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WELCOME TO A&P IVladimir Jurukovski PhD

Assistant Professor

Suffolk County Community CollegeSmithtown Science Building T218

(631) 451-4362

jurukov@sunysuffolk.edu

http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/jurukov

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Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology

Form and FunctionHierarchyHomeostasis

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Organism

Organ system Organ Tissue

Cell

OrganelleMacromolecule

MoleculeAtom

Anatomy - The Study of FormExamining structure of the Human Body

inspectionpalpationauscultationpercussion

Cadaver dissection cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their

relationships

Comparative anatomy study of more than one species in order to examine

structural similarities and differences, and analyze evolutionary trends

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Anatomy - The Study of FormExploratory Surgery

open body and take a look insideMedical imaging

viewing the inside of the body without surgeryRadiology – branch of medicine concerned with imaging

Gross Anatomy study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Cytology study of structure and function of cells

Histology (microscopic anatomy)examination of cells with microscope

Ultrastructure the molecular detail seen in electron microscope

Histopathologymicroscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

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Physiology - The Study of FunctionSubdisciplines

neurophysiology (physiology of nervous system)endocrinology (physiology of hormones)pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease)

Comparative Physiologylimitations on human experimentationstudy of different species to learn about bodily function

animal surgery animal drug tests

basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures

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Living in a RevolutionModern biomedical science

technological enhancements advances in Medical Imaging have enhanced our diagnostic

ability and life-support strategies

Genetic Revolution human genome is finished gene therapy is being used to treat disease

Early pioneers were importantestablished scientific way of thinkingreplaced superstition with natural laws

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Hierarchy of ComplexityOrganism is composed of organ

systems

Organ Systems composed of organs

Organs composed of tissues

Tissues composed of cells

Cells composed of organelles

Organelles composed of molecules

Molecules composed of atoms

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Organism

Organ system Organ Tissue

Cell

OrganelleMacromolecule

MoleculeAtom

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Hierarchy of ComplexityOrganism – a single, complete individualOrgan System – human body made of 11 organ systemsOrgan – structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to

carry out a particular functionTissue – a mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of an

organ and performs a specific functionCells – the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of

lifeCytology – the study of cells and organelles

Organelles – microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functionsMolecules – make up organelles and other cellular components

macromolecules – proteins, carbohydrates, fats, DNAAtoms – the smallest particles with unique chemical identities

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Anatomical VariationNo two humans are exactly alike

70% most common structure 30% anatomically variantvariable number of organs

missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteriesvariation in organ locations (situs solitus, situs inversus,

dextrocardia, situs perversus)

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Normal

Normal

Pelvic kidney Horseshoe kidney

Characteristics of LifeOrganization Cellular compositionMetabolism

anabolism, catabolism and excretionResponsiveness and movement

StimuliHomeostasis Development

differentiation and growthReproductionEvolution

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Physiological VariationSex, age, diet, weight, physical activityTypical physiological values

reference man22 years old, 154 lbs, light physical activityconsumes 2800 kcal/day

reference womansame as man except 128 lbs and 2000 kcal/day

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HomeostasisHomeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change, activate

mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

Claude Bernard (1813-78) constant internal conditions regardless of external conditions

internal body temperature ranges from 97 to 99 degrees despite variations in external temperature

Walter Cannon (1871-1945) coined the term ‘Homeostasis’state of the body fluctuates (dynamic equilibrium) within

limited range around a set pointNegative feedback keeps variable close to the set point

Loss of homeostatic control causes illnessor death 1-13

Negative Feedback LoopBody senses a change and activates mechanisms to

reverse it - dynamic equilibrium

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Room temperaturefalls to 66°F (19°C)

Room cools down

Thermostat activatesfurnace

Thermostat shutsoff furnace

Room temperaturerises to 70°F (21°C)

Heat output

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C 10° 15° 20° 25°

F 50° 60° 70° 80°

C 10° 15° 20° 25°

F 50° 60° 70° 80°

Negative Feedback, Set Point

Room temperature does not stay at set point of 68 degrees -- it only averages 68 degrees

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(b)

Ro

om

te

mp

era

ture

(°F

)

Time

Furnace turnedoff at 70°F

Set point 68°F

Furnace turnedon at 66°F

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70

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Negative Feedback in Human Thermoregulation

Brain senses change in blood temperature if to warm, vessels dilate (vasodilation) in the skin and sweating begins

(heat losing mechanisms) if too cold, vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction)

and shivering begins (heat gaining mechanism) 1-16

Time

Sweating

Set point

Vasoconstriction

Vasodilation

36.5°C(97.7°F)

37.0°C(98.6°F)

37.5°C(99.5°F)

Shivering

Co

re b

od

y te

mp

erat

ure

Blood drains fromupper body, creatinghomeostatic imbalance

Baroreceptors aboveheart respond to dropin blood pressure

Baroreceptors send signalsto cardiac center of brainstem

Blood pressure risesto normal; homeostasisis restored

Person risesfrom bed

Cardiac centeraccelerates heartbeat

Negative Feedback Control of Blood PressureSitting up in bed causes a drop in

blood pressure in the head and upper thorax (controlled condition)

Baroreceptors in the arteries near the heart alert the cardiac center in the brainstem (receptor)

Cardiac center in the brain sends nerve signals that increase the heart rate (control center)

The heart increases the heartbeat (Effector)

Failure of this to feedback loop may produce dizziness in the elderly

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3 Components of a Feedback LoopReceptor - senses change in the body

Integrating (Control) Center - control center that processes the sensory information, ‘makes a decision’, and directs the response

Effector – carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis

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Positive Feedback Loops Self-amplifying cycle

leads to greater change in the same direction feedback loop is repeated – change produces more

change

Normal way of producing rapid changes occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion,

fever, and generation of nerve signals

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Head of fetus

pushes against cervix

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3

4

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Oxytocin stimulates uterine

contractions and pushes

fetus toward cervix

Nerve impulses

from cervix

Transmitted

to brain

Brain stimulates

pituitary gland to

secrete oxytocin

Harmful Positive Feedback LoopFever > 40oC (104oF)

metabolic rate increasesbody produces heat even fasterbody temperature continues to risefurther increasing metabolic rate

Cycle continues to reinforce itself

Becomes fatal at 45oC (113oF)

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Review of Major ThemesCell Theory

All structure and function result from the activity of cells

HomeostasisThe purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions

within the body

EvolutionThe human body is a product of evolution

Hierarchy of StructureHuman structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity

Unity of Form and FunctionForm and function complement each other; physiology cannot be divorced

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Medical Imaging

Radiography (x rays)William Roentgen - 1885penetrate tissues to darken

photographic film beneath the body

dense tissue appears whiteover half of all medical

imaginguntil 1960’s, it was the only

method widely available

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Medical ImagingRadiopaque substances

injected or swallowed fills hollow structures

blood vessels intestinal tract

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(b) Cerebral angiogramCustom Medical Stock Photo, Inc.

Medical ImagingComputed Tomography (CT

scan)formerly called a CAT scanlow-intensity X rays and computer

analysis slice type image increased sharpness of image

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(c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan© CNR/Phototake

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Medical Imaging - Nuclear MedicinePositron Emission Tomography (PET scan)

assesses metabolic state of tissuedistinguished tissues most active at a given momentmechanics

inject radioactively labeled glucose positrons and electrons collide gamma rays given off detected by sensor analyzed by computer image color shows which tissues were using the most glucose at that moment damaged tissues appear dark

Medical ImagingMagnetic Resonance Imaging

(MRI) slice type image superior quality to CT scanbest for soft tissuemechanics

alignment & realignment of hydrogen atoms with magnetic field & radio waves

varying levels of energy given off used by computer to produce an image

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(e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI)

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© Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY

Medical ImagingSonography

second oldest & second most widely used

mechanics high-frequency sound waves

echo back from internal organs

avoids harmful x rays obstetrics image not very sharp

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(a)

(b)© Alexander Tsiaras/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (inset): Ken Saladin

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