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Author: Neo, Chiu Bin Title: The Effect of Strategy Instruction on Reading Comprehension
Performance The accompanying research report is submitted to the University of Wisconsin-Stout, Graduate School in
partial completion of the requirements for the
Graduate Degree/ Major: MS Education
Research Adviser: Carolyn Heitz, PhD
Submission Term/Year: Spring, 2013
Number of Pages: 50
Style Manual Used: American Psychological Association, 6th edition
I understand that this research report must be officially approved by the Graduate School and that an electronic copy of the approved version will be made available through the University Library website
I attest that the research report is my original work (that any copyrightable materials have been used with the permission of the original authors), and as such, it is automatically protected by the laws, rules, and regulations of the U.S. Copyright Office.
My research adviser has approved the content and quality of this paper. STUDENT:
NAME: Chiu Bin Neo DATE: 12 March 2013
ADVISER: (Committee Chair if MS Plan A or EdS Thesis or Field Project/Problem):
NAME: Carolyn Heitz DATE: March 12, 2013
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This section for MS Plan A Thesis or EdS Thesis/Field Project papers only Committee members (other than your adviser who is listed in the section above) 1. CMTE MEMBER’S NAME: DATE:
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Neo, Chiu Bin. The Effect of Strategy Instruction on Reading Comprehension
Performance
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to discover the effect of strategy instruction on the
reading comprehension performance and strategy knowledge of a sixth grade student in
Singapore. The sample was a 13-year-old male student with a reading disability. The student
had good decoding skills but was weak in comprehension. The study assessed strengths and
weaknesses in the student’s reading comprehension and his knowledge and use of reading
strategies. Comprehension performance was assessed using a standardized comprehension
pretest and a posttest and through tasks on passages from the Qualitative Reading Inventory-
4. Observations made during the Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 assessments provided
information about the student’s use of strategies. The student’s knowledge of strategies was
measured through interviews and through a questionnaire, the Metacomprehension Strategy
Index. One-on-one instruction of selected strategies was provided through fifteen 90-minute
sessions of after-school tutoring. The study found that instruction of strategies improved the
student’s comprehension performance and increased his knowledge about strategy use.
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Table of Contents
Page
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chapter II: Review of Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Before-During-After Reading Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 13
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter III: Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Setting and Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 20
Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Data Collection and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Chapter IV: Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Item Analysis – Comprehension Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Knowledge and Use of Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 1: Pretest and Posttest Mean Percentage Scores for Standardized
Comprehension Tests, QRI-4 Comprehension, QRI-4 Retelling, QRI-4 Reading
Accuracy, and QRI-4 Self-Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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Figure 2: Pretest and Posttest Results of the Metacognitive Strategy Index (MSI). 27
Chapter IV: Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Appendix A: Foundation English Pretest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Appendix B: Foundation English Posttest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Appendix C: Interview Questions on Strategy Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Appendix D: Metacomprehension Strategy Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
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Chapter I: Introduction
Background
Singapore is a city state in Southeast Asia. The country has displayed progress in
international education assessments in recent years. It was ranked fifth in reading in a 2009
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) study (Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, 2011). Education in Singapore is known to be very academic
and result-oriented. Educational policies and programs are directed by the government. The
Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) is the central body that regulates educational
institutions. The Ministry defines and disseminates curricula and syllabi; and it administers
the national exams.
Elementary education, called primary education, is mandatory for children aged seven
to twelve years old. Middle school starts from the seventh grade. Students sit for national
exams in English (as a first language), math, science, and a second language at the end of
grade six. A student has to pass the subjects in order to advance to middle school. A student
who fails a subject has to repeat sixth grade in school and retake the exams. An over-aged
student will not be permitted to repeat sixth grade in school. The student can study at home
and sit for the exams again as a private candidate. Another alternative is to discontinue
formal education. In an article titled, “The Land where Dreams of University can end at 12,”
William Stewart (2012) observed the gloomy impact of poor performance in these exams.
He wrote that “the outcomes (of the sixth grade national exams) effectively determine the rest
of a pupil's educational career” (p. 20).
Most schools begin to periodically administer standardized tests in the four
examinable subjects from the third grade. Students are formally banded into ability groups
for each subject at the end of grade four. Parents can decide whether to let their children take
the examinable subjects at the normal level or at a foundation level for fifth grade and sixth
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grade. The foundation level curriculum caters to students with learning difficulties. Content
difficulty is lowered in the syllabi for the various subjects. The Ministry of Education (MOE)
refers to a student taking a foundation level subject as a “low progress learner” in that subject
(Ministry of Education, 2010). The 2010 syllabus for foundation English lists a range of
learning outcomes for reading. The document noted that the national examinations assessed
selected skills; and if teachers were to teach to the tests, students would not learn the range of
skills stated in the syllabus (Ministry of Education, 2010). This indicates that the Education
Ministry is aware of how examinations influence classroom practice.
Many educators know that reading strategy knowledge and strategy use can positively
impact students’ reading performance. However, teachers are not always able to ensure that
all low progress learners have sufficient time to learn and to apply strategies. There is
meager data on what strategies are taught to these students and how much practice time
students are given. Zhang, Gu, and Hu (2008) conducted a study on the use of reading
strategies by 18 primary school students in Singapore. The researchers found that less
successful students were focused on “bottom-up processing (e.g. sounding out words,
repeated reading of isolated unknown lexis)” (p. 266). The students were not aware of the
need to understand text and they viewed reading as decoding. The researchers also found that
high performing students used more strategies than low performing students.
A low progress learner will find comprehension tasks challenging irrespective of
whether he is taking normal track English or foundation English. The student has to be able
to read and interpret a variety of text forms, read for understanding, transfer information,
answer open-ended questions, answer multiple choice questions, and complete cloze
comprehension. Understanding text meaning is vital for successful completion of those tasks.
These students may require one-on-one instruction in strategy use in order to support
comprehension growth.
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This study looks at a low progress learner’s difficulty with reading comprehension.
The student, Lee, has a reading disability resulting from a visual processing deficit. Since
February of 2012, Lee started to receive after-school tutoring three times a week. He
demonstrated strong decoding skills but was weak in comprehension. Poor comprehension
lowered his final scores on English language tasks and assessments. According to past
records, that had been a trend from the early years. This study will provide Lee with after-
school instructional support for comprehension.
Statement of the Problem
A sixth grade student has good decoding skills but is weak in comprehension.
Passing the foundation English exam at sixth grade is requisite for advancement to middle
school; therefore, ensuring that the student develops the necessary strategies to cope with
reading comprehension tasks is crucial. One-on-one reading strategy instruction will be
conducted to equip the student with means to solve comprehension problems and support his
comprehension development.
This study aims to answer the following questions:
1. What effect does strategy instruction have on the comprehension performance of a
student with a reading disability?
2. What effect does strategy instruction have on a student’s knowledge of strategy use?
Assumptions of the Study
The assumption behind providing instruction in strategies is that the use of strategies
has a positive effect on reading comprehension performance (Mason, Meadan, Hedin, &
Corson, 2006; Paris & Jacobs, 1984). Strategies can be used to support understanding of text
and to solve comprehension problems. Increasing strategy knowledge can aid reading
development and contribute to general knowledge development (Palinscar & Schutz, 2011).
Paris and Jacobs (1984) found that increasing knowledge about processes that support
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comprehension can improve performance. Students with reading and learning disabilities are
known to lack knowledge of strategies (Jitendra & Gajria, 2011), therefore, it is necessary to
provide them with instruction.
Definition of Terms
The terms used in this study are defined as follows:
Comprehension strategies. Comprehension strategies are actions taken to support
and increase understanding of text. Examples of strategies that can support comprehension
include looking back and rereading.
Metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies are actions taken to support and
control the use of cognitive strategies. Examples of metacognitive strategies include
regulating, checking, and repairing actions.
Metacomprehension. Metacomprehension refers to the monitoring of
comprehension undertaken by a reader. Comprehension monitoring involves the use of
regulating, checking, and repairing strategies.
Metacomprehension Strategy Index. The Metacomprehension Strategy Index
(MSI; Schmitt, 1990, 2005) is a questionnaire that measures knowledge of strategies to use
before, during, and after reading. It comprises twenty-five multiple-choice questions.
Twenty questions relevant to elementary school students will be used in this study.
Qualitative Reading Inventory-4. The Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 (QRI-4;
Leslie & Caldwell, 2006) is an informal reading assessment instrument that can be used to
gather data on word identification, fluency, and comprehension.
Question-answer relationships. The question-answer relationships (QAR) strategy
categorizes questions based on where answers can be found. Questions with answers that can
be found in the text are called “in the book” questions. Questions with answers that are
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derived from the author’s prior knowledge or a combination of prior knowledge and hints
from text content are called “in my head” questions.
Reading comprehension performance. Reading comprehension performance refers
to a reader’s responses to reading comprehension tasks. In this study, it includes answering
explicit and implicit open-ended questions, answering multiple choice questions, completing
cloze tasks, and completing sentences. Task responses are scored as points and converted
into percentages.
Reading skills. Reading skills are unconscious and automatized actions taken to
achieve reading goals.
Reading strategies. Reading strategies are conscious and deliberate actions taken to
support reading. They include strategies undertaken to support decoding, fluency, and
comprehension. When used with automaticity, strategies become skills.
Retrospective miscue analysis. Retrospective miscue analysis (RMA) is a strategy
that is used to increase awareness in students about text meaning and the importance of
monitoring for comprehension. A student reads text and tapes his reading for replay. He
then listens to his own reading, cross-checks it with the text, and marks the errors he spots in
his reading. The miscues are then surfaced for discussion.
Working memory. Working memory is “the place where meaning is made in the
information processing system” (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011, p. 26).
Methodology
The student’s comprehension performance will be assessed using a standardized
pretest and a posttest (Samuel, 2011) formatted after school tests. The standardized tests
include open-ended and multiple choice questions, sentence completion, an information
transfer task, and a cloze task. Pre- and posttest comprehension scores on six passages from
the Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 (QRI-4; Leslie & Caldwell, 2006) will yield additional
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data on performance. Observations made during the QRI-4 assessments will provide
information about the student’s use of strategies. The student’s knowledge about reading
strategies will be assessed through ten open-ended interview questions developed by Brown,
Pressley, Van Meter, and Schuder (1996); and Miholic (1994). Knowledge of before, during,
and after reading strategies will be measured by a questionnaire, the Metacomprehension
Strategy Index (MSI), developed by Schmitt (1990).
Strategy instruction will be conducted through fifteen 90-minute sessions of after-
school tutoring. A standardized comprehension posttest (Samuel, 2011) and comprehension
posttests using passages from the QRI-4 will be administered after the intervention. The
QRI-4 passages will comprise six previously tested passages and two new passages not
previously used. The interview on reading strategy knowledge will be conducted again. The
self-report questionnaire, the MSI, will be re-administered.
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Chapter II: Review of Literature
Reading comprehension impacts learning and school advancement. In Singapore,
where this study will be conducted, sixth grade students are required to sit for national exams
at the end of the academic year. In the English language exam, these students have to display
their comprehension of texts through answering open-ended questions, multiple-choice
questions, and completing sentences and cloze tasks. A poor performance score can stop a
student from advancing to middle school. For over-aged students, failure could mean the end
of formal schooling because these students would not be allowed to repeat sixth grade and
retake the exams. Students with reading and learning disabilities who struggle with
comprehension are especially at risk. They require focused intervention to support
comprehension and improve performance scores. This research study will investigate if
strategy instruction will improve the reading comprehension performance of a sixth grade
student with a reading disability. The study will also examine if strategy instruction will
increase the student’s knowledge of strategy use. The literature review will look at the pre-
requisites of reading comprehension, discuss comprehension difficulties faced by students
with reading and learning disabilities, and explore comprehension strategies for explicit
instruction.
Comprehension is defined by the Rand Reading Study Group (Snow, 2002) as “the
process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and
involvement with written language” (p. 11). Comprehension has also been referred to as a
process of making meaning of text (Adams, 1990). The pre-requisites of comprehension
include adequate cognitive processing abilities, accurate decoding, fluency, the ability to
relate prior knowledge with text, knowledge and use of strategies, and metacognitive abilities
that monitor comprehension (Adams, 1990; Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011). The Rand
Reading Study Group (Snow, 2002) lists the following factors as influencing comprehension:
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vocabulary and linguistic knowledge (including oral language skills and an
awareness of language structures); non-linguistic abilities and processes
(attention, visualization, inferencing, reasoning, critical analysis, working
memory, etc.); engagement and motivation; an understanding of the goals and
purposes of reading; discourse knowledge; domain knowledge; and cognitive
and metacognitive strategy development. (p. 83)
Researchers have noted the ability of good readers to integrate the necessary abilities,
skills, and knowledge for successful comprehension (Palinscar & Schutz, 2011). In contrast,
poor readers are known to experience difficulties coordinating the varied and complex
requirements. Many students with reading and learning disabilities have a short attention
span, poor working memory, and are lacking in prior knowledge (Jitendra & Gajria, 2011).
These students do not monitor comprehension (Cross & Paris, 1988), have limited knowledge
about the use of strategies (Meloth, 1990), and do not use strategies effectively (Rottman &
Cross, 2001).
Weaknesses in cognitive processes of attention and working memory require
extensive and focused intervention. A lack of prior knowledge entails long-term support
since reading itself is a challenge for these students. Poor comprehension monitoring and
strategy knowledge can be aided by strategy instruction. In an ideal learning environment,
comprehensive and multipronged intervention should be provided to support all areas of
weaknesses. Where there are constraints of time and resources, instruction has to be targeted
to address important needs. Roberts, Torgesen, Broadman, and Scammacca (2008) stated
that “for older students with LD (learning disabilities) who continue to struggle in reading,
the challenge is providing instruction that is powerful enough to narrow or close gap with
grade-level standards in reading” (p. 68).
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Comprehension strategies are purposeful and conscious actions taken to achieve
comprehension goals (Gunning, 2000), which may vary from answering questions to
completing summaries or reports (Dymock & Nicholson, 2010). Strategies have potential to
be automatized and become skills when used over time. Skills are actions which have been
so well-rehearsed that they are used unconsciously and with mastery. Many skilled readers
unconsciously preview text, check for understanding, reread, and recall information to
enhance comprehension.
Walcyzk (2000) held that strategies can be used as compensatory mechanisms by
readers who have inefficient decoding and a small working memory. He categorized slowing
reading rate, pausing, and looking back in text as compensatory behaviors (p. 561). He
referred to rereading as a compensatory strategy (p. 561). Other researchers have categorized
strategies into before, during, and after reading processes (Houvteen & Van de Grift, 2007;
Castilleja, 2011). Pre-reading strategies include previewing, making predictions, and asking
questions about text. Comprehension can be supported through checking predictions,
monitoring comprehension, answering questions, and summarizing main points during
reading. Strategies that consolidate the reading act include retelling, summarizing, and
answering questions (McCormick, 2007; Houtveen & Van de Grift, 2007; Gunning, 2000).
Before-During-After Reading Strategies
Previewing is a pre-reading activity that prepares a reader to approach content. A
reader previews text by taking note of the title, text type, text structure, and text features.
These components provide clues about what the text would be like. Predicting is another
action to take before reading. The title and what a reader already knows about the topic can
provide hints about text content. However, predicting does require a certain amount of prior
knowledge and may not be useful for students who are weak in that area (Gunning, 2000).
Prior knowledge takes time to build and it is also developed through extensive reading.
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Instead, students with weak prior knowledge could learn to ask generic questions about text.
A reader can pre-empt content by asking questions related to the question words what, who,
when, how, and why. Questioning prepares the reader to take note of text information in an
organized manner. Previewing, predicting, and asking questions can be used in a reading
routine to prepare for text comprehension (Gunning, 2000; Houtveen & Van de Grift, 2007;
Roberts, et al., 2008). Organizers or graphic maps can be used for writing down predictions
and questions for subsequent checking (Leslie & Caldwell, 2005; Jitendra & Gajria, 2011).
The use of these visual aids will reinforce learning.
Strategies that are used during reading to aid comprehension include checking
predictions, monitoring comprehension, and taking note of narrative elements or main ideas.
A reader confirms prior knowledge about text or adjusts his understanding of the topic
according to new information received when he checks predictions. Monitoring
comprehension involves thinking about what is being read and taking steps to increase
understanding of text. Monitoring comprehension has been termed metacomprehension
(Schmitt, 2005) or thinking about comprehension. Comprehension monitoring is managed by
metacognition. Cross and Paris (1988) defined metacognition as “the knowledge and control
children have over their own thinking and learning activities, including reading” (p. 131).
Students with reading and learning disabilities are known to be weak in metacognition;
therefore, it is necessary to raise their awareness about monitoring comprehension (Jitendra
& Gajria, 2011; Gunning, 2000).
Monitoring comprehension involves the use of regulating, checking, and repairing
strategies (Gunning, 2000). These strategies are also referred to as metacognitive strategies.
A reader regulates reading by selecting and implementing different strategies to meet
different reading goals. Poor readers need to be made aware that learning and applying
strategies can help them interpret text and solve comprehension problems. Increasing
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knowledge about strategies contribute to regulation of reading as it arms readers with tools
for problem-solving.
Checking comprehension involves the evaluation of comprehension. Poor readers
need to be taught to reflect on their own comprehension levels through self-questioning. A
reader asks questions such as “Do I know what is going on?” or “What does this mean?” A
reader who does not think about meaning will decode without paying attention to the ideas
that the words are conveying. Reading Recovery, a program which incorporates
metacognition instruction, has been shown to benefit young readers (Griffith & Ruan, 2005).
Readers were taught to self-question whether what they were reading made sense or whether
the text sounded and looked right. Such questioning emphasizes meaning-making in reading
and encourages readers to reflect on their comprehension. A reader who checks
comprehension can use a repair strategy to solve a comprehension problem. Repair strategies
can be as simple as asking assistance from another person. Repair actions include slowing
reading rate, pausing, using context clues to think about word meaning, looking back,
rereading, reading before and after the problem sections, and seeking help from others.
Some students may decode fairly well but make miscues which affect meaning.
These students do not self-correct sufficiently. The lack of self-correction indicates that they
are not attentive to text meaning. Instruction in a strategy called retrospective miscue
analysis (RMA; Goodman, 1996) can help raise awareness that errors in decoding can change
the meaning of a sentence or make a sentence incomprehensible. The strategy emphasizes
the need to monitor for meaning and to self-correct independently (Goodman, 1996). The
student reads a piece of text which is taped for replay. He listens to the taped reading, cross-
checks his reading with the text, and marks the miscues he spots in his taped reading. The
tutor and the student then surface the miscues for discussion.
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Purposeful discussions of miscues and other decoding difficulties encourage students
to think about why miscues were made. Discussions also increase knowledge of strategies
for self-correction (Black, 2004). Goodman (1996) and Moore (2003) suggested that the
RMA strategy provides a non-threatening environment to discuss errors. It also encourages
the reader to think about himself as a reader and to think about the entire reading process.
Martens (1998) used retrospective miscue analysis with a third-grade student with a learning
disability. The student viewed reading as decoding and remembering information initially.
After intervention, he saw reading as a process of making meaning of text.
Knowledge about text structures can be used before, during, and after reading to help
a reader organize information. Text structure refers to how text is organized. Knowledge of
text structures provides a reader with a “framework” to anticipate content (Jitendra & Gajria,
2011; Gunning, 2000), and is especially helpful when prior knowledge is lacking. A reader
can use a known structure to work out how different ideas in a new text are related. Good
readers are known to have more knowledge about text structures than students with reading
and learning disabilities (Cataldo & Oakhill, 2000; Jitendra & Gajria, 2011; Stetter &
Hughes, 2010). Therefore, there is a need to ensure that the latter group of students receives
needed instruction.
The text structures encountered in elementary school include narrative and expository
types. A narrative text is made up of a simple story grammar comprising elements such as
characters, setting, plot, problem, and solution. A sequence of events may also be included.
Understanding the elements in a story grammar can aid retelling (Boulineau, Fore III, Hagan-
Burke, & Burke, 2004; Leslie & Caldwell, 2005). Story grammar can be taught through the
use of a story map which allows the reader to visually categorize information (Jitendra &
Gajria, 2011; Gunning, 2000). The map can be used before reading to direct the reader’s
attention to the various elements in a narrative. It can help a reader to identify, organize, and
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record information during reading (Roberts, Torgesen, Broadman, & Scammacca, 2008). It
is also useful as a reference for retelling, summarizing, or for answering questions after
reading (Swanson & De la Paz, 1998). A student who learns to apply story grammar can use
the structure to recall information for retelling and summarizing even without the use of the
visual story map.
Expository text structures vary from lists, compare-contrast structures, sequences of
events, to those that analyze causes. A simple structure that students with reading and
learning disabilities should be taught is main ideas and details (Bakken & Whedon, 2002).
Main ideas comprise important text information (McCormick, 2007) and being able to extract
those ideas is central to reading comprehension (Jitendra & Gajria, 2011; Gunning, 2000). A
main ideas and details map can be used to help the reader find and generate main ideas or
topics (Leslie & Caldwell, 2005).
Previously read short texts which are well-organized (Gunning, 2000) can be used for
instruction in main ideas and details. The tutor models how to derive the main idea through
looking at the topic of each paragraph. If a paragraph has a topic sentence, the sentence can
serve as the main idea sentence. The tutor should explain how the rest of the paragraph
relates to the topic. The function of text features such as titles, sub-headings, font type, and
font size should also be brought up for discussion (Dymock & Nicholson, 2010) as text
feature knowledge helps readers to identify and differentiate different types of information.
Retelling, summarizing, and answering questions help a reader to consolidate reading,
enhancing comprehension. Retelling can be taught in conjunction with instruction of text
structures. Students can use text structure information to help them reconstruct important
information. Expository text structure information, in the form of main ideas and details, can
also be used to develop a summary. Retelling, summarizing, and answering questions are
frequently used as comprehension assessments. Answering questions is a feature of
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standardized comprehension tests in elementary school. Searching for answers to questions
can be a challenging task for students with reading and learning disabilities (Cataldo &
Oakhill, 2000). An after reading strategy that supports answering questions is the question-
answer relationships (QAR) strategy (Raphael, 1986; Raphael & Au, 2005; Dymock and
Nicholson, 2010). The strategy teaches a reader to differentiate questions and understand
where answers can be found. This can contribute to comprehension performance (Roberts, et
al., 2008; Castilleja, 2011).
The strategy categorizes questions into “in the book” questions and “in my head"
questions. Within the “in the book” category are “right there” and “search and think”
questions. Answers to “right there” questions are found in one statement in the text. The
question usually shares similar words with the answer in the text. Answers to “think and
search” questions are gathered from different places within a text. The words used in the
question may differ from that in the text. The “in my head” category consists of “author and
me” and “on my own questions”. The answers to “author and me” questions combine
information hinted in the text with the reader’s prior knowledge. The answers to “on my
own” questions are not stated in the text and require the reader to provide his own answers.
“In the book” questions feature prominently in standardized tests. To match a
question with an answer from text requires the use of look backs and rereading. Many
students with reading and learning disabilities do not use look backs and rereading
(McCormick, 2007; Antoniou & Souvignier, 2007). Walcyk (2000) referred to looking back
as a compensatory behavior and rereading as a compensatory strategy. Instruction of the
QAR strategy will emphasize the importance of using look backs and rereading.
A study by Ezell, Hunsicker, and Quinque (1997) compared the effectiveness of peer-
assisted learning and teacher-assisted learning using the QAR strategy by fourth graders in a
public school in the United States. The researchers found that there was no significant
19
difference between the two forms of learning but they noted that all students increased their
comprehension skills through using the QAR strategy. In addition, the students maintained
high levels of comprehension performance eight months after instruction had ended.
Another study by Prew and Kinniburgh (2010) in the United Kingdom found that knowledge
and use of the QAR strategy improved the reading comprehension test scores of first and
second grade students. Teachers involved in the research considered the strategy to be
effective in preparing students for tests. They were convinced that younger students should
be taught the strategy.
Summary
Some students with reading and learning disabilities experience comprehension
difficulties into higher elementary school years. These students have difficulty integrating
the myriad abilities, skills, and knowledge required for successful comprehension. Previous
research has demonstrated the efficacy of strategy instruction in improving comprehension.
Therefore, it is important that students with comprehension difficulties are given instruction
on strategy use.
20
Chapter III: Methodology
Students with reading and learning disabilities are known to experience complex
comprehension difficulties. Intervention through instruction of strategies has potential to
address some of the problems. This study assessed the comprehension difficulties faced by
such a student and investigated the effects of strategy instruction on comprehension
performance. It also examined if strategy instruction increased knowledge about strategy use.
Setting and Subject
The subject, Lee, was a 13-year-old sixth grade male student attending an after-school
tutoring facility in Singapore. He had entered kindergarten a year later than his peers and is a
year older than other sixth graders. Lee has a reading disability resulting from a visual
processing deficit and reads at about three levels below grade. He was enrolled in the normal
curriculum for subjects such as English, math and science in lower elementary school. In
fifth grade, he transferred to the foundation level for those subjects. The foundation level
caters to students with learning difficulties. Passages used for reading in English are shorter
and text difficulty level is lowered. The foundation reading level is equivalent to level two
and three on the Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 (QRI-4; Leslie & Caldwell, 2006).
Lee has to sit for national exams at the end of grade six. Failure in any one subject will
hinder entry to middle school, which begins from grade seven. Lee will not be able to repeat
sixth grade because he is over-aged. School-administered English comprehension
assessments indicated that Lee was experiencing comprehension difficulties. Lee started to
receive after-school tutoring three times a week two months into the sixth grade academic
year. This study was conducted during those sessions. One-on-one strategy instruction was
provided to him.
21
Instrumentation
A standardized foundation level comprehension test (Samuel, 2011) was administered
to provide a pretest raw score that was then converted to a percentage score. The test (see
Appendix A) followed the format used in school tests and exams. It included narrative and
expository texts. The texts also varied in formats such as advertisements, brochures,
announcements, and application forms. Test items included five open-ended and five
multiple choice questions, an information transfer item, a sentence completion task, and a
cloze task. A second test (see Appendix B) from the publisher was administered to provide
the posttest score.
Six passages from the QRI-4 (Leslie & Caldwell, 2006) were administered before and
after intervention. They comprised narrative and expository texts. Comprehension was
measured by scores for answering comprehension questions. A comprehension percentage
score was computed for each passage based on the number of correct answers on eight
questions asked. The mean percentage score for the six passages was computed. A retelling
score was computed to assess if instruction in text structure could improve text recount. A
retelling score for each passage was derived based on the number of ideas generated. The
retelling mean percentage score for the six passages was computed. Two new passages, not
previously administered, were added on as posttests to provide data to affirm performance.
Observations made during assessments provided information about the student’s use
of strategies such as look backs, rereading, pausing, slowing reading rate, and self-correction.
The reading accuracy and self-correction rates were worked out and their mean percentage
scores were computed. The reading accuracy scores, self-correction scores, and running
records provided information about comprehension monitoring and the nature of miscues that
the student made.
22
Knowledge about comprehension strategies was assessed through two instruments. The
first comprised ten open-ended interview questions developed by Brown, et al. (1996); and
Miholic (1994). The questions asked about strategies that good readers used, strategies for
monitoring comprehension, and strategies for repairing problems (see Appendix C). The
second instrument was a multiple-choice questionnaire called the Metacomprehension
Strategy Index (MSI; Schmitt, 1990). It measured knowledge of before, during, and after
reading strategies. This originally comprised twenty-five multiple-choice questions. Twenty
questions (see Appendix D) that were relevant to elementary school students were used in
this study. Seven questions were on before reading strategies, nine questions were on during
reading strategies, and four questions asked about after reading strategies. Each correct
response was given a point. The points for each category of before, during, and after reading
strategy were totaled and converted to a percentage score. The interview about strategy
knowledge and the MSI were re-administered as posttests.
Data Collection and Procedures
A participation and consent letter was emailed to Lee’s parents for permission to take
part in the study. The assessments and intervention were conducted after-school hours during
tutoring sessions from April to June of 2012.
Fifteen lessons each lasting ninety minutes were conducted. At different phases during
the period of intervention, Lee was taught these strategies: previewing text, making and
check predictions, retrospective miscue analysis, monitoring comprehension, text structures
and features, and question-answer relationships strategy. Each lesson followed a structure of
lesson preview, review of the previous lesson, strategy instruction, teacher modeling, student
practice, and application (Leslie & Caldwell, 2005). Strategies were taught two at a time and
combined strategy use was encouraged throughout the sessions. Level three narrative and
expository texts were used for instruction.
23
Data Analysis
Comprehension performance was compared using comprehension test scores. The first
set of data looked at the mean percentage scores for a standardized English comprehension
pretest and a posttest (Samuel, 2011). The second set compared the pretest and posttest mean
percentage scores for comprehension on six passages from the QRI-4. The pre- and posttest
QRI-4 retelling mean percentage scores were also compared. Two new QRI-4 passages that
were not administered previously provided additional posttest scores to affirm performance.
The pre- and posttest mean percentage scores for QRI-4 reading accuracy and self-correction
provided information about comprehension monitoring. The student’s use of strategies
during the QRI-4 assessments was noted. Change in strategy knowledge was assessed
through the strategies described by the student in the pre- and posttest interviews and through
comparison of pre- and posttest scores on the MSI.
Limitations
It is not possible to say which strategies contributed most to comprehension
performance because a combination of strategies was taught to the student.
24
Chapter IV: Results
This study investigated the effects of strategy instruction on the comprehension
performance of a sixth grade student with a reading disability. The study examined whether
strategy instruction improved comprehension performance. It also explored whether strategy
instruction increased the student’s knowledge about strategy use.
Item Analysis – Comprehension Performance
The first research question inquired about the effect of strategy instruction on the
comprehension performance of the student. Pretest and posttest comprehension scores were
compared to answer this question. The first set of comprehension scores was obtained from a
standardized foundation English comprehension pretest and a posttest (Samuel, 2011).
Comprehension was measured by answers on five open-ended questions, five multiple-choice
questions, a sentence completion task, an information transfer task, and a cloze task on a
number of short narrative and expository texts. A raw score was computed into a percentage
score. The second set of comprehension scores came from assessments on six passages from
the Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 (QRI-4; Leslie & Caldwell, 2006). The six passages
were used for both pretests and posttests. Eight open-ended questions were asked for each
passage. A mean comprehension percentage score was derived. Two new passages from the
QRI-4 were added on as posttests to provide data about performance on texts not used in the
pretests. A mean percentage score for retelling on the six passages was also computed to
provide additional information about comprehension performance.
Knowledge and Use of Strategies
The second research question inquired whether instruction on strategies could
increase knowledge about strategy use. An interview comprising ten questions about strategy
knowledge was conducted before and after intervention. Responses to the
Metacomprehension Strategy Index (MSI; Schmitt, 1990) provided additional information on
25
knowledge about before, during, and after reading strategies. The mean percentage scores for
reading accuracy and self-correction on the QRI-4 passages furnished information about the
use of monitoring strategies. Observations of the student’s use of strategies during the QRI-4
assessments contributed to information about strategy application.
Findings
Figure 1 shows the pretest and posttest mean percentage scores for the standardized
comprehension tests (Samuel, 2011) and for answering questions on six passages from the
QRI-4. The figure also contains pre- and posttest mean percentage scores for retelling,
reading accuracy, and self-correction on the passages from the QRI-4.
Figure 1. Pretest and posttest mean percentage scores for standardized comprehension tests,
QRI-4 comprehension, QRI-4 retelling, QRI-4 reading accuracy, and QRI-4 self-correction.
There was an improvement of 14% on the standardized comprehension posttest. The
QRI-4 posttest comprehension mean percentage score for six passages improved by 33%.
Lee consistently answered correctly seven out of eight questions for five previously
administered passages. He answered all questions correctly for one passage. His retelling
mean percentage score for the six passages increased from 11% to 39%. His reading
accuracy increased from 98% to 99%; and his self-correction increased by 46%. The posttest
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
StandardizedComprehension
Tests
QRI-4Comprehension
QRI-4 Retelling QRI-4 ReadingAccuracy
QRI-4 Self-correction
Pretest
Posttest
Per
cen
t
26
mean percentage scores for two new passages not administered in the pretest are not shown in
Figure 1. The comprehension mean percentage score for those passages was 87.5%. The
mean score for accuracy was 99% and the score for self-correction was 60%.
Observations made during pretests on the QRI-4 passages indicated that Lee looked
back and reread infrequently when answering questions, even when he had been permitted
(but not prompted) to do so. The occasional look back that was observed was random. Lee
had a tendency to provide an answer from prior knowledge that was unrelated to text content.
Posttest observations indicated increased and more targeted looking back and rereading when
answering questions. Lee’s reading accuracy was good in both pre- and posttests. However,
he did make miscues which interfered with sentence meaning in the pretests. The number of
miscues decreased in the posttests. Self-correction also improved in the posttests. Miscues
made in the pretests resulted from inaccurate predictions for decoding. Some visual cues
were ignored and a few multiple syllable words were reduced. For example, refrigerator was
read as refriator and environment was read as enviment. The miscues affected meaning but
Lee seemed unaware of that. Few cues that retained grammar and meaning of sentences were
used. That indicated a lack of checking for understanding. There was also a disconcerting
number of additions and deletions of function words. Some of the additions and deletions
interfered with sentence meaning.
Findings from the pretest interview on strategy knowledge suggested that Lee was
familiar with using a dictionary, previewing the content page, rereading, seeking help from
someone else, and asking questions such as what the text was about. He also viewed not
knowing a word in terms of decoding difficulty rather than not understanding its meaning. In
the posttest interview, Lee explained that it was important to think about whether sentences
made sense. He said that if a word didn’t make sense he could read the sentence before and
the sentence after for clues to help him figure out the meaning. He named looking back,
27
rereading, and seeking help as actions to take for working out sentence meaning. Lee also
suggested looking for special text features and identifying main ideas to help comprehension.
He was able to give detailed examples of how to use predictions and asking questions about
text.
A shortened version of the MSI (Schmitt, 1990) assessed what Lee knew about
before, during, and after reading strategies. Lee had seven responses correct out of a total of
twenty questions in the pretest. He had thirteen correct responses in the posttest. That was a
30% increase. Figure 2 shows the pretest and posttest increment in percentage scores for
each category of before, during, and after reading strategies.
Figure 2. Pretest and posttest results of the Metacognitive Strategy Index (MSI)
Lee did not choose responses related to making predictions in the pretest for before
reading strategies. His responses for this category were all correct in the posttest. He chose
the use of previewing and predicting as strategies to take before reading. Lee had three
correct responses for nine questions in the pretest on strategies to use during reading. He
chose retelling, making guesses, and checking guesses as actions to take. He made one more
correct response in the posttest. He was familiar with rereading, taking time to read, and
using the dictionary. There was still a preoccupation with having to read everything in a text
and on word accuracy. He did not select retelling, predicting, checking predictions, and
0102030405060708090
100
MSI Pretest MSI Postest
Before strategies
During strategies
After strategies
Per
cen
t
28
checking pre-reading questions as actions to take during reading. Lee had two correct
responses for four questions in the posttest for after reading strategies. In the pretest, he had
incorrect responses for all four questions. He chose retelling and making a list of what he
understood as important post-reading activities in the posttest. Monitoring reading goal and
relating text to prior knowledge were not selected. In summary, as reported in figures 1 and
2, there was improvement in comprehension performance and increase in knowledge about
strategy use.
29
Chapter V: Discussion
This study examined if instruction of comprehension strategies could improve the
comprehension performance of a sixth grade student. It also investigated whether the
student became more knowledgeable about strategy use.
The subject, Lee, was a 13-year-old male student with a reading disability attending an
elementary school in Singapore. Sixth grade is the last year of elementary school in the city
state. Lee reads at about three levels below grade. He had been experiencing difficulty with
English reading comprehension and that often lowered his overall English test scores. This
study investigated his comprehension weaknesses and strengths, and provided instruction of
strategies to support comprehension performance.
A standardized comprehension pretest and a posttest (Samuel, 2011) and
comprehension assessments on passages from the Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 (QRI-4;
Leslie & Caldwell, 2006) provided comprehension performance scores. Lee’s use of
strategies was observed during assessments of QRI-4 passages. Knowledge about
comprehension strategies was assessed through pre-and posttest open-ended interview
questions and a questionnaire, the Metacomprehension Strategy Index (MSI; Schmitt, 1990).
Posttest data indicated improvement in comprehension performance. Lee’s
comprehension percentage score on the standardized test (Samuel, 2011) improved by 14%.
He was able to answer seven questions out of eight questions correctly for five passages from
the QRI-4. For one passage, he was able to answer all eight questions correctly. This
improvement in performance was maintained for tasks on two new passages that had not been
previously administered. Lee looked back and reread more frequently when answering
questions during the QRI-4 posttest assessments. He was also more strategic when looking
for answers. That could have contributed to the improved comprehension mean percentage
30
score. The instruction in question-answer relationships strategy, with its focus on relating
questions to text answers, could have supported efforts in look backs and rereading.
The mean retelling percentage score for the six passages that were previously
administered also increased. Lee recounted more ideas and he also organized and sequenced
those ideas better than in the pretests. The retelling mean percentage score for the two
passages not previously used for assessment provided further evidence of development in
retelling. Jitendra and Gajria (2011) had suggested that instruction in text structure and
thinking about main ideas could improve retelling.
Lee improved in comprehension monitoring. That was evident from posttest findings
on miscues made. He was relatively strong in reading accuracy in the pretests but he did
make some miscues that interfered with sentence meaning. The number of miscues made
decreased in the posttests, with previously administered and new passages. Posttest self-
correction rates for the six previously administered passages improved. This positive
development was affirmed by an increase in self-correction scores for the two passages that
were not used in pretests. The findings suggest increased attention to text meaning. Such
findings are consistent with previous studies on use of retrospective miscue analysis with
students (Martens, 1998).
The posttest data from interviews about knowledge of reading strategies indicate that
Lee became more aware about what to do for effective reading. He was able to explain how
to use various strategies and how the strategies could help him with comprehension. He
listed and explained with examples the elements of story grammar. He was also able to
explain how the question-answer relationships strategy worked and why it was useful. The
increase in knowledge about strategy use was also reflected in a higher posttest score on the
MSI. There was increased awareness about the use of previewing text, making predictions,
checking previously asked questions, checking predictions, and retelling.
31
Limitations
A combination of different strategies was taught to the student as they were deemed to
be important for his reading comprehension development. It is not possible to ascertain
which strategies contributed most to comprehension performance.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are made:
The instruction of strategies improved the comprehension performance of the
student.
The instruction of strategies increased the student’s knowledge about strategy use in
reading.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and the conclusion of the study, the following
recommendations are proposed:
Lee should be encouraged to apply strategies when reading texts in other subject
areas. This will enhance his understanding that strategies can be used in all reading
situations.
Lee should be encouraged to continue to apply the QAR strategy to comprehension
tasks.
Lee should be encouraged to read extensively materials that are at his independent
reading level to develop general knowledge.
32
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Appendix A
Foundation English Pretest
Section A: Information Transfer (5 marks) Read the following information to complete the form by filling in the blanks numbered 1 to 5. Imagine that you are a student named Noel Sim, aged 12. You live at 20, Highland Avenue, Singapore 547218. You would like to order a copy of the book “Teen Quest.” You want to send the order form now to get the book at a discounted price of $5.90. You have to send the order for the book to Teen Asia Pte. Ltd.
TEEN ASIA PTE. LTD.
Order Form
Order now and enjoy great discounts!
(1) Full Name (in BLOCK LETTERS): ___________________________________
(2) Age: ____________________________________________________________
(3) Occupation: ______________________________________________________
(4) Address: _________________________________________________________
Singapore ( )
(5) I hereby enclose a check of _____________________________ for a copy of
“Teen Quest.”
Section B: Comprehension – Completion of Sentences (5 marks) Read the following telephone conversation and use the information to complete the sentences in questions 6 to 10.
Eddy: Hello, Jack. This is Eddy.
Jack: Hi, Eddy.
Eddy: Do you want to play basketball at the community center today?
Jack: I can’t. I have to complete my project for Social Studies.
Eddy: I can help you. Why don’t we meet at the Central Library at 5 p.m.?
Jack: Okay. Shall we have dinner at Yummy Burger Deli after completing the project?
Eddy: That’s a great idea. They are offering a free apple pie for every cheeseburger
meal. I know that you love cheeseburgers.
Jack: I feel hungry already. I’ll see you at the library then. Bye.
Eddy: Sure. Bye.
38
Based on the information given above, complete each sentence with a suitable word or
suitable words.
6. Eddy called Jack to ask him if he wanted to ________________________________ .
7. Jack was busy because he had to _________________________________________ .
8. The two boys agreed to do the project at the ________________________________ .
9. Jack suggested having dinner at __________________________________________ .
10. Jack’s favorite fast food is _____________________________________________ .
Section C: Comprehension – Open-ended (10 marks)
Read the following passages and answer questions 11 to 15.
My dog, Spot, was given to me by Uncle Alex. Spot was different from other dogs. It
hated dog food but instead, loved eating fish. Spot was not afraid of loud noises made by
firecrackers but was a coward when it came to thunderstorms. I would always find it
under the table or in bed during a storm.
11. What was unusual about Spot?
________________________________________________________________________
12. Why did Spot hide under the table during a storm?
________________________________________________________________________
Janice was studying past midnight for her Science examination. It was two o’clock
and she had not completed her revision. When she went to school in the morning for her
examination, she felt sick and had a bad headache.
During the examination, she was biting her nails nervously as she could not answer
most of the questions. She wanted to copy her friend’s answers but the invigilator kept a
close watch on all pupils. Janice knew she would fail her examination.
13. Why do you think Janice had a bad headache?
_______________________________________________________________________________
14. How did she feel when she found the Science examination difficult? ______________________________________________________________________________
15. Did Janice copy her friend’s answers? Why?
______________________________________________________________________________
39
Section D: Comprehension Cloze (5 marks)
Read the passage and fill in each blank with a suitable word.
My favorite month of the year is December. One activity I _________ (16) doing is
sending Christmas cards __________ (17) all my friends in Singapore. I always send
those two weeks before Christmas because the cards take __________ (18) to be
delivered, especially during the festive season. A few years ago, I used to ___________
(19) my Christmas cards from my favorite bookshop. However, last year, I decided to
make my _________ (20) cards using the computer. Not only did I save time, I saved
money as well.
Section E: Graphic Stimulus MCQ (5 marks)
Read the advertisement carefully and then answer questions 21 to 25.
WHAT’S ON
Children’s Play
Take your child to watch ‘Little Red
Feather ’ performed by Art Theatre.
Date: 12 March Time: 1 p.m. – 4 p.m.
Venue: Wayang Academy of Fine Arts
Price: $3, $5 Ticketing: Call MYSTIC at 64444849
Art Exhibition
This annual exhibition will display 70 art pieces
by 59 local artists.
Date: 17 March – 27 March Time: 12 noon – 6 p.m.
Venue: Singapore Art Centre
Free Admission!
Singapore Arts Festival
This month-long festival has films, plays and many other activities for your entertainment.
Date: 22 March – 21 April Time: Various times Ticketing: Call Grand Box Office at 68497651
40
For each question from 21 to 25, four options are given. One of them is the correct answer.
Make your choice and write (1, 2, 3, or 4) in the brackets provided.
21. Little Red Feather is a ____________________________ . (1) film (2) play (3) book (4) drawing ( )
22. To book your ticket for Little Red Feather, you should call __________________.
(1) MYSTIC (2) Art Theatre (3) Wayang Academy (4) Grand Box Office ( )
23. The Art Exhibition is held once a ________________________ .
(1) week (2) day (3) month (4) year ( )
24. Admission to the Art Exhibition costs ____________________ .
(1) $6 (2) $5 (3) $3 (4) nothing ( )
25. The activity which will last for one month is the ________________________.
(1) Arts Festival (2) Art Theatre (3) Children’s Play (4) Art Exhibition ( )
Source:
Samuel, D. (2011). Foundation English PSLE (Primary School Leaving Examination) Model
Exam Papers. Singapore: Educational Publishing House Pte. Ltd.
41
Appendix B
Foundation English Posttest
Section A: Information Transfer (5 marks) Read the following information to complete the form by filling in the blanks numbered 1 to 5. You have a friend, Alice Davis, who lives at 35, Hill View Close, Singapore 517362. She wants to work as a volunteer at the Care for Animals Association to care for homeless dogs. She is free on Saturdays. You have decided to help her by getting the voluntary service form and completing it for her.
CARE FOR ANIMALS ASSOCIATION Voluntary Service Form (1) Full Name (in BLOCK LETTERS): ___________________________________
(2) Male / Female *
(3) Address: _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Singapore ( )
(4) I would like to care for dogs / cats / rabbits. *
(5) I am free to volunteer on Mondays / Fridays / Saturdays. *
* Please delete accordingly.
Section B: Comprehension – Completion of Sentences (5 marks)
Read the recipe and use the information to complete the sentences in questions 6 to 10.
Fried Rice
Ingredients: Rice ……………………………. 2 cups Peeled prawns …………… 250 g Beaten eggs …………………2 Oil ………………………………. 2 tablespoons Soy sauce ……………………. 1 tablespoon Chopped onions Diced carrots Green peas Lettuce Spring onions
Steps 1. Wash the rice in a bowl. Put the rice into the rice cooker. Add one cup of water for
every cup of rice. Set it to cook. 2. Season prawns with a pinch of salt and put them aside.
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3. Put some oil in a wok for frying pan. Heat the oil. Fry the eggs and cut them into strips. Leave them aside.
4. Fry the prawns, diced carrots and green peas lightly. Add soy sauce. 5. Add cooked rice and eggs. Mix thoroughly and remove from heat. 6. Garnish with lettuce and spring onions. Serve hot.
Based on the information given above, complete each sentence with a suitable word or
suitable words.
6. To boil two cups of rice, you need to add ____________________________________.
7. Before frying the prawns lightly, you should _________________________________ .
8. The fried rice is cooked in a ______________________________________________ .
9. After heating the oil, the first step is to ______________________________________ .
10. Spring onions and lettuce are used to ________________________________________.
Section C: Comprehension – Open-ended (10 marks)
Read the following passages and answer questions 11 to 15.
The weather had been hot and dry for a long time. Farmer Wang’s vegetables were
all dried up and the grass had turned brown. The wells were dry and some of his cows
had died. Farmer Wang looked up at the sky and wished for rain. If the harsh weather
continued, he would not be able to feed his family.
11. In what two ways did the hot, dry weather cause problems for Farmer Wang? _______________________________________________________________________________
12. What would happen to the wells if there was rain? ________________________________________________________________________
One night, Mrs. Ling was alone at home. She was sleeping soundly when she heard
a noise downstairs. With a torch in her hand, she quietly walked down the stairs to
investigate. She was perspiring and her heart was beating very fast. She had her son’s
hockey stick in her other hand.
She opened the kitchen door, switched on the light and raised her hockey stick. She
saw her neighbour’s cat jumping through an open window.
13. Why did Mrs. Ling wake up?
_______________________________________________________________________________
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14. Write the sentence from the passage that shows that Mrs. Ling was very frightened. ______________________________________________________________________________
15. What was Mrs. Ling intending to use the hockey stick for?
______________________________________________________________________________
Section D: Comprehension Cloze (5 marks)
Read the passage and fill in each blank with a suitable word.
Mother Teresa was well-known for her work among the poor and sick people in
India. When she first began ____________ (16) work there, she helped the sick whom
she found on the _____________ (17). Many of them died on the streets as they had no
___________ (18) to pay for a bed in a hospital. One day, Mother Teresa found an old
and weak ____________ (19) dying outside a hospital. Mother Teresa ____________
(20) sorry for the old lady. She got a place for her in the hospital so she could be taken
care of.
Section E: Graphic Stimulus MCQ (5 marks)
Read the advertisement carefully and then answer questions 21 to 25.
Hillside Community Centre Join us for an exciting trip to Dino Theme Park
at Historical Centre
WILD SAFARI! Register now at Hillside CC.
8 June
Time: 2-6 p.m.
Admission 12 years and below: $5 (member)
Above 13 years: $18 (member)
Non-members: $1 extra per head
Transport provided from CC to Theme Park
ATTRACTIONS
60 life-like dinosaurs
5 m tall egg-laying dinosaur
Dino Theatre
Dino Education Centre
For enquiries, please call us at 67524319
44
For each question from 21 to 25, four options are given. One of them is the correct answer.
Make your choice and write (1, 2, 3, or 4) in the brackets provided.
21. The Dinosaur Theme Park is at ____________________________ .
(1) Dino Education Centre (2) Wild Safari (3) Hillside Community Centre (4) Historical Centre ( )
22. The visit to the park will last for __________________ hours.
(1) six (2) two (3) three (4) four ( )
23. Those who have signed up for the trip will be picked up at _________________ .
(1) Dino Theme Park (2) Historical Centre (3) Dino Education Centre (4) Hillside Community Centre ( )
24. A 14-year-old non-member has to pay ____________________ for the trip.
(1) $1 (2) $5 (3) $18 (4) $19 ( )
25. Those who are interested in the trip can register _______________________.
(1) by fax (2) by email (3) at the community center (4) by calling ( )
Source:
Samuel, D. (2011). Foundation English PSLE (Primary School Leaving Examination) Model
Exam Papers. Singapore: Educational Publishing House Pte. Ltd.
45
Appendix C
Interview Questions on Strategy Knowledge
1. What do good readers do? What makes someone a good reader?
2. What do you think about before you read a story?
3. While you read, how do you know what text is important?
4. What do you do when you come to a word you don’t know?
5. What do you do if you don’t know what an entire sentence means?
6. What do you do when you read something that does not make sense?
7. As you read a textbook, what do you do to help you understand what you are reading?
8. If you are reading science or social studies material, what would you do to remember the
important information you’ve read?
9. Why would you go back and read an entire passage over again?
10. Which sentences are most important in the chapter?
Sources:
Brown, R., Pressley, M., Van Meter, P., & Schuder, T. (1996). A quasi-experimental
validation of transactional strategies instruction with low-achieving second grade
readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 18-37.
Miholic, V. (1994). An inventory to pique students’ metacognitive awareness of reading
strategies. Journal of Reading, 38, 84-86.
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Appendix D
Metacomprehension Strategy Index
Directions: Think about what you can do to help you understand a story better before, during, and after you read it. Read each of the lists of four statements and decide which one of them would help you the most. There are no right answers. It is just what you think would help the most. Circle the letter of the statement you choose.
Questionnaire In each set of four, choose one statement that tells a good thing to do to help you understand a story better before you read it.
1. Before I begin reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. See how many pages are in the story.
b. Look up all of the big words in the dictionary.
c. Make some guesses about what I think will happen in the story.
d. Think about what has happened so far in the story.
2. Before I begin reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Look at the pictures to see what the story is about.
b. Decide how long it will take me to read the story.
c. Sound out the words I don’t know.
d. Check to see if the story is making sense.
3. Before I begin reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Ask someone to read the story to me.
b. Read the title to see what the story is about.
c. Check to see if most of the words have long or short vowels in them.
d. Check to see if the pictures are in order and make sense.
4. Before I begin reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Retell all of the main points that have happened so far.
b. Ask myself questions that I would like to have answered in the story.
c. Think about the meanings of the words which have more than one meaning.
d. Look through the story to find all of the words with three or more syllables.
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5. Before I begin reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Check to see if I have read this story before.
b. Use my questions and guesses as a reason for reading the story.
c. Make sure I can pronounce all of the words before I start.
d. Think of a better title for the story.
6. Before I begin reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Practice reading the story aloud.
b. Retell all of the main points to make sure I can remember the story.
c. Think of what the people in the story might be like.
d. Decide if I have enough time to read the story.
7. Before I begin reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Check to see if I am understanding the story so far.
b. Check to see if the words have more than one meaning.
c. Think about where the story might be taking place.
d. List all of the important details.
In each set of four, choose one statement that tells a good thing to do to help you understand a
story better while you are reading it.
8. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Read the story slowly so that I will not miss any important parts.
b. Read the title to see what the story is about.
c. Check to see if the pictures have anything missing.
d. Check to see if the story is making sense by seeing if I can tell what’s happened so far.
9. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Stop to retell the main points to see if I understand what has happened so far.
b. Read the story quickly so that I can find out what happened.
c. Read only the beginning and the end of the story to find out what it is about.
d. Skip the parts that are too difficult for me.
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10. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Look up all of the big words in the dictionary.
b. Put the book away and find another one if things aren’t making sense.
c. Keep thinking about the title and the pictures to help me decide what is going to happen
next.
d. Keep track of how many pages I have left to read.
11. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Keep track of how long it is taking me to read the story.
b. Check to see if I can answer any of the questions I asked before I started reading.
c. Read the title to see what the story is going to be about.
d. Add the missing details to the pictures.
12. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Have someone read the story aloud to me.
b. Keep track of how many pages I have read.
c. List the story’s main character.
d. Check to see if my guesses are right or wrong.
13. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Check to see that the characters are real.
b. Make a lot of guesses about what is going to happen next.
c. Not look at the pictures because they might confuse me.
d. Read the story aloud to someone.
14. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Try to see if my guesses are going to be right or wrong.
b. Reread to be sure I haven’t missed any of the words.
c. Decide on why I am reading the story.
d. List what happened first, second, third, and so on.
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15. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. See if I can recognize the new vocabulary words.
b. Be careful not to skip any parts of the story.
c. Check to see how many of the words I already know.
d. Keep thinking of what I already know about the things and ideas in the story to help me
decide what is going to happen.
16. While I’m reading, it’s a good idea to:
a. Reread some parts or read ahead to see if I can figure out what is happening if things
aren’t making sense.
b. Take my time reading so that I can be sure I understand what is happening.
c. Change the ending so that it makes sense.
d. Check to see if there are enough pictures to help make the story ideas clear.
In each set of four, choose the one statement that tells a good thing to do to help you understand the story better after you have read it.
17. After I’ve read a story, it’s a good idea to:
a. Count how many pages I read with no mistakes.
b. Check to see if there were enough pictures to go with the story to make it interesting.
c. Check to see if I met my purpose for reading the story.
d. Underline the causes and effects.
18. After I’ve read a story it’s a good idea to:
a. Underline the main idea.
b. Retell the main points of the whole story so that I can check to see if I understood it.
c. Read the story again to be sure I said all of the words right.
d. Practice reading the story aloud.
19. After I’ve read a story it’s a good idea to:
a. Look up all of the big words in the dictionary.
b. Read the best parts aloud.
c. Have someone read the story aloud to me.
d. Think about how the story was like things I already knew about before I started reading.
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20. After I’ve read a story it’s a good idea to:
a. Think about how I would have acted if I were the main character in the story.
b. Practice reading the story silently for practice of good reading.
c. Look over the story title and picture to see what will happen.
d. Make a list of the things I understood the most.
Source:
Schmitt, M. C. (1990). A questionnaire to measure children’s awareness of strategic reading
processes. The Reading Teacher, 43, 454-462.