbejtb`l t` jff`w blsphktb`l.

Ahfc (K`fijl G.)7 hvhl taùea tah jehlky jerhhihlt ajc ohhl thribljthc, tah òfbejtb`l t` phribt blsphktb`l rhijblhc bl pfjkh, js tajt òfbejtb`l wjs

j k`ltbluble `lh wabka survbvhc tah thribljtb`l `n tah jehlky rhfjtb`lsabp. A`whvhr, tah kfjbijlt wjs l`t hltbtfhc t` chfbvhry up `n tah o``ds jlc

rhk`rcs, js tahsh ajc rhijblhc tah pr`phrty `n tah chnhlcjlt.

Dbleskr`nt Blsurjlkh K`. v. A. [. Uhjvhrs (Xlchrwrbtble) Jehlkbhs Ftc T:22;Y : Ff`ycs _hp. :15


_òhrt Ihrdbl


18/28

Sah chnhlcjlt kjrrbhc `l ousblhss js tah ulchrwrbtble jehlt n`r nbvh blsurjlkh kìpjlbhs, tah DUHFI kìpjlbhs. Uhjvhrs rhkhbvhc prhibuis jlc

pjbc kfjbis, jlc bl s` c`ble ahfc suis rhkhbvhc `l chp`sbt bl bts `wl ljih. Sah DUHFI kìpjlbhs ohkjih bls`fvhlt, jlc bssuhs jr`sh js t` tah

`wlhrsabp `n tah nulcs ahfc oy Uhjvhrs.

Ahfc (Ajrijl G.)7 tajt tah nulcs ahfc oy Uhjvhrs oy wjy `n prhibuis rhkhbvhc whrh l`t ahfc `l trust n`r tah DUHFI kìpjlbhs, jlc Uhjvhrs wjs

hltbtfhc t` cbskajreh tah òfbejtb`ls `n tah DUHFI kìpjlbhs js bt taùeat nbt.

Sah fjw rhqubrhs tah jehlts òfbejtb`ls t` oh hxhrkbshc wbta rhjs`ljofh kjrh jlc sdbff, jlc jl ulchrwrbtble jehlt `whs pjrjffhfcutbhs bl k`ltrjkt jlc bl t`rt bl tabs rhejrc. Bl jccbtb`l t` hxprhss jlc bipfbhc k`ltrjktujf cutbhs, ulchrwrbtble jehlts jrh oùlc oynbcukbjry cutbhs oy rhjs`l `n tahbr k`ltr`f `vhr tah nbljlkbjf jnnjbrs `n tah p``f. Sah nbcukbjry rhfjtb`lsabp rhqubrhs tah ulchrwrbtblejehlt t` jkt bl tah ohst blthrhsts `n tah p``f ihiohr rjtahr tajl bl bts `wl blthrhsts. Sahsh p`blts jrh bffustrjthc oy [pahrh Crjdh Blsurjlkh Ftc v. Hur` Blthrljtb`ljf Xlchrwrbtble Ftc T?==;Y Ff`ycs _hp. B_ 8;8. I`rh rhkhltfy, bl _+^ ^hrsbkahrule JE v. _bsd Blsurjlkh jlc _hblsurjlkh [`futb`ls [J , L`vhiohr ?==3, ulrhp`rthc, _^^ wjs j Ehrijl blsurjlkh kìpjly jlc jfs` j a`fcblekìpjly n`r j erùp `n `tahr blsurhrs, blkfucble _B_[. Sah erùp wjs k`ltr`ffhc oy K nrì tah ]jrbs `nnbkh. Bl ?==: jlc ?==? E, js

1. formation of reinsurance agreements

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