09. australia's regional and global links.pdf

9Chapter

In this chapter we examine Australia’s place in the world: its location in relation to its near neighbours andtheir territorial boundaries; and the way Australia interacts with other nations, with a particular focus oncommunications, culture, tourism, sport, trade and defence. The links of aid and migration are examined ingreater depth.

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Australia’s regional andglobal linksAustralia’s regional andglobal links

Key questions1 Who are Australia’s neighbours?2 How does Australia interact with other nations?3 What role does the Australian Government and

non-government organisations play in theprovision of aid and/or the operation ofAustralia’s migration program?

4 What are the treaties and/or agreements relevantto Australia’s aid programs or its migrationpolicies?

5 What are the cultural, economic and geopoliticaladvantages to Australia of its aid or immigrationprograms?

6 What is the relationship between Australia’s aidor immigration programs and the issues of socialjustice and equity?

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Asylum seeker A person wanting to enter or stayin a foreign country because of a fear ofpersecution at home.

Colonisation The founding of colonies to gain newterritories for occupation and the exploitation ofresources and people.

Cultural domination The overwhelming influenceof one culture over another.

Cultural integration The increasing culturalexchange made possible by moderncommunications technologies.

Culture The shared aspects of people’s lives,including traditions, customs, language, beliefsystems, sport, music, food and architecture.

Emigration The process of leaving one country(usually one’s native country) to settle in another.Also known as out-migration.

Expatriate A citizen living abroad.

Forced migration Migration that results fromcircumstances beyond the control of the migrant(for example, natural disasters, war, persecution orcivil unrest).

Globalisation The process by which countries arebecoming increasingly interconnected economically,politically and culturally.

Immigration The movement of individuals orgroups across international boundaries.

Infrastructure The basic facilities that arenecessary for a community to operate. Theseinclude transportation and communicationnetworks, power and sewage systems, schools andhospitals

International migration The medium-term to long-term movement of people from one country to another. Also referred to as immigration.

International trade The movement of goods andservices from one country to another.

Mandatory detention Detaining unlawful non-citizens who enter the country without a valid visa.

Popular culture ‘Lighter’ forms of entertainment,such as films, television programs, rock concerts,magazines, sporting events and electronic games.

Refugee Someone who is outside their owncountry and cannot return due to a well-foundedfear of persecution.

Sovereignty A country’s power to govern its ownaffairs, make and enforce laws, and control themovement of people and goods across it borders.

Trade liberalisation The removal of barriers to thefree movement of goods and services.

Trading bloc A group of countries that act in waysthat assist the movement of goods and servicesbetween member states.

United Nations High Commission for Refugees(UNHCR) The UN agency that leads andcoordinates international action to protect refugeesand resolve refugee problems worldwide. Itsprimary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees.

Australia’s Asian linksIn 1972, the then Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam,achieved a major diplomatic breakthrough when Australiabecame the first developed nation to recognise the Communist-led People’s Republic of China.

Whitlam, who had visited China in 1971 as Leader of theOpposition, was determined to establish stronger links with thenations of Southeast Asia. After winning the 1972 federalelection, Whitlam immediately set about establishing diplomaticrelations with China. In November 1973, Whitlam visited Chinawhere he had a one-hour meeting with Chairman Mao Zedong.

At the time this was considered by many to be acontroversial act. The last American troops had just beenwithdrawn from Vietnam and the North Vietnamese had secretlystarted preparations for the push south that would give themvictory in a conflict that had dragged on for twenty-five years.China had been the main backer of the Communist governmentof North Vietnam.

Successive Australian governments have built on therelationship initiated by Whitlam. Today, China is one ofAustralia’s most important trading partners.

Gough Whitlam visiting China in 1972.

eGlossary

ICT Toolkit

GeoToolkit

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Communication9.1

248 Australian Explorations: Stage 5 Geography

Developments in global communicationsHistorically, Australia’s remote location has presented a number ofchallenges for our communications and transport links with the restof the world. However, the development of telephones, television,satellite communications and the Internet have meant thatAustralians can now communicate frequently with others onopposite sides of the world for relatively little cost. Thesedevelopments have brought the world closer together and havecontributed to a ‘shrinking’ of time and space on a global scale.Some geographers use the term ‘global village’ to describe the newlevel of interconnectedness that exists between countries.

A number of important developments in global communicationshave revolutionised Australia’s links with the rest of the world.These developments include:• the increasing number of Australians with access to the Internet—

According to the 2001 Census 37 per cent of Australianhouseholds were connected to the Internet, and 56 per cent of all Australian adults said they had used the Internet in that year(see the box ‘The growth of the Internet’).

• the growth of satellite and microwave technologies—Thesetechnologies include mobile phones, pagers, geographicalpositioning systems (GPS) and satellite television broadcasts.These communications systems have the advantage of beingwireless and, therefore, are more flexible than traditional cable-based technologies.

• the use of fibre-optic cable technology—Australians currently havecommunications access to Asia, North America and Europe via anextensive network of cables and satellites. Fibre-optic technologyenables the transmission of greater volumes of information at highspeed. This has made global communications faster, more efficientand less costly.

• the growth of hybrid technologies—Television and Internettechnologies are beginning to merge as a result of digitisation.Many media experts claim that digital television (DTV) has thepotential to revolutionise the way people live their lives byenabling them to use their televisions to undertake many of thefunctions currently available on the Internet. Consumers will, for example, be able to shop, send emails, do their banking andgamble online in the comfort of their lounge rooms via theirdigital television sets.

The growth of the InternetComputer networks are being created every day and, of these, the Internet is the largest.Initially created by the Pentagon (the US militaryheadquarters) in the late 1970s, the Internet was designed to protect the US DefenseDepartment’s computers against a terrorist ornuclear attack. In 1986 the Internet was handedover to other US agencies, for educational andresearch purposes. By 1990 it became largelycommercial. Today, the Internet connectsmillions of people around the world throughmore than 1 million ‘hosts’.

Initially the Internet operated as a data-sharing mechanism for the exchange of emailbetween academic and corporate researchersand government officials. It now contains avariety of commercial and non-profit networksthat offer an astonishing array of services. Thenumber of Internet users worldwide is expectedto increase from 242 million in 2000 to morethan 1.4 billion by 2007.

Figure 9.1a Growth in Internet use: Australianadults aged 16 years and over, 1997–2003.

Total

Male

Female

16–29

30–49

50+

Australian adults (%)

0 20 40 60 80 100

1997 19981999 20002001 2003

Age group

Percentage

Global mobile phone useBy late 2002 there were 1.3 billion mobilephone users in the world and more than360 billion text messages were being senteach year. In Australia over 65 per cent of the total population (12.7million people) owned a mobile phone. This is one of the highestrates of mobile phone ownership in the world.

Foundationworksheet 9.1

Extensionworksheet 9.1

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249Australia’s regional and global links

The social divide: inequalities in access totechnologyDespite the continuing revolution in communications technologyglobally, access to technology is not equally shared across all groupsin society. Although 98 per cent of Australian households have atelephone, less than 40 per cent of these households have access tothe Internet. The most frequent users of the Net are young,employed males living in urban areas, earning in excess of $75 000 ayear. Individuals with low incomes, without tertiary qualifications,living in rural/remote areas or of Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander heritage are the least likely to access the Internet. Thosewith disabilities, with a non-English speaking background or agedover 55 are also likely to be disadvantaged.

These facts reveal that there is a social divide between theinformation rich and the information poor in Australia (see Figure9.1a). These divisions are even greater when we look at access toinformation technology on a global scale. The differences in thecapacity of Internet connections across the globe are shown inFigure 9.1b.

Figure 9.1b The capacity (bandwidth) of Internet connections worldwide, 2001.

The impacts of information inequalityThe development of advanced communications and transporttechnologies has promoted the growth of global networks. Thesehave brought great benefits, especially to the cities of the developedworld. Unfortunately, many isolated and/or poor regions of the globehave not experienced the same degree of technological change andhave effectively been shut out of the growing global networks intrade, transport, finance and communications.

In recent years, the United Nations has become increasinglyconcerned about the link between access to technology and thelevel of development of a country, region or locality. On continentssuch as Africa, for example, there are only 14 million telephonelines to cater for more than 740 million people. In addition, lessthan 0.15 per cent of the population has access to the Internet.Without access to this technology, developing countries are limitedin their ability to generate the income needed to improve livingstandards.

Bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data that can betransmitted in a fixed amount of time. The wider the line, thegreater the bandwidth. Europe represents 75 per cent ofinternational Internet bandwidth. Africa represents 1 per cent.

1 Explain how developments in

communications technology have

contributed to a shrinking of time

and space.

2 List the four key technological

developments that have revolutionised

Australia’s communications links with

the rest of the world. What are the

advantages of these new technologies?

3 Explain the original reasons for the

development of the Internet. How has

its use changed over time?

4 State which parts of the Australian

population have greatest access to the

Internet. How does this differ with age,

income, education, location and ethnic

background?

UTT worksheet 9.1

1 Research task Interview some olderpeople to find out what you can aboutchanges in communications technology overtime. In small groups, create a time line toillustrate your results.

2 Challenge: Interpreting graphs StudyFigure 9.1a and complete the followingtasks:

a What proportion of the population (aged16 years and over) used the Internet in2003? Calculate the percentage growthsince 1997.

b Which age group in the Australianpopulation has the largest proportion of Internet users?

c Which age group has experienced thelargest rate of increase in Internet use?Calculate the rate of growth in Internetusers for this age group between 1997and 2003.

d In small groups, brainstorm the reasonsfor these trends in Internet use.

3 Challenge: Class debate

a Conduct a class debate. Topic: There is asocial divide between the information richand the information poor in Australia.

b In small groups, brainstorm strategiesthat could be used to reduce informationinequality.

4 Interpreting maps: Using an atlasStudy Figure 9.1b. Describe the distributionof Internet bandwidth on a global scale.What does this suggest about the equalityof access to information on a global scale?

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Culture9.2

The impact of TNCsOver the past decade, many TNCs haveattempted to cut costs and develop economiesof scale by treating all their customers as if theyhave the same taste. For example, Big Macs—with their predictable appearance, taste andingredients—can now be purchased from anyone of 16 000 outlets in more than seventycountries. Likewise, millions of people aroundthe world, regardless of their country of origin,have watched, understood and enjoyed majorglobal movie releases, such as Titanic, Toy Storyand Shrek.

Preserving unique culturesIn the early 1990s the Vietnamese Governmentlaunched a campaign aimed at removingunwanted cultural influences, includingpornographic or violent films as well as productspromoting pro-Western democratic ideas. Duringthis campaign 23 200 Vietnamese consumersand suppliers of ‘harmful cultural products’ were arrested.

1 Outline the six forces that have

promoted the process of globalisation.

2 Explain what is meant by the terms

‘culture’ and ‘cultural integration’.

3 Explain why some groups in Australian

society are concerned about the growth

of US-based media companies and

TNCs.

4 List the various ways in which the

Australian film industry is linked with the

rest of the world.

5 Explain why Australian films find it

increasingly difficult to achieve

commercial success on an international

scale.

6 What barriers are there to the export of

Australian cultural products?

7 Define the term ‘American cultural

domination’. What measures are being

introduced by governments to protect

local cultures and traditions?

UTT worksheet 9.2

Since the early 1980s a number of forces operating well beyond thecontrol of national governments have promoted greater economicand cultural links between nations. These forces include:• the activities of transnational corporations (TNCs), which are large

companies that operate across a number of countries but havetheir headquarters in developed nations (see the box ‘The impactof TNCs’)

• global satellite and cable-based communications systems, includingthe Internet (see Unit 9.1)

• international migration of workers seeking short-term employmentwhile maintaining family and citizenship links with their homecountry (see Unit 9.8)

• the emergence of global media networks promoting lifestyleproducts and Western (mainly American) popular culture

• an expansion in the international trade in goods and services (seeUnit 9.5)

• the emergence of a global financial system.These forces have promoted the process of globalisation whereby

countries have become increasingly interconnected economically,politically and culturally. One outcome of this process has been theincreased mixing, or ‘cross-pollination’, of cultures. The sharing andadapting of cultures in this way is known as cultural integration.The term culture generally refers to the shared aspects of people’slives, including traditions, customs, language, belief systems, sport,music, food and architecture.

When we try to define Australian ‘culture’ we immediately see thebroad range of international influences that shape who we are as anation. We watch films from all over the world, play internationalsports and enjoy music ranging from American hip hop and pop tojazz, traditional Australian country and folk. Despite this diversity ofculture many groups in society are concerned that globalisation isdestroying Australia’s national identity and putting our uniqueculture at risk. Of particular concern to these groups is the growthand dominance of US-based media companies and TNCs. The casestudy of the Australian film industry, on page 251, explores theseissues in greater detail.

The dominance of American cultural products (for example, KFC,Starbucks, Nike and Coca-Cola) is not an issue confined toAustralia. It is also apparent in other parts of the world, particularlyin Western Europe and Asia, where many national governments seethe growing American influence as a threat to their nationalsovereignty (government power) and an attack on the uniquecultural identities of localities and regions. Some of thesegovernments have sought to protect themselves against the influenceof American values and attitudes. American cultural domination(sometimes referred to as cultural imperialism) has become a centralfeature of the new global order. As a writer in the UK’s FinancialTimes recently observed, ‘Soon hardly anywhere on earth will beentirely safe from at least the potential of tuning in to cheerfulAmerican voices revealing the latest news or introducing the oldest films.’



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One response to this threat has been the establishment of quotasand local content restrictions, which are designed to nurture localfilm industries and to preserve local cultures. Some countries,including Vietnam, have taken a more aggressive approach bybanning the importation of ‘harmful cultural products’, such as films,magazines and videos with ‘unwholesome’ content (see the box‘Preserving unique cultures’).

The Australian film industry is an excellent example of the strongcultural links that exist between Australia and the rest of theworld. Australia has a number of internationally acclaimedactors (including Russell Crowe, Nicole Kidman, Mel Gibson,Hugh Jackman, Geoffrey Rush and Naomi Watts) and directors(for example, Peter Weir and George Miller) who move regularlybetween Australia and other countries to practise their craft. In addition, many large-budget Hollywood directors now useAustralia as a location for film-making. Examples include thefilming of George Lucas’s Star Wars Episodes II and III atSydney’s Fox Studios, together with the Matrix series andMission: Impossible 2. Australia has also gained a reputation forproducing films that have received international acclaim.Examples include Rabbit-Proof Fence, Moulin Rouge andLantana.

Despite these achievements Australian-produced films arefinding it increasingly difficult to achieve commercial success onan international scale. Part of the reason for this is theincreasing dominance of large US-based media companies,including Walt Disney, Fox, Sony and Warner Brothers. Thesefirms have enormous marketing and production budgets, whichthey use to promote their films worldwide. This, combined withstrong market demand in Australia, results in the domination ofAmerican films at the Australian box office. In the five years to2003, American films accounted for more than 80 per cent of allAustralian box office takings.

The dominance of foreign content is also evident in ourtelevision programming. More than three-quarters of newtelevision shows released in Australia between October 2002

and April 2003 were from overseas; most were American. In addition, there are also a number of significant barriers to the export of Australian cultural products, such as film andtelevision programs overseas. Most American theatregoers willonly pay to see US films. In fact, more than 95 per cent of thebox office takings in the US are for American films. This makesit difficult for film-makers in other parts of the world to sell theirproducts overseas.

The Australian film and television industry

Figure 9.2a Many large-budget Hollywood films (such

as Star Wars Episopes II and III, Mission Impossible II

and the Matrix series) were filmed in Sydney.

1 Class brainstorm As a class,brainstorm the various elements ofAustralian culture. Present yourresults in the form of a mindmap.

Using the media: Internetresearch Using a televisionguide for your local area, highlightthe programs that originatedoverseas. What proportion oftelevision programming is Australiancontent? Undertake Internetresearch to find out what theAustralian Government is doing topromote the Australian film andtelevision industry. Present yourfindings in the form of an oral reportor multimedia presentation (seeUnits 2.8 and 2.9).

2

3 Group work In small groups,brainstorm the benefits and costs ofcultural integration for Australia.Join with another group andcompare your lists. Come to anagreement regarding the five mostimportant costs and benefits.

4 Writing task A number ofcountries have become increasinglyhostile about the growing influenceof American culture. Write a reportoutlining reasons why somegovernments may take this stance.

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5 Challenge: Research Undertakeresearch to find out about theimpact of free trade agreements onAustralia’s cultural industries,including film and television.Conduct a class debate. Topic:Regulations are necessary toprotect local cultures and traditions.

6 Wall display Using photographs,drawings and newspaper andmagazine clippings, create a walldisplay around the theme of‘globalisation’. What evidence isthere of cultural integration in yourhome, school or local community?Add this evidence to your walldisplay.

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http://www.hi.com.au/austexpl/hotlinks.asp#050

Sport9.3


Sport is an important part of the Australian culture and lifestyle.According to the legendary cricketer Sir Donald Bradman, ‘Sport isembedded in the fabric of Australian life.’ In the twelve months toApril 2001 the Australian Bureau of Statistics reports that 23.5 percent of the Australian population were players or participants in atleast one organised sport or physical activity.

Australia has a long history of involvement in sport at aninternational scale. Our passion for sport connects us with the rest of the world in a number of important ways. Some of these links areoutlined below.

Colonial links and international migrationIt is important to recognise that the types of sports played inAustralia have changed as our links with other countries havechanged. Historically, for example, both colonisation andinternational migration have influenced the types of sports played inAustralia. Many popular Australian sports (such as cricket, rugbyleague, rugby union and tennis) originated in England and spread tothe colonies, including Australia, as a result of migration. Many ofthe countries involved in the Cricket and Rugby World Cups areformer colonies of Great Britain. Events such as the Olympics havealso introduced us to a range of new sports and made sport moreaccessible to people from a variety of cultural backgrounds.

Hosting key international events andpromoting international cooperationAustralia has world-class sporting facilities and an excellentreputation for successfully hosting international sporting events. The largest and highest-profile event was the 2000 Sydney OlympicGames. Sydney played host to more than 10 000 athletes, 5000officials and 15 000 media representatives (see the box ‘The SydneyOlympics’).

Other important sporting competitions hosted by Australiainclude the 2006 Commonwealth Games, Rugby World Cup (2003),Davis Cup (tennis), Australian Open (golf and tennis), theAustralian Grand Prix, the World Short Course Swimming Titlesand Rip Curl Pro Surfing Titles at Bells Beach.

Australia not only hosts international sporting events but alsoactively promotes cooperation and knowledge/resource sharingbetween countries. The International Section of the AustralianSports Commission (ASC) operates a number of community sportdevelopment programs in Africa, the Caribbean, Papua New Guineaand the Pacific Islands. These programs provide foreign athletes andsporting organisations with access to Australian sporting services,facilities and expertise. An example of this is the establishment ofthe Oceania and African Olympic Training Centre based at theAustralian Institute of Sport. In return, Australian sport benefitsthrough additional exposure to international competition andprofessional development.

The Sydney OlympicsThe 2000 Sydney Olympics was an excellentdemonstration of Australia’s sporting links withthe rest of the world. In September 2000,athletes from 200 countries converged uponSydney to compete in over 300 events. Thegames also served as a magnet for domesticand international tourism, attracting more than110 000 international visitors over the seventeendays of competition. In total more than 5.5million people attended Sydney Olympic Parkacross the Olympic and Paralympic Games. The Sydney Olympics exposed Australians to adiversity of global cultures as well as givingmany people from overseas the opportunity toexperience Australian culture.

By the end of the games, Australia had wona record fifty-eight medals (including sixteengold) and 149 medals (including sixty-three gold)at the Paralympic Games. Our athletes won goldin archery, athletics, beach volleyball, cycling,equestrian, hockey, sailing, shooting, swimming,taekwondo and water polo.

Figure 9.3a Opening Ceremony of the Sydney 2000

Olympic Games.


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International participation Despite our relatively small population, Australia consistentlyproduces world champion teams and elite athletes in a number ofsports, including cricket, rugby league, rugby union, swimming andcycling. Our athletes and teams travel widely to compete ininternational sporting competitions, such as the Davis Cup, the US PGA Golf tour and the Association of Surfing Professionals(ASP) tour.

TNCs and international brandingThe growth of transnational corporations (TNCs) and internationalbranding and marketing of sport has had a significant impact on thetypes of sports played in Australia. American sports, such as baseballand basketball, have become increasingly popular in Australia as aresult of the enormous marketing efforts of the global mediacorporations and TNCs in the textiles, clothing and sportswearindustries. The branded stars of the US NBA (National BasketballAssociation) are everywhere Australian teenagers look. Their facesare found in television and magazine advertisements for sportswearcompanies (such as Nike and Reebok), on billboards, breakfastcereal packaging and in Hollywood movies. Australian teenagers arenot only playing these sports but collecting branded clothing andaccessories in the colours and logos of their favourite Americanbaseball, basketball and football teams.

Extreme sportsAn increasingly popular trend on the Australiansporting scene has been our involvement inextreme sports. The term extreme sports is usedto refer to a broad range of non-traditionaladrenaline-based activities that are not typicallyreported in the sports pages of newspapers.Examples of these sports include wakeboarding,kite surfing, aerial freestyle BMX, snowboarding,downhill skateboard racing, whitewater rafting,mountain biking, motocross, waterskiing andmountain boarding.

Extreme sports have become increasinglypopular in recent years due to the mediacoverage of events such as the X Games in theUnited States and, more recently, the Planet Xsummer and winter games in Australia. Thegrowing popularity of these sports is reflected inthe International Olympic Committee’s decisionto include snowboarding in the 2002 WinterOlympics.

Figure 9.3b Extreme sports have created aprofessional circuit which allows athletes asyoung as 14 years to see the world, pursuetheir sports and make some money.

1 Explain how colonisation and

international migration have influenced

the types of sports played in Australia.

Provide examples to support your

response.

2 Outline how the Australian Sports

Commission promotes increased

cooperation and resource sharing

between countries.

3 Explain how the 2000 Sydney Olympic

Games demonstrated Australia’s

sporting links with the rest of the world.

4 Explain how the growth of transnational

corporations and international sports

marketing has influenced the range of

sports played in Australia.

UTT worksheet 9.3

1 Group work In smallgroups, discuss theimportance of sport toAustralia’s culture.

2 Research Undertakeresearch to find out whichinternational sporting eventsAustralia has hosted, as wellas those we haveparticipated in overseas, inthe past twelve months.Present this information in atable. Also undertakeresearch to find out about theorigins of each of thesecompetitions.

Internet researchAccess the IOC’s Olympic Games website tofind out the locations of theOlympic Summer Gamessince 1896. Use thisinformation and an atlas toplot the cities onto a worldmap. Construct a columngraph showing the number ofcountries that participated ateach of the games.

4 Internet research Australiais one of only three nations to have participated in alltwenty-five modern OlympicGames. Undertake Internetresearch to identify the othertwo countries.

5 Wall display As a class,construct a wall displayillustrating the range of globallinks that are promoted byinternational sportingcompetitions, such as theOlympic Games. What arethe benefits of such eventsfor both host andparticipating countries?

6 Challenge: ResearchSelect an Australian sport that is of interest to you.Undertake research to findout more about the origins ofthis sport. When and wherewas this sport first played?When and how was the sportintroduced to Australia? How have the rules beenadapted to better suit anAustralian context?

3

4

Australia’s regional and global links 253

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Tourism9.4


The tourism industry is of great economic importance to Australia.The revenue generated, both directly and indirectly, from touristactivities is an important source of economic growth. Domestic andinternational tourists consume more than $65 billion in goods andservices each year. This accounts for 4.5 per cent of Australia’s grossdomestic product (GDP); that is, the total value of goods and servicesproduced in the economy in a year. A further 4 per cent of our GDPconsists of indirect revenue from tourism—the flow of benefits,including increased output and employment that results from touristsconsuming goods and services. International tourism is Australia’sfourth largest export sector, accounting for 11 per cent of Australia’stotal export earnings. Tourism is also an important source ofemployment in Australia. Approximately 1 million people areemployed, either directly or indirectly, in tourism-related industries.This represents more than 10 per cent of the workforce.

Domestic tourism is travelwithin one’s own country.The Australian TouristCommission definesTourism is ‘travel away from your normal placeof work and residence, including travelundertaken for business and pleasure.’ TheWorld Tourism Organisation (WTO) defines it as‘The activities of persons travelling to andstaying in places outside their usual environmentfor not more than one consecutive year forleisure, business or other purposes.’

1

0

1991

–92

1992

–93

1993

–94

1994

–95

1995

–96

1996

–97

1997

–98

1998

–99

1999

–00

2

3

4

5

Year

Num

ber o

f peo

ple

('000

000

)

Visitor arrivals Resident departures

Data for 2001–01 is not available.

Inbound tourismAustralia receives approximately 5 million visitors a year and thisfigure is predicted to be as high as 8 million by 2012. The reasons for visiting Australia are varied. More than half of all visitors in2001–02 came here on holidays, 20 per cent were visiting friendsand relatives, 15 per cent were on business trips and 6 per centvisited for educational purposes. There has also been an increase inthe number of backpackers visiting Australia. This market hasbecome an important source of revenue for the Australian tourismindustry (see the box ‘Backpackers’).

ProportionCountry/region Arrivals of total (%)

New Zealand 787 700 16.5

Japan 659 200 13.8

United Kingdom 627 100 13.2

United States 424 400 8.9

Singapore 295 800 6.2

Korea 181 100 3.8

Other Europe 408 400 8.6

Other Asia 676 600 14.1

Rest of world 708 000 14.8

Total 4 768 300 100.0

Source: ABS

Inbound tourists by country oforigin, 2001–02Table 9.4a

ProportionCountry/region Departures of total (%)

New Zealand 592 200 17.6

United Kingdom 308 000 9.1

United States 276 000 8.2

Indonesia 270 900 8.1

Other Europe 305 900 9.1

Other Asia 772 300 22.9

Other Oceania 138 200 4.1

Rest of world 704 400 20.9

Total 3 367 900 100.0

Source: ABS

Outbound tourists by countryof destination, 2001–02Table 9.4b

Figure 9.4a Australia’s international tourism flows, 1991–92 to 2001–02.Source: ABS.

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Outbound tourismMore Australians travel overseas today than ever before. Risingstandards of living and reductions in the real cost of travel havemade this possible. The most popular destination in 2001–02 wasNew Zealand. More than seventeen per cent of all Australianstravelling overseas went to New Zealand. The next most populardestinations were the United Kingdom (9.1%) and the UnitedStates (8.2%).

Of all Asian destinations, Indonesia was the most popular,accounting for more than 8 per cent of Australian visitors to theregion. Most of these visits were to the resort island of Bali (seeTable 9.4b).

Backpackers


1 Define the term ‘tourism’.

2 Outline the importance of tourism to

the Australian economy.

3 Identify the main reasons why tourists

visit Australia.

4 From where do most inbound tourists

come? How has this pattern changed

over time?

5 Explain the meaning of the term

‘outbound tourism’. Where do

Australians visit when they travel

abroad?

6 How important is the backpacker

market to the Australian tourism

industry? Provide statistics to support

your answer.

UTT worksheet 9.4

One of the fastest-growing components of Australia’s tourismindustry is the backpacker market. Each year, Australia is visitedby more than 460 000 backpackers who spend a significantamount of money in the local economy—on average, more thantwice as much as other tourists. In 2002, for example,backpackers spent a total of $2.5 billion.

Backpacking is a unique form of travel that focuses onfreedom and exploration. Most backpackers do not makespecific plans before they reach Australia. They generally preferto start with very general travel ideas and make more detailedarrangements when they arrive in the country. Word of mouthand the Internet are two important sources of information forbackpackers.

Figure 9.4b shows that more than 70 per cent ofbackpackers visiting Australia are under the age of 30. Thesebackpackers tend to spend more time in Australia than those

aged over 30. The averagelength of stay for a backpackeris sixty-eight nights. This ismore than twice as long as theaverage length of stay for allvisitors (twenty-seven nights).

20–24(39%)

25–29(26%)

30–39(15%)

40 and over(13%)

15–19(7%)

Figure 9.4b Backpackersvisiting Australia, by age group (asa proportion of all backpackers),2001–02. Source: AustralianTourist Commission.

Traditionally, New Zealand, Europe and North America have been the main sources of inbound tourists. Statistics suggest that the source of tourists has widened to include a growing number ofvisitors from Southeast Asia. The top source countries for visitorarrivals in 2001–02 were, in descending order, New Zealand, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and Singapore (see Table 9.4a).

11 Internet researchUpdate the statisticalinformation provided in this unit byaccessing the following websites:

• Australia Bureau of Statistics

• Australian Tourist Commission

• Bureau of Tourism Research

• Australian Tourism Export Council

• Department of Foreign Affairs andTrade (see the Australia in Briefsection).

2 Constructing graphs Select themost effective way to graph theinformation in Tables 9.4a and 9.4b.Construct the graphs. Using theinformation in your graphs, write areport describing the country of originof inbound tourists as well as thedestinations of outbound travellers.

3 Group work Working in groups,develop an advertising campaign topromote Australian tourism in our keysource markets.

Your campaign could include a jingle,a video, a dramatisation or poster.Present your advertising campaign tothe class.

4 Applying knowledge Complete thefollowing table using the informationin the box ‘Backpackers’.

Backpacker characteristics Statistics

Age

Countries of origin

Length of stay

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Australia’s trade links9.5


International trade creates links between countries through theexport and import of goods and services. Australia has a complexpattern of trade links that has changed over time as our export basehas broadened and diversified.

Australia’s major items of tradeAustralia’s trade involves the exporting and importing of both goodsand services. Traditionally, primary products, including agriculturalgoods (such as wheat, wool and beef) and minerals (such as iron ore,gold and aluminium), have accounted for a significant proportion ofAustralia’s exports. Exports of these commodities remain animportant component of Australia’s trade (see Figure 9.5b).

Australia’s exports of manufactured goods have been slower todevelop. As a nation we have tended to rely on primary industryexports to finance the purchase of manufactured goods from overseas.This trend in Australia’s trade is now starting to change. Manufacturedproducts, especially sophisticated elaborately transformedmanufactures, or ETMs (such as scientific instruments, electronic

Figure 9.5a Australia is one of the world’s great tradingnations.

Figure 9.5b Australia’s major exports and imports, 2001.

Sector 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02

Agriculture 21 045 22 130 21 862 23 617 29 061 29 571

Mining 22 566 25 730 24 786 29 178 39 513 39 162

Manufacturing 25 812 27 980 27 169 32 079 37 514 37 190

Other merchandise 11 511 12 698 11 966 12 791 14 219 15 276

Services 24 226 25 206 26 242 28 369 33 204 30 958

Total exports 105 160 113 744 112 025 126 034 153 511 152 157

Source: DFAT

The changing composition of Australia’s exports ($ million)Table 9.5a

Department of ForeignAffairs and Trade

Access the website for the Department ofForeign Affairs and Trade. Select one tradeagreement available from this site and answerthe following questions about it:a When was the agreement signed? Which

countries have signed it? When did it comeinto force?

b What commitments have the signatory nationsmade as part of this agreement?

ICTEXPORTS• Coal• Crude petroleum• Iron ore• Non-monetary gold• Aluminium

IMPORTS• Motor vehicles• Crude petroleum• Telecommunications equipment• Computers• Medical supplies

Australia's major exports & imports

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equipment and motor vehicles), now account for a growing share ofAustralia’s exports. Australia’s service exports, including tourism andeducation, have also experienced rapid growth over the past decade.These exports now account for more than 20 per cent of the totalannual value of goods and services produced in Australia (that is,GDP), up from 17 per cent in 1991–92 (see Table 9.5a). Australia’s topfive exports and imports are shown in Figure 9.5b.

Australia’s main trading partners The direction of Australia’s trade with the rest of the world is subjectto change. Over the past century Australia’s trade focus has shiftedaway from a reliance on European markets. The decision by theUnited Kingdom to increase its trading links with other Europeannations in the 1960s forced Australian exporters to seek new traderelationships. These relationships were found in the rapidlyexpanding economies of Northeast and Southeast Asia. By 2000Australia’s trade focus was firmly on the members of the Asia–PacificEconomic Cooperation group (APEC). Nine of Australia’s ten majortrading partners are members of APEC, accounting for more than 70 per cent of Australia’s exports and imports. Australia’s majorexport destinations and import sources are summarised in Figure 9.5c.

Trading agreements and treatiesThe process of globalisation has presented a number of challenges for countries in the Asia–Pacific region. On the one hand, it hasprovided opportunities for the development of internationallycompetitive economies. On the other hand, globalisation, togetherwith trade liberalisation (that is, the removal of barriers to freetrade), has increased competition and reduced the ‘protective’ bufferbetween domestic and international affairs. The results of thesetrends can be seen in times of economic turmoil where changesoriginating in one country, such as a currency devaluation, spread to others. The Asian economic crisis is one such example.

In an integrated, global environment, cooperation betweencountries is essential. Australia makes use of several mechanisms ofinternational dialogue, including the maintenance and developmentof strong bilateral relationships with other countries. Regional andmultilateral forums and institutions also play an important role. Theyinclude APEC and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Throughthese bilateral and multilateral relationships, free trade agreementsare negotiated and trading blocs are established.

Figure 9.5c Australia’s major trading partners, 2001.

Trade liberalisationTrade liberalisation involves reductions in directand indirect industry protection.

Direct forms of protection include tariffs,quotas and embargoes. These forms ofprotection have been gradually reduced as aresult of trade liberalisation policies. The averagelevel of tariffs applied to manufactured goodsentering Australia is about 5 per cent.

Indirect forms of protection includeunjustified quarantine restrictions, complicatedcustoms valuation methods, conflict betweeninternational and national standards, importlicensing and export subsidies. The AustralianGovernment is working to eliminate these non-tariff forms of protection in an attempt toboost the productivity and internationalcompetitiveness of the Australian economy.

EXPORTDESTINATIONS• Japan 19.4%• USA 9.7%• South Korea 7.8%• China 6.2%• NZ 5.9%

IMPORTSOURCES• USA 18.2%• Japan 13.0%• China 8.8%• Germany 5.7%• UK 5.3%

Australia's major trading Partners

Protection The impositionof duties or quotas onimports in order to protectdomestic industry againstforeign competition.Tariff A tax on goods imported. Its purpose is toraise the price of the goods concerned.Quota A limit on the amount of a good orservice that can be imported or exported. Embargo A ban on the import or export of aspecific product or service.Quarantine restrictions Laws determiningwhich goods can and cannot be imported into acountry as well as the conditions for importation.Customs valuation methods Used to determinethe value of goods imported into a country. Theydetermine the value of any customs duty that theimporter is required to pay.National standards Rules specifying minimumhealth and safety standards that must be met fora product to be sold in a particular country.Often these standards differ between countries.Subsidy A payment made directly or indirectly toa company or individual to make them morecompetitive.Productivity The output per worker per unit oftime.

The World TradeOrganization (WTO) is anintergovernmental bodythat aims to establishand monitor the rules of trade betweencountries. The WTO was set up to replace theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1995.

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APEC was established in 1989 as a response to the EuropeanUnion’s introduction of aggressive trade barriers. There aretwenty-one member countries of APEC, representing a regionof over 2 billion people and accounting for more than half theworld’s trade. Members of this forum include Japan, the UnitedStates and the rapidly developing countries of Asia (includingChina, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea). The LatinAmerican nations of Chile, Peru and Mexico are also membersof this trade forum. Australia’s economic future is closely tied tothe continued progress of trade liberalisation through APEC. In1999–2000, APEC member countries accounted for 72 per centof Australia’s merchandise trade and 60 per cent of trade inservices (see Figure 9.5d).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

2000

-01*

1999

-2000

1998

-99

1997

-98

1996

-97

1995

-96

1994

-95

1993

–94

1992

–93

1991

–92

1990

–91

Prop

ortio

n of

trad

e (%

)Year

Proportion of Australia's total merchandise trade.

Proportion of Australis's total trade in services.

*Data for trade in services in 2000–01 is not available.

1 Explain how the composition of

Australia’s imports and exports have

changed over time.

2 Outline how Australia’s trading partners

have changed over time.

3 What does the acronym APEC stand

for? How important to Australia is our

relationship with APEC?

4 Discuss the challenges globalisation

creates for countries in the Asia–Pacific

region.

5 How and why does Australia attempt to

establish close international trade

relations?

6 Explain the difference between tariff

and non-tariff protection.

7 Explain how trade liberalisation can be

achieved.

8 Outline the Australian Government’s

justification for lowering industry

protection levels in Australia.

UTT worksheet 9.5

Bilateral trade agreementsAustralia is pursuing free trade agreements with many of its keytrading partners, including Singapore, Thailand and the UnitedStates. Bilateral agreements are important to Australia because theypromote free trade and help to address important issues, such asoverseas investment, trade in services, policy differences betweencountries and electronic commerce. Often issues such as these arevery complex and affect a number of stakeholders (interest groups).Bilateral agreements help to deal with these complexities byestablishing common ground between countries. These agreementsare also important to Australia because they help to secure ourrelationships with major trading partners. One of Australia’s mostimportant bilateral treaties is the Closer Economic Relations TreatyAgreement (CER) between Australia and New Zealand, which wassigned in 1983.

The Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation group (APEC)


Figure 9.5d Australia’s trade with APEC member countries. Thisgraph shows the importance of APEC to Australia’s trade.

Constructing and interpretinggraphs: Using software Useappropriate software (such as Excel)to construct a multiple line graphshowing the data in Table 9.5a (p.256). Use your graph to write aparagraph outlining the changingcomposition of Australia’s exports.

2 Using the media Assemble a mediafile containing newspaper articlesabout trade issues. Using your file,list all the external factors that affect

1 agreements: EU (European Union),APEC, NAFTA (North American FreeTrade Agreement), WTO or CER. Thencomplete the following tasks:

a List the advantages anddisadvantages of membership forsignatory countries.

b List the advantages anddisadvantages of the bloc oragreement for the rest of theworld.

trade decisions. These factors includelobby groups, human rights concernsand territorial conflicts. Present yourfindings in the form of a multimediapresentation.

3 Challenge: Class debate Conducta class debate. Topic: It is inAustralia’s national interests topromote bilateral and multilateraltreaties with other nations.

4 Research Find out about one of thefollowing trading blocs or free trade

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Australia has extensive regional and global military ties.These take a number of forms, including treaty agreements,joint military training and the training of overseas militarypersonnel. These links may be bilateral, regional ormultilateral in nature. Many of these links can be tracedback to the various military conflicts in which Australia hasbeen involved since 1899.

Historical alliancesAustralia’s long-standing military ties with the UnitedKingdom date from our colonial past. The first conflict inwhich the newly created Australian nation was involved wasthe Boer War of 1899–1902. Australia felt ‘duty bound’ tocome to ‘mother country’s’ aid in its conflict with Dutchsettlers in South Africa. This attitude also explains whyAustralia went to the aid of the United Kingdom in bothworld wars.

Since World War II, Australia has developed closer military tieswith the United States. This involvement dates from the time whenAustralia was forced to turn to the United States to help repel theJapanese advance through Southeast Asia and the Pacific during theearly 1940s. As part of its involvement in the ‘Pacific Campaign’ theUnited States established a number of large military bases in theAsia–Pacific region.

Following our involvement in the Pacific Campaign theAustralian military established close links with the US military.These links were further reinforced in the postwar period throughthe signing of formal treaty agreements, including the ANZUStreaty, and through Australia’s involvement in the Korean andVietnam Wars. Australia also participated in both the 1990–91 and2003–04 Gulf Wars against Iraq.

The ANZUS treatyANZUS is an acronym of ‘Australia, New Zealand and the UnitedStates of America’ and is a multilateral security treaty between thesethree countries. A treaty, convention or protocol is an agreementbetween states (countries) that is binding in international law.Countries need treaties so that they can organise both national andinternational responses to common issues and threats. The ANZUStreaty came into force in April 1952 and its aim was to establish asystem for regional security in the Asia–Pacific region. This involvesa commitment to resolve conflict, where possible, by peaceful meanswhile maintaining and developing an individual and collectivecapacity to resist armed attack. The ANZUS treaty was formallyinvoked (put into effect) by the Australian Government for the firsttime on 14 September 2001 when the Cabinet agreed to support anyUS military retaliation in response to the September 11 terroristattacks (see the box ‘Australia’s involvement in the war againstterrorism’, p. 260).

Figure 9.6a Australian SAS troops in the front line.

Treaty An internationalagreement concludedbetween states in a writtenform and governed byinternational law. The term convention is used todescribe an agreement that has a large numberof countries as signatories.


Australia’s regional andglobal military links

9.6

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Military exercises and peacekeepingAustralia conducts regular military exercises with the military forcesof the United States, Singapore, New Zealand and the UnitedKingdom. Joint US and Australian military exercises are conductedevery few years.

Since World War II, the Australian Defence Force has been activein many parts of the world through its involvement in combatoperations as well as UN and multinational peacekeeping andhumanitarian initiatives. These operations have involved thedeployment of troops to the Middle East, Iran, Namibia,Afghanistan, Iraq, Cambodia, Rwanda, Somalia, Papua New Guinea,East Timor and the Solomon Islands.

Australia’s role in East Timor is a useful example of ourinvolvement in peacekeeping operations. In September 1999Australia was asked to lead a UN-sponsored multinational force inEast Timor. The UN-mandated International Force East Timor(Interfet) was deployed to stop the violence that erupted after theEast Timorese people voted for independence from Indonesia. The Interfet mission in East Timor involved over 5500 Australianpersonnel and has been Australia’s largest commitment to apeacekeeping operation to date. In addition to East Timor,Australia’s other long-term peacekeeping commitments in the regioninclude operations in Bougainville (a province of Papua NewGuinea) and the Solomon Islands.

Figure 9.6b Australian newspaper headlines, 11 and 12September 2001. Up to 3000 people were killed in theterrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon.

Figure 9.6c A cartoonist’s view of Australia’s support forthe US-led invasion of Iraq. Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian. www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

Australia’s involvement in the war against terrorismAustralia has been an active member of the internationalcoalition of countries contributing to the US-led war againstterrorism. The international coalition was established inresponse to September 11, when up to 3000 people werekilled in the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and thePentagon and 250 passengers were killed on the four hijackedcommercial airliners. The immediate goal of the coalitionagainst terrorism was to seek out and destroy Al-Qaeda forcesin Afghanistan and to ensure that country could no longer beused as a base for terrorists. In the long term, Prime MinisterHoward explained that the goal was to ‘Demonstrate thatorganised, international, state-sanctioned terrorism [would] notbe tolerated by the world community.’ This goal has resulted inthe deployment of Australian forces to a number of regionsacross the globe, including Iraq and the Persian Gulf.

Some examples of the practical contribution Australia hasmade to the international coalition against terrorism include:• the deployment of Australian Special Air Service (SAS) forces

in Afghanistan and Iraq• air patrol duties• air-to-air refuelling of coalition aircraft.

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TrainingAustralia has established military training relationships with a rangeof nations, including Canada, Singapore, New Zealand, the UnitedKingdom, the United States of America and Papua New Guinea.This involves a variety of activities, from basic training through tospecialised programs. Much of this training takes place at theAustralian Defence Force Academy in Canberra. The Army OfficerTraining Establishment at Duntroon in Canberra also conductsexchanges with training establishments at Sandhurst in the UnitedKingdom and Westpoint in the United States.

Bilateral and multilateral securityagreementsTogether with Malaysia, Singapore, New Zealand and the UnitedKingdom, Australia is a member of the Five Power DefenceArrangements. This is an important element of Australia’s regionaldefence presence. Australia is also a member of our region’s onlysecurity forum: the ASEAN Regional Forum. (ASEAN is anacronym for Association of South-East Asian Nations.) This forumbrings together most Asian–Pacific countries to discuss issuesregarding regional security. In addition to the above agreementsAustralia has longstanding bilateral defence and security links ofvarious kinds with countries in the region.

It is important to recognise that Australia maintains strongdefence links in the absence of any direct military threat fromoverseas. Our most direct security concerns are of a non-militarynature and include pandemics (diseases that affect a wide area),illegal immigration, refugee flows, environmental degradation,narcotics, international crime and counterterrorism.

Australians do, however, live in a region that is continuing toexperience rapid economic, political and social change. Regionaland international defence ties are an important way of ensuringnational security in this changing environment.

1 Outline the links between the

Australian military and defence forces

overseas.

2 Explain how the focus of Australia’s

defence relationships has changed over

time. Why have these changes

occurred?

3 What is the ANZUS treaty and why is it

important to Australia’s security?

4 To what extent is Australia involved in

the war against terrorism? What is the

reason for our involvement?

5 Outline the opportunities that exist for

overseas military training and the

development of our military forces and

those of our allies. Why do you think

these training exchanges exist?

6 Describe the types of bilateral and

multilateral security agreements to

which Australia is a signatory. What is

the purpose of these agreements?

UTT worksheet 9.6

1 Organising information Draw upa table to describe the differentforms of military ties that existbetween Australia and othernations. Organise your informationaround the following headings:historical links, treaty agreements,joint military activities, peace-keeping and training of personnel.

Internet research Use theDepartment of Foreign Affairsand Trade website to compile a listof UN operations in which Australianforces have been involved. Classifythese missions as being military orpeacekeeping in nature and plottheir location on a map of the world.

3 Group work In small groups,conduct a brainstorming sessionoutlining the reasons why overseasdefence links are important toAustralia. Outline the main points ofyour group’s discussion to the restof the class.

involvement in the war againstterrorism. Some useful sources ofinformation are the websites of non-government organisations andthe Department of Foreign Affairsand Trade. You could also searchthe archives of major Australiannewspapers for ideas. Use thisinformation to prepare a classdebate. Topic: Australia should beinvolved in the war againstterrorism.

7 Interpreting cartoons StudyFigure 9.6c and answer thefollowing questions:

a Who does the character in thecartoon represent?

b What message is the cartoonistputting forward in the cartoon?

c What is your view? Do you agreeor disagree with the cartoonist?Explain your answer.

2

4 Research Use the Internet orlibrary resources to find out moreabout ASEAN or the Five PowerDefence Arrangements. Whichnations are members of theorganisation and what are its aimsand objectives? Present yourfindings in the form of amultimedia presentation (seeUnit 2.8).

5 Research: Constructingannotated maps Use library orInternet research to find out thelocation of foreign militaryinstallations and the purpose ofthese installations. Plot the locationson a map of Australia. Annotateyour map with the information yougathered.

6 Challenge: Research Undertakelibrary and Internet research toassemble a collection of argumentsboth for and against Australia’s

�


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M A J O R S T U D Y

International aid9.7


International aid is the assistance that governments of developedcountries provide to developing countries for the purpose ofencouraging economic growth and improvements in living standardsin the recipient countries. There are three main types of aid:• bilateral aid—development assistance given by a government

directly to the government of another country• multilateral aid—assistance provided by governments through

international agencies, such as the World Bank and InternationalMonetary Fund

• non-government aid—all forms of aid provided by non-governmentorganisations, including the Red Cross, Oxfam Community AidAbroad and World Vision. These funds are usually raised frompublic donations.

Australia’s overseas aid programThe Australian Government’s overseas aid program is administeredby the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID).The program provides funds and other forms of assistance to anumber of developing countries in the Asia–Pacific region andacross the globe. Australia’s development assistance program focuseson the promotion of economic growth and good governance withinthe Asia–Pacific region. Good governance is about ensuring that allgroups within society (including businesses, governments and

The need for foreign aidEach year, Australian Government aid reachesmore than 58 million people living in poverty. In the Asia–Pacific region there are 800 millionpeople living on less than $2 a day. This regionexperiences one of the highest concentrations ofpoverty in the world.

Figure 9.7a The five key components of Australia’s aid program. Source: AusAID.

Bilateral aid Developmentassistance given from thegovernment of onecountry directly to thegovernment of another. Multilateral aid All forms of official developmentassistance provided by governments ofdeveloped countries through internationalagencies, such as the United Nations. Australian Agency for InternationalDevelopment (AusAID) The AustralianGovernment agency responsible for thedistribution of funds and other forms of aid todeveloping countries. Good governance Ensuring all groups withinsociety have a say regarding key issues affectingtheir futures. Ecologically sustainable developmentDevelopment that meets the needs of thepresent generation without affecting the ability offuture generations to meet their needs.

Governance: promoting democratic andaccountable government and effectivepublic administration

Globalisation: assisting developingcountries to access and maximisethe benefits from trade and newinformation technologies

Security: strengthening regionalsecurity by enhancing therecipient's capacity to preventconflict, enhance stabilityand manage relations withother countries

Human capital: supporting stability and thelegitimcay of government through improvedbasic services, such as health, educationand water and sanitation services

Sustainable resource management: promotingsustainable approaches to the management ofthe environment, including rural developmentand the use of scarce natural resources

Componentsof Australia'said program

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individuals) have a say regarding the key issues affecting theirfutures. AusAID’s aim is to help countries reduce poverty byencouraging the development of effective and accountableinstitutions (for example, government departments) througheducation and the promotion of ecologically sustainable development inthe Asia–Pacific region. While Australia’s neighbours in the SouthPacific and Southeast Asia are the main recipients of this aid thegovernment also has targeted aid programs for areas of Africa andthe Middle East.

Australia’s aid budget was $1.815 billion in 2002–03. This was0.25 per cent of Australia’s gross national income (GNI) and is quitemodest by international standards (see Figure 9.7c). In the sameperiod, Norway gave 0.83 per cent of its GNI and Sweden gave

Figure 9.7b Percentage of Australia’s national income spent on aid, 1971–72to 2001–02. Source: AusAID.

Year

Perc

enta

ge o

f GNI

0

0.1

1971

–72

1973

–74

1975

–76

1977

–78

1979

–80

1981

–82

1983

–84

1985

–86

1987

–88

1989

–90

1991

–92

1993

–94

1995

–96

1997

–98

1999

–00

2001

–02

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Figure 9.7c Aid donors. Development aid by donor country, in billions of US$ and as a percentage of the donor’snational income (GNI), 2002–03. Source: AusAID.

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

USItaly

Gree

ce

Japa

n

Cana

da

New

Zea

land

Portu

gal

Aust

ria

Aust

ralia

Germ

any

Spai

n

UK

Irela

nd

Finl

and

Fran

ce

Switz

erla

nd

Belg

ium

Swed

en

Luxe

mbu

rg

Net

herla

nds

Nor

way

Denm

ark

Prop

ortio

n of

trad

e (%

)

UN target

Country

Amounts above columnc indicate total expenditure (US$ billion).

3.1

2.6 4.1 0.33.1

1.71.8 8.3 0.8 0.6 9.0 3.4 9.4 1.6 0.9 0.5 0.2 3.0 10.7

0.4 2.921.1

Figure 9.7d What is Australian aid spent on? Source: AusAID.

Governance(20%)

Rural development(14%)

Health(13%)

Infrastructure(13%)

Other(24%)

Education(16%)

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0.76 per cent of its GNI. Australia’s aid budget is also well below theUN target of 0.7 per cent of GNI. On average, each Australiancontributes $1.70 a week to pay for our foreign aid programs. Figure 9.7b (p. 263) shows how this aid is distributed.

Bilateral agreementsBilateral aid includes all forms of development assistance given directlyby the Australian Government to the government of a developingcountry (see the box ‘Australian aid to Papua New Guinea’). Thisform of aid is generally directed towards the provision of:• health, education and training programs• technology and technological support• support for community-based projects, such as building schools and

establishing basic health infrastructure• emergency food, medicines, shelter, building materials and clothing

during times of crisis.

Papua New Guinea is the country that receives the largest singleslice of Australia’s aid program, accounting for approximatelyone-fifth of Australia’s annual aid budget (see Figure 9.7e). In2002–03 this amounted to $351.4 million. This level of assistancereflects the significance of the relationship between the twocountries. Until 1975 Australia was responsible for theadministration of Papua New Guinea.

Australia’s aid program to Papua New Guinea aims topromote sustainable development, self-reliance, political andsocial stability, and to assist with the successful implementationof PNG’s economic reforms. Australia’s approach is to strengthenPNG’s ability to improve the delivery of basic services(particularly to rural areas), implement development programs,foster investment and create employment.

The improvement of infrastructure in Papua New Guinea hasbeen one of the key aims of Australia’s aid efforts. Aid funds havebeen used to build better land, maritime and air transportservices as well as maintain national roads and airport facilities. Itis hoped that better transport infrastructure will improve accessto services and markets, particularly for PNG’s rural population.

Australian aid to Papua New Guinea: an example of bilateral aid

• GNP per capita—A$1312

• Access to water—42 per cent of the population

• Life expectancy—56 years

• Adult literacy—64 per cent of the population

PNG’s key development indicatorsTable 9.7a

Figure 9.7e Where is Australian aid spent? Source: AusAID.

0 2000km

IraqPalestinianTerritories

Pakistan

Afghanistan

Mongolia

NepalBhutan

China

BangladeshBurma

LaosIndia

Sri LankaMaldives

UgandaKenya

Tanzania

MalawiMozambique

SwazilandLesothoSouth Africa

NamibiaBotswana

Zimbabwe

Zambia

ThailandCambodia

Philippines

Palau

Indonesia

East Timor

Vietnam

Marshall Is.

Kiribati

TuvaluTokelau

SamoaNiue

Cook Is.TongaFiji

VanuatuSolomon Is.

PapuaNew Guinea

N

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The role of non-government organisationsIn many instances, aid is distributed by NGOs, such as OxfamCommunity Aid Abroad, World Vision, Save the Children,Australian Catholic Relief and AUSTCARE. Many NGOs are non-profit organisations that receive most of their income from voluntarydonations made by the general public (see the Getting Technicalbox). These organisations argue that wealthy nations have a moralobligation to assist the less fortunate living in poor nations.

1 Interpreting mindmaps StudyFigure 9.7a (p. 262). Write a para-graph explaining the five keycomponents of Australia’s aidprogram.

2 Interpreting graphs StudyFigures 9.7b, 9.7c, 9.7d and 9.7e(pp. 263 and 264), then completethe following tasks:

a How has Australia’s contributionas a proportion of GNI changedover time?

b What is the Australian aid budgetspent on?

c Which regions of the worldreceive Australia’s aid?

3 Interpreting graphs Study Figure9.7c (p. 263), then complete thefollowing tasks:

a Identify the largest aid donor interms of the percentage of its GNI.

b Name the largest aid donorbased on total expenditure.

c How does Australia’s aidcontribution compare with thecontribution of other nations?

d Compile a list of the countriesthat spent more than 0.7 per centof their income on aid.

4 Class debate Conduct a classdebate. Topic: The AustralianGovernment should increase aid toneighbouring countries, such asPapua New Guinea, Laos, Vietnamand Indonesia.

5 Writing task Study the box:‘Australian aid to Papua NewGuinea’ and then write a reportdescribing the extent of Australia’sforeign aid commitment to PapuaNew Guinea. Outline the purpose ofthis aid.

Internet research Access the AusAID website for theAustralian Youth Ambassadors forDevelopment program. Use theinformation on this site to make alist of the practical steps that you oryour class could take to promotedevelopment in the Asia–Pacificregion.

6


AusAID

Access the AusAID Global Education websites andcomplete the following tasks:1 Find the latest information about Australia’s foreign aid program.

Design a wall display to communicate your findings.2 List AusAID’s aims and objectives.3 Use the ‘country programs’ link from the AusAID website to find a

case study of a country that receives Australian aid. Use thefollowing points to structure an oral report on the aid program inthis country:a Use an atlas or the Internet to find a map of the country

involved in this project.b Why is AusAID involved in the project? Is the project consistent

with AusAID’s aims?c Outline the project’s goals.d Identify the major stakeholders (interest groups).e Outline the impact that Australian aid has had on the local

community.f Evaluate whether the development is appropriate.g Suggest other ways that the money could

have been spent.After you have given your presentation, the

class should consider whether the project’sperformance matches its objectives. Write aletter or draft an email to AusAID expressingyour views.

ICT

1 Define the term ‘international aid’.

2 Distinguish between bilateral and

multilateral aid.

3 State the role of AusAID in Australia’s

aid program.

4 Outline the stated aim of Australia’s aid

program.

5 List the main recipients of Australia’s

foreign aid.

6 Describe the forms of support provided

by Australia’s bilateral aid projects.

7 Identify the type of aid Australia

provides to Papua New Guinea. Outline

the purpose of this aid.

UTT worksheet 9.7

Figure 9.7f AusAID’slogo

What is an NGO?The term NGO refers to thevarious non-governmentorganisations that operateat a range of geographical scales to promotethe values of social justice, ecologicalsustainability, self-determination and equality.The charters, aims and objectives of NGOscover issues ranging from environmentalprotection (Greenpeace) to human rights(Amnesty International) and the fight againstpoverty (Oxfam Community Aid Abroad).

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NGOs often work in a partnership with local community-basedgroups. The aim is to help communities help themselves; that is,help them become more self-sufficient and ecologically sustainable.They have grass roots contacts through local workers based in arange of developing countries and, therefore, are able to providetargeted and effective development assistance.

One NGO, AID/WATCH, has taken on the responsibility ofmonitoring the Australian Government’s aid expenditure andinforming the public of the destination and use of these funds. This task involves careful analysis of the environmental and socialimpacts of Australian aid on local populations and on developingnations as a whole.

Multilateral aidAs noted earlier, multilateral aid includes all forms of officialdevelopment assistance provided by the governments of developedcountries through international agencies, such as the UnitedNations, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.Multilateral aid is used to fund:• emergency relief projects, such as those involving large numbers of

refugees• projects involving issues that cut across national borders, such as

global warming and disease control• large-scale infrastructure projects, including the construction of

roads, bridges and railways• large-scale health, education and training programs.

Intergovernmental organisations, such as the United Nations, areimportant because they provide targeted services, such as health careand education, to the areas of developing countries where support ismost needed. These organisations are also able to mobilise andcoordinate services during international crises.

The support provided by multilateral aid is quite diverse. It spans avariety of sectors, including education, training, health, population,agriculture, forestry and fishing (see Figure 9.7g).

While the majority of Australia’s aid budget is distributed throughbilateral programs, multilateral organisations also play an importantrole in the delivery of Australian aid to developing countries.

The Australian Government has, in recent years, been critical ofthe effectiveness and efficiency of multilateral organisations, such asthe United Nations. The government is keen to strengthen the linksbetween multilateral programs supported by Australia and itsexisting bilateral aid relationships.

Investigating the role ofNGOs

Access the website of the Australian Councilfor International Development (ACFID). Selectone of the organisations listed on the site.Access its website and then complete thefollowing tasks:1 Outline the origins and history of the

organisation.2 List the organisation’s aims.3 Draw a diagram showing the structure of the

organisation. Does the organisation have linkswith other NGOs?

4 Identify the main issues addressed by thisNGO. Classify these issues as being eitherenvironmental or social. What role does thisorganisation play in the provision of Australianaid overseas?

5 Write a brief summary outlining the various aidprograms undertaken by this organisation.

6 Select one of the NGO’s programs toinvestigate in greater detail. Use informationon the NGO’s website to complete thefollowing tasks:a What type of aid is being provided?b Which country or countries are involved?c What are the aims of the aid program?d Are other government or non-government

organisations involved in this program? If so, who are they and what is their role?

e Summarise the major successes and failuresof the program.

7 With the assistance of Figure 2.7b (p. 49),assess the validity, reliability and objectivity ofthis NGO’s website. Consider the following:• validity—Is the information sound or

defensible, well-grounded and correct?• reliability—Does the information comes from

a well-regarded or reputable source?• objectivity—Is the information free from

obvious bias?8 Present your research findings in the form of a

multimedia presentation or oral report.

ICT

Multilateral/intergovernmental Member Aidorganisations countries programs

United Nations Development Programme

Asian Development Bank

World Bank

Other examples from your research

Internet research Copy thetable on the right and thencomplete it by undertaking libraryand/or Internet research.

2 Challenge: Writing task As aclass conduct a brainstorm of theadvantages and disadvantages ofusing multilateral organisations todistribute aid. Write a reportevaluating the effectiveness of theseorganisations.

1

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Treaties and international agreementsEvery country has some form of law-making body, whether it is aparliament or a national assembly. In the international arena,however, there is no such law-making body. Instead, treaties andinternational agreements are used to create legal obligations betweencountries. Under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties atreaty is defined as ‘an international agreement concluded betweenstates in a written form and governed by international law.’

The federal government lists two main reasons for being involvedin international treaties. First, it is in Australia’s national interest.Second, the process of global economic and cultural integration(globalisation) has made participation in international treaties andagreements an economic and political necessity for small countriessuch as Australia. Among other advantages, being signatory to atreaty—especially those that deal with civil and human rights—enhances Australia’s image as a responsible ‘international citizen’.

Australia also has an ethical and moral responsibility as aninternational citizen to enter into bilateral and multilateralagreements that support the development of countries in less well offregions of the world. An important element of Australia’s aid policyis that assistance should be provided for reasons of principle ratherthan because of the national (self) interest alone.

Australia is currently party to more than 920 treaties, covering abroad range of issues, including human rights, trade, defence and theenvironment. Many of these treaties have important implications forour aid links with the rest of the world. Australia is, for example, aparty to six key international agreements on human rights, whichform the basis of international human rights law (see Unit 11.1).

One of the most important of these human rights agreements isthe International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (see Table9.7b). Australia is one of 149 states that are signatories to thisagreement. As a party to this agreement, Australia is obliged to setlaws and promote practices that protect the civil and political rightsof all people, regardless of their age, sex or country of origin. TheAustralian Government seeks to achieve these aims by building onthe obvious link between development and human rights.

For a country to develop, individuals need to have access to the

Intergovernmentalagencies (also known asmultilateral organisations)are international bodies setup by two or more states to carry out activitiesof common interest. Examples are the WorldTrade Organization (WTO) and the InternationalMonetary Fund (IMF).

Figure 9.7g Global/multilateral aid programs supportedby Australia, 2002–03.

Multilateraldevelopment

banks$234 million

(68%)

UN Developmentorganisations$68.2 million

(20%)

International healthprograms

$15 million(4%)

Internationalenvironmental

programs$16.1 million

(4.5%)

Commonwealthorganisationsand programs $12.2 million

(3.5%)

1 What is a non-government

organisation and what role do these

organisations play in the distribution

of aid?

2 Outline the role of the organisation

AID/WATCH.

3 Identify the kinds of aid projects in

which multilateral organisations are

involved.

4 Outline the advantages of using multi-

lateral organisations to distribute aid.

UTT worksheet 9.7

Name and The International Covenant on date of treaty Civil and Political Rights (1966)

Type of treaty Multilateral: 149 states are signatory to thisagreement

Main aims of The treaty protects civil and political rights, the treaty such as:

• the right to life

• the right to liberty and security of person

• the right to equality before the law

• the right to peaceful assembly and freedom ofassociation

• the right to political participation

• the right of minorities to protect their languageand culture

Treaty fact file: the International Covenant on Civil and Political RightsTable 9.7b

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resources required to satisfy their basic needs and improve theirstandard of living. The Australian Government uses its aid program,both directly and indirectly, to promote human rights on a regionaland global scale. Aid activities that aim to create employment, forexample, help to provide individuals with greater financialindependence as well as an improved quality of life. The AustralianGovernment also promotes reforms in developing countries in orderto encourage the protection of political and civil rights.

It can be seen from the above discussion that the five keycomponents of Australia’s aid policy—governance, globalisation,human capital, security and sustainable resource management—arestrongly linked with Australia’s international human rightsobligations.

Investigating Australia’streaties

Access the Australian Treaties Database atthe Australian Department of Foreign Affairsand Trade website. Find the text of theInternational Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights and one other treaty relevant toAustralia’s aid links. (Note: You can conduct asearch for all treaties related to aid anddevelopment.) Use the information on thewebsite to answer the following questions foreach of these two treaties: 1 When was the treaty signed?2 Is the treaty bilateral or multilateral?3 What are Australia’s obligations under this

treaty?Design a website or create a multimedia

presentation to share your findings with therest of the class (see Unit 2.8).

Working in small groups, use your findingsfrom the above activity to brainstorm theadvantages and disadvantages of participatingin international treaties and agreements.Combine your brainstorm with that of anothergroup in the class. Refine your list to the fivemost important advantages and disadvantages.Present your list to the rest of the class.

ICT

�

(Hint: Select a case study ofan aid program from theAusAID website.) Sort yourpoints into those thatdemonstrate the advantagesand disadvantages of theprogram. Present yourfindings in the form of awritten report, rememberingto include appropriate maps,diagrams, statistics andgeographical terminology.

1 Class debate Conduct aclass debate. Topic: Australiahas an ethical and moralresponsibility to provide aidto countries less well off thanourselves.

2 Challenge: ResearchUndertake library orInternet research to find outabout the impact ofAustralian aid on livingstandards and human rightsin the Asia–Pacific region

Advantages of providing foreign aid todeveloping countriesThe federal government identifies a number of short-term and long-term advantages of its foreign aid program. Foreign aid is directlylinked to Australia’s future prosperity. The reasons for this areoutlined below.

National securityBy focusing on development-related issues, especially poverty, manyof the underlying causes of terrorism and civil and political unrestcan be addressed and perhaps eliminated. Reductions in poverty alsohelp to build stronger communities and institutions in theAsia–Pacific region. Conflicts in the region may have a negativeimpact on Australia’s economy.

Economic advantages By strengthening the various national economies within the region,Australia creates new markets for our goods and services. Strongergovernments and regional economies may also open up newinvestment opportunities, which could benefit Australia.

Many foreign aid projects provide jobs and opportunities forAustralians. Australian companies undertake the majority of the aid-related projects funded by our federal government.

1 What is an international treaty?

What are international treaties used

for?

2 Outline the advantages for Australia of

being involved in international treaties.

3 Explain, in your own words, why the

process of globalisation has made

participation in international treaties

and agreements a political and

economic necessity for small countries

such as Australia.

4 List some of the issues that are

covered by international treaties.

Outline the responsibilities Australia has

under these treaties.

5 Explain how Australia’s human rights

obligations and foreign aid policies are

linked.

UTT worksheet 9.7

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Geopolitical advantagesAustralia’s aid policies have important geopolitical impacts on ourrelationships with our immediate neighbours as well as with othernations across the globe. Our bilateral aid relationships helpAustralia to build on existing political, economic, community,religious and sporting ties with these nations. This can help topromote future diplomatic, business and investment links within theAsia–Pacific region. The Australian Government is, for example,seeking to establish a number of free trade agreements with countriesin the Asia–Pacific region, including Thailand and Singapore.Australia’s aid ties in this region could play an important role inhelping to secure these agreements.

Positive impacts on social justice and equityThrough its aid program, the Australian Government is working toachieve greater equality and social justice for the Asia–Pacific region.It does this by helping to reduce poverty and by improving access toeducation and health services.

The Australian Government has provided computerised healthinformation systems, which enable governments to better plan andmanage the delivery of health services to their populations. The systems have been implemented in Fiji with the support ofAustralian aid funds. Funds have also been used to train healthprofessionals and improve health clinics and hospitals.

Aid funds are also used to train primary and secondary schoolteachers and maintain educational centres. One important outcome ofthis aid in partner countries has been the increased number of childrenattending school. Since 1999, Australian aid funds have providedschooling for more than 2 million children who would otherwise nothave had access to this service. The improved education of girls isparticularly important as it helps to improve literacy levels as well aslower infant mortality rates. Educated mothers are also more likely togain employment in skilled positions and pass on their knowledge ofbetter family health to their children.

Disadvantages of giving aid to developingcountriesA number of groups believe there are disadvantages associated withAustralia’s aid policies. Some of these disadvantages apply to thecountries receiving the aid and others relate to Australia itself.Several of the key criticisms are outlined below.

Figure 9.7h Emergency food aid delivered to Papua New Guinea.

Geopolitics is the study ofthe power relations betweencountries and the strategiesthat nations use to maintainor expand their influence or power base. Social justice refers to protecting human rightsand ensuring that international law is adhered to.Social justice is also about ensuring fairness andrectifying social wrongs.

• In Indonesia, Australiahas helped improve theproportion of birthsattended by skilledhealth personnel and, consequently, helpedreduce maternal mortality. This has beenachieved by training midwives in 153 villagesto provide maternal and child health careservices and training another 750 midwives inbasic safe delivery care. More than 1 millionwomen of reproductive age and 260 000newborns have benefited from this assistance.

• In Vietnam, Australia has provided clean waterand environmental sanitation to approximately430 000 people in five provinces, reducing therisks of waterborne diseases.

Impacts of aid on socialjustice and equity: Papua New Guinea

In small groups, use the Internet to researchthe positive and negative impacts ofAustralian aid projects in Papua New Guinea.(Note: The AusAID website contains detailsabout individual aid initiatives in Papua NewGuinea.) In your groups, carry out a brainstormof your findings. Then use this information towrite a short report answering the followingquestions:1 What impacts do these project have on people

and the environment? Is this equitable andfair?

2 What changes would you recommend toreduce the negative impacts of this policy onthe people and environment of Papua NewGuinea?

ICT

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Environmental, social and cultural disadvantagesWhile aid given to developing countries can have beneficial

impacts it can also have negative effects on local communities. Thisis especially the case when aid agencies make decisions about howthe aid will be used without taking into account the social, culturaland environmental needs of individual communities. TheBougainville Copper Mine and the OK Tedi Mine in Papua NewGuinea are examples of this. These mines were established, at leastin part, with the support of Australian aid funds. Thesedevelopments have had significant environmental impacts and haveadversely affected the health and well-being of local communities.

One significant ethical concern associated with Australia’s aidprogram is what AID/WATCH calls the ‘commercialisation of aid’.According to this NGO, aid becomes commercialised when asignificant proportion of the aid budget is distributed through a smallnumber of private businesses that implement aid projects indeveloping countries. AID/WATCH claims that much of thisdevelopment assistance is designed to promote Australian politicaland economic interests, often at the expense of the localcommunities that these projects are designed to help. Aid programsneed to be carefully designed to ensure that local communitiesmaintain the right to be actively involved in any initiative thatdirectly impacts on the quality of their lives.

Economic disadvantagesThe Australian Government has been criticised by a number ofNGOs for its policy of using aid to promote the commercial interestsof Australian companies. For example, Australia’s aid to Papua NewGuinea is tied to a number of specific aid projects that involveAustralian businesses. Some NGOs are concerned that the aidbudget is being used to build markets for Australian goods andservices overseas and to assist Australian firms to internationaliserather than meeting the real needs of communities. AID/WATCHclaims that, as a result of this policy, the Australian Government’said program is inefficient. It claims, for example, that goods andservices purchased as a part of specific programs cost 20–25 per centmore than they would if they were provided through local sources orfrom a competitive international market.

Another concern is that rich urban dwellers can become the majorrecipients of aid and corruption can also distort the distribution ofaid funds.

Geopolitical disadvantagesAid funds can encourage a ‘culture of dependence’ betweendeveloped and developing nations. Ideally, the AustralianGovernment should ensure that its aid projects encourage increasedindependence and self-reliance for the developing economies of theAsia–Pacific region. The dependence of Papua New Guinea onAustralia is of particular concern for many NGOs (see page 264). In 2002–03, aid to PNG accounted for one-third of Australia’s totalbilateral aid and one-fifth of its total aid budget. Australia is thePNG Government’s major source of income, representing around 80 per cent of PNG’s net annual budget. Some NGOs argue thatAustralia’s financial support for Papua New Guinea has put Australiain a politically dominant position and created an uneven powerrelationship between the two countries.

1 Describe the three ways in which

foreign aid contributes to Australia’s

future growth and prosperity.

2 Provide an example of the way in which

aid flows can have a negative

environmental impact on developing

countries.

3 Explain what AID/WATCH means when it

talks about the ‘commercialisation of

aid’. Why are some groups in society

critical of this trend in Australia’s foreign

aid policy?

4 Outline how aid funds may contribute to

a culture of dependence between

Australia and other Asia–Pacific nations.

5 Explain how corruption influences the

effectiveness of aid flows to developing

countries.

6 Outline the advantages and

disadvantages of providing aid, in its

present form, to developing countries.

UTT worksheet 9.7

1 Applying knowledge Explain howAustralia’s international aid relationships canbenefit Australia in each of the followingareas:

a improvements in national security

b greater potential for economic growth

c improved regional relations.

Using the media: Internet researchAssemble a media file of newspaper andmagazine articles discussing Australia’s aidprogram. Put together a collage of yourfindings. Compare the information in thesearticles with the view presented on theAusAID website. What similarities and/ordifferences do you notice?

2

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Migration is a process involving the short-term and long-termmovement of people from one place to another. The process ofmigration takes place at range of scales:•international—between countries• interstate—between states or territories within a country• intrastate—between regions within a state or territory.

Migration may be either forced or voluntary. In this unit weexamine the reasons why people move from one place to anotherand the impact these movements have on Australia’s culture,economy and international relations.

Immigration involves the movement of people into a country. Thisprocess has had a significant impact on the size and structure of Australia’s population. During the fifty years from 1947 to 1997Australia’s population increased by approximately 11.5 million andat least 7 million of this increase can be attributed to the net gain ofimmigrants and their children and grandchildren who were bornhere. More than four in ten Australians are either first-generation orsecond-generation immigrants. By contrast, for example, IndigenousAustralians account for less than 2 per cent of the population. In Australia’s large metropolitan areas the impact of immigration is particularly evident. In Sydney, Perth, Melbourne and Adelaidemore than 50 per cent of the population are either first-generationor second-generation Australians.

Emigration involves the permanent departure of citizens from theircountry. This is an example of voluntary migration. Voluntarymigration involves the movement of people in an attempt toimprove their economic and social well-being. Recent figuresindicate that more than 1 million Australians have settled overseas.One reason for this is the relatively high incomes that expatriates

M A J O R S T U D Y

Migration9.8

Figure 9.8a Each year about 100 000 immigrants arrive in Australia to start anew life.

Emigration The process ofleaving one country (usuallyone’s native country) tosettle in another. Alsoknown as out-migration.First-generation migrants The initial peoplewho migrate.Second-generation migrants The children bornto first-generation migrants in their new countryof residence.Migration The medium-term to long-termmovement of people from one place to another,either within a country or from one country toanother.Voluntary migration The movement within orbetween countries by people wishing to improvetheir economic and/or social well-being. Immigration The movement of individuals orgroups across international boundaries.

• Permanent departuresof Australian-borncitizens have jumpedby more than 146 per cent since the early 1990s, with the UnitedKingdom, United States and New Zealand themost popular destinations.

• Nearly 1 million Australians are living andworking overseas, representing about 4.3 percent of the population. This is greater than theproportion of Americans living abroad (2.5 percent) but is much less than the figure for NewZealand (21.9 per cent).

• Managers, administrators and professionalsmake up two-thirds of long-term andpermanent departures. This is largely aproduct of the process of globalisation,especially the growth of transnationalcorporations.

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earn. A recent federal government report found that 50 per cent ofAustralia’s expatriates earn more than $100 000 a year and 30 percent earn more than $150 000 annually.

Composition of Australia’s immigrantpopulationThe number of permanent settler arrivals to Australia has changedsignificantly over time, as has the composition of our immigrantpopulation (see Figure 9.8c). From the introduction of theImmigration Restriction Act in 1901 until the mid-1970s, migration toAustralia was restricted to various degrees by the White AustraliaPolicy, which ensured that immigrants were from European, largelyAnglo-Celtic backgrounds. Britain and other European countrieswere, as a result, the major sources of immigration to Australiaduring this period.

Shortages of labour in the decades following World War II resultedin a gradual dismantling of the White Australia Policy as settlerswere increasingly accepted from other areas of Europe and later, theMiddle East. By the mid-1970s, the White Australia Policy had beentotally abandoned. Since this time a growing proportion ofAustralia’s immigrants have come from Asia, the Americas andAfrica (see Figure 9.8c).

Today’s immigration policies are no longer racially based. Anyoneis free to apply for a visa regardless of his or her ethnic background,race, religion or gender (see the box ‘Key migration trends inAustralia’).

In the 1990s, the countries of origin of most of Australia’s migrantswere New Zealand and the United Kingdom. It is important to note,however, that a large proportion of immigrants during this period(40.3 per cent) originated from a diverse range of ‘other countries’(see Figure 9.8b). This has resulted in a great diversity of small,emerging ethnic communities in Australia.

Figure 9.8c Settler arrivals by region, 1945–98. Source: ABS.

50

100

150

200

250

300

0

Num

ber o

f set

tler a

rriva

ls ('0

00)

Year19

45–47

1949

–50

1952

–53

1955

–56

1958

–59

1961

–62

1964

–65

1967

–68

1970

–71

1973

–74

1976

–77

1979

–80

1982

–83

1985

–46

1988

–89

1991

–92

1994

–95

1997

–98

2000

–01

Asia

Middle East

New Zealand and Pacific

Americas

Africa

Other Europe

UK and Ireland

Figure 9.8b Top ten birthplaces of new settlers,1990–2000. Source: HREOC

New Zealand (13.3%)

United Kingdom (12.5%)

Hong Kong (6.1%)

China (5.8%)

Vietnam (5.7%)

Phillipines (4.4%)India (4.1%)South Africa (3.4%)

Yugoslavia (2.2%)Malaysia (2.1%)

Other (40.3%)

Year Number of departures

1995–96 28 670

1996–97 29 857

1997–98 31 985

1998–99 35 181

1999–2000 41 078

2000–01 46 521

2001–02 48 241

Permanent departures fromAustraliaTable 9.8a

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM 2


Key migration trends inAustraliaA number of important trends can be noted inthe migration patterns to Australia over the pastfifty years. These trends include:• an increase in the diversity of source countries

(see Figure 9.8b)• changes in the number of permanent settlers

over time in response to changing governmentpolicies and economic conditions (see page272)

• an increase in the proportion of permanentsettlers to Australia who are female

• an increase in the average skill levels ofimmigrants (see page 274)

• reductions in the number of immigrantsoverstaying their visas (officially known as‘unlawful non-citizens’). Despite this trend,‘illegal’, or undocumented, migration toAustralia has come under increased attentionin recent years (see page 281–2)

• an increase in the number of temporarymigration movements (mainly tourists andbusiness visitors)

• an increasing trend for the Australianpopulation to emigrate (see Figure 9.8d).

Figure 9.8d The location of Australians living overseas, 2001.

106410US

35000Canada

2000Chile

12000Singapore

6500Papua New Guinea

12000Indonesia

4700Malaysia

68000New Zealand

10651Japan54761

China

25000Lebanon

30000Italy

11500Turkey

200000UnitedKingdom 135000

Greece

7950South Africa

415311European Union

29916Europe not in EU

142010North Africa

6504Central and South America

49720Middle East

13412Africa

122434Asia

79559Pacific

1 Creating posters Use theinformation in the boxopposite to develop a posteroutlining the key migrationtrends in Australia. Undertakelibrary or Internet research tofind out more about each ofthese trends. Present yourposter to the class.

2 Interpreting graphs StudyFigure 9.8c and complete thefollowing tasks:

a Describe the trend inmigration since 1970–71.

b Outline how the sourcecountries of immigrants toAustralia have changedover time.

3 Interpreting graphs StudyFigure 9.8b and complete thefollowing tasks:

a Identify the country thatrepresented the largestsource of immigration toAustralia between 1990and 2000.

b Shade the top tenbirthplaces on an outlinemap of the world anddescribe the pattern thatyour map reveals.

c Write a paragraphexplaining what the largecategory of ‘other’countries tells us aboutthe diversity of newsettlers to Australia.

4 Interpreting graphs StudyFigure 9.8d. List the top fivecountries of destination ofAustralians living overseas.

5 Constructing graphsStudy Table 9.8a andconstruct a line graphshowing the number ofpermanent departures fromAustralia from 1995–96 to2001–02.

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Types of migration flows to AustraliaMigrant groups can be classified into four main categories dependingon their individual circumstances. The main categories of migrationto Australia are discussed below.

Skilled streamThe skilled migration stream is designed to attract highly skilledmigrants who have the potential to contribute significantly to theAustralian economy. Recent settler intakes in this category havedemonstrated skill levels well above the average for the generalAustralian population. Many professionals migrate to Australiaunder the skilled independent and skilled Australian-sponsoredcategories. These applicants need to pass a points test and satisfy thebasic requirements of skill, English language ability, qualifications,nominated occupation and recent work experience. Skilled streammigration is usually voluntary in nature and strongly influenced bypull factors (factors that attract people to new countries). Thiscategory of migration accounted for 57 per cent of all new settlers in2001–02.

Family streamMigrants in the family stream category are selected on the basis oftheir family relationship with a sponsor in Australia. A family streammigrant must be a close family member of an Australian resident orcitizen. These migrants need to be sponsored by a family member orfiancé living in Australia as a part of their settlement requirements.There is no skills test or language ability requirement for thiscategory of migration, which accounted for 41 per cent of all newsettlers in 2001–02.

Humanitarian migrationThe humanitarian program is designed to provide sanctuary forrefugees or displaced persons. A refugee is someone who is outsidetheir own country and cannot return due to a well-founded fear ofpersecution because of his or her race, religion, nationality, politicalopinion or membership of a particular social group. Refugee flows arean example of forced migration where individual and groups havelittle choice but to emigrate, in order to ensure their own survival.Push factors are those factors that encourage people to leave theircountry. Examples are war, famine and civil conflict. They play animportant role in forced migration. In 2001–02, visas were grantedto 6732 people as a part of Australia’s humanitarian program.

Trans-Tasman migrationAustralia has a bilateral migration agreement with New Zealand.This means that New Zealanders can enter, live and work inAustralia under the terms of the trans-Tasman agreement without avisa. There were 15 663 migrant settlers from New Zealand in2001–02.

Where do migrants settle in Australia?The settlement pattern of new migrants within Australia is veryuneven (see Figure 9.8f). Almost two in five, or 39.7 per cent, of all new settlers in 2001–02 chose New South Wales as theirdestination. The next most popular state was Victoria followed byQueensland, Western Australia and South Australia. The capital

1 Define the following terms in

your own words: migration, immigration

and emigration.

2 Describe the contribution of migration

to Australia’s population growth over

the period from 1947 to 1997.

3 Explain how the process of migration

has altered the composition of

Australia’s population.

4 What was the White Australia Policy

and how did this policy influence

migration up until the 1970s?

5 Describe the key trends in Australia’s

migration patterns over the past fifty

years.

UTT worksheet 9.8

Updating the facts

Use the following websites toupdate the statistics in this unit:• Human Rights and Equal Opportunity

Commission (HREOC): Face the Facts • Department of Immigration and Multicultural

and Indigenous Affairs • Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.

ICT

Figure 9.8e The skilled migration stream helps Australiameet the demand for specialised labour.

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cities in each state were the favoured locations of residence forapproximately half of all new setters to the country (with theexception of Brisbane, which was chosen as the location of residenceby less than 25 per cent of new settlers in Queensland).

Each ethnic group has its own pattern of settlement withinindividual metropolitan areas. A complex range of factors influencethe geography of ethnic communities within Australia’s largemetropolitan areas. These factors include the desire to be close tofamily and the need to access specialised services and supportnetworks (see p. 276). Figure 9.8g shows the distribution of variousethnic communities in Sydney.

Figure 9.8f Settler arrivals by state/territory of intended residence, 2001–02.The proportion of all new settlers to Australia is given in parentheses. Source: HREOC.

Western Australia10 954 (12.3%)

South Australia3 316 (3.7%)

Victoria21 374 (24.0%)

Northern Territory459 (0.5%)

Tasmania589 (0.7%)

Australian CapitalTerritory

1 075 (1.2%)

New South Wales

35 301 (39.7%)

Queensland15 825 (17.8%)

Total Australia 88 900

Figure 9.8g The distribution of selected ethnic communities within Sydney.

Lebanese (%)

Penrith

Blacktown

Palm Beach

CamdenSutherland

Cronulla

3.9–15.6

1.5–3.9

0–1.5

N

0 10 20 km

Vietnamese (%)

4.6–26.4

1.4–4.6

0–1.4

N

0 10 20 km

Penrith

Blacktown

Palm Beach

CamdenSutherland

Cronulla

1 Describe the four main

categories of migration to Australia.

2 Define the terms ‘push factors’ and

‘pull factors’.

3 Identify the two Australian states that

attract the largest numbers of new

settlers.

4 How evenly are new settlers distributed

within Australia’s states and territories?

5 Outline the factors that influence the

residential location of migrant groups

within Australia’s large metropolitan

areas.

UTT worksheet 9.8

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1 Organising knowledge Copy thefollowing table and then complete itusing the information on page 274.

With the aid of the completed table,write a short paragraph explainingthe difference between the skilled,family and humanitarian migrationstreams in Australia.

2 Interpreting maps Study Figure9.8f (p. 275). Use this information towrite a short paragraph describingthe geographical distribution of newsettlers across Australia’s states andterritories.

3 Group work In small groups,construct a mindmap outlining the

factors that influence the location ofmigrant communities in Australia.Discuss the reasons why someethnic groups cluster in large metro-politan areas while others do not.

4 Interpreting maps Select oneethnic community represented inFigure 9.8g (p. 275). Describe thedistribution of this ethnic communitywithin Sydney. Use informationgathered from library and/or Internetresearch to put together a profile ofthis community. The ‘Ethnic map ofSydney’ on the Sydney MorningHerald website is an excellentstarting point for research on thistopic. Present your findings to theclass in the form of a poster ormultimedia presentation.

Migration Who is eligible What are the migrationstream to migrate? criteria/conditions?

Skilled stream

Family stream

Humanitarian

Trans-Tasman

The role of governmentThe federal government, through the Department of Immigrationand Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA) plays animportant role in the development of immigration policy as well asthe provision of services for new settlers. Some of the key roles ofthe federal government in the migration process are discussed below.

Developing policyThe government develops Australia’s immigration policy and setsthe criteria and standards that need to be met by foreign nationals(overseas passport holders) who wish to come to Australia. TheMigration Act 1958 (Cwlth) provides the framework used to regulateentry into the country. This act also defines the penalties that applyto those who breach Australia’s immigration laws.

Enforcing Australia’s migration policyEnforcing Australia’s migration policy involves:• implementing measures to discourage and prevent people smuggling• deporting foreign nationals who arrive without relevant documents

and who have been determined not to be refugees• ensuring visitors to Australia do not overstay their visas.

To ensure visitors do not overstay their visas, the DIMIAmaintains a Movement Alert List. This is a database of relevanttravel documents of, and information about, individuals who havebreached their visa conditions or who have exceeded their time inAustralia.

Provision of services for new arrivalsDIMIA arranges for the settlement of migrants and provides a rangeof services for new arrivals, including settlement information in arange of languages, English programs for adult migrants andtranslation and interpreting services. The department also providesonline support through its website, including online applicationforms and information about working and studying in Australia.

People smuggling Theorganised, illegal movementof groups or individualsfrom one country toanother.Deportation The forced removal of an individualfrom a country. Individuals can be deported ifthey have no legal right to be in the country orhave broken the law.

The role of state and localgovernments

State and local governments also play animportant role in supporting overseas-bornresidents in Australia and their families. Thefollowing activity will assist you to identify theresources that are provided by the NSWGovernment and your local council.

State governmentLook up the NSW Government website. Type ‘migrant’ into the search box at the top ofthe page. Use the results of your search to writea brief summary of the range of support servicesthat the NSW Government provides for migrants.

Local governmentReturn to the NSW Government home page. Type ‘local government’ into the search box.Now select ‘Local Councils—Search’. On thispage, type in the name of the suburb you live inand follow the links to the web page for yourlocal council. Use the information on this site towrite a summary of the services that your localgovernment provides for immigrants.

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The role of non-government organisationsNon-government organisations (NGOs) play an important role inshaping Australia’s migration links with the rest of the world. Theseorganisations perform a number of functions, including defendinghuman rights and providing support for newly settled migrants.

A key role of various NGOs is defending the human rights ofasylum seekers and refugees. NGOs such as Amnesty Internationallobby the federal government and monitor the government’s actionsto ensure individuals at risk of human rights abuse, such as torture orunfair detention, are not forcibly returned to their country of origin.These groups encourage governments to provide adequate protectionfor asylum seekers and to abide by international conventions for the treatment of refugees and the protection of human rights (see p. 278). The arbitrary and prolonged detention of asylum seekersarriving in Australia without valid travel documents is of significantconcern to many NGOs working in Australia. The issue ofmandatory detention is discussed in greater detail later in this unit.

NGOs such as the Refugee Council of Australia provideprotection and legal advice to refugees and asylum seekers. Thesegroups often speak on behalf of refugee communities in order toensure their rights are protected and their point of view is heard.

A range of Australian-based NGOs mount campaigns in support ofrefugee rights. Examples are Amnesty International (Australia),AUSTCARE, Australian Catholic Migrant and Refugee Office,Australian Lawyers for Human Rights, Australian Red Cross,National Council of Churches in Australia and the Refugee Councilof Australia (see the ICT box ‘NGOs and migration’).

NGOs and migration

Select one of the NGOs mentioned in this unit anduse the organisation’s website to complete the following tasks:1 Outline the aims of this organisation.2 Compile a list of any current campaigns relevant to migration

issues in Australia.3 Select one campaign and describe its aims and impact.4 Evaluate the success of this campaign. What has been the

response of the government and other key stakeholders?5 Do you agree with the aims and views of this NGO? Explain why

or why not.Present your findings in the form of a web page or multimediapresentation. (Unit 2.8 will assist you with this task.)

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Who is an asylum seeker?The Australian Governmentdefines an asylum seeker as someone who ‘enters orremains in a country either legally, as a visitor ortourist or student, or illegally, with no or withfraudulent documentation, and then claimsrefugee status under the terms of the 1951United Nations Convention Relating to theStatus of Refugees.’

In 2001 there were approximately 15 millionrefugees and asylum seekers worldwide.

1 Explain the purpose of the

Migration Act.

2 Outline the strategies the federal

government uses to enforce Australia’s

migration policy.

3 Describe the types of services provided

to new setters by the Australian

Government.

4 Outline the actions NGOs undertake to

protect the human rights of refugees

and asylum seekers.

5 Identify the support services NGOs

provide for newly settled migrants and

asylum seekers in Australia.

UTT worksheet 9.8

1 Brainstorming Create a mindmapsummarising the various roles of thefederal government in shapingAustralia’s migration links.

2 Internet research Access thewebsite for the Department ofImmigration and Multicultural andIndigenous Affairs. List the range of

services that the federal governmentprovides for new settlers in Australiaas well as those seeking asylum.

3 Class discussion Conduct a classdiscussion. Topic: NGOs play animportant role in the protection ofrefugee rights. Write a short reportoutlining the views of your class.

4 Research Construct your familytree, noting the country of origin ofyour parents, grandparents andgreat-grandparents. For how manygenerations has your family lived inAustralia? Ask your relatives whatthey know about the migration ofyour family to Australia. Record thisinformation on your family tree.

2

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The role of treaties and intergovernmentalorganisationsAustralia is a signatory to a number of treaties related to migrationon a global scale. One of the most important of these is theConvention Relating to the Status of Refugees (the RefugeeConvention). This treaty, signed by Australia on 22 January 1954,defines the nature and rights of refugees on an international scale.The obligations of signatory countries to protect the rights ofrefugees and people seeking asylum are also outlined in thisagreement.

Name and date of treaty Convention Relating to the Status ofRefugees (Refugee Convention) 1951

Type of treaty Multilateral: Denmark was the first stateto ratify the convention in 1952. Sincethis time a total of 145 countries,including Australia, have agreed to theterms of the agreement

Main aims of the treaty Defines the nature and rights of refugeesas well as the obligations of memberstates to protect these rights

Who administers this Individual countries are required to treaty? follow the terms of the convention.

The United Nations High Commissionerfor Refugees (UNHCR) will, however,intervene when necessary to ensure therights of refugees are respected. Thisinvolves ensuring that refugees aregranted asylum and are not forciblyreturned to countries where their livesmay be in danger.

Treaty fact file: the Refugee ConventionTable 9.8b

It is important to note that, under the terms of the RefugeeConvention, an individual can only be determined a refugee if he orshe makes an application for refugee status from outside his or hercountry of nationality or usual residence. One of the key principlesof the convention is that countries cannot force refugees to return toa country where their personal safety could be put at risk. Signatorycountries are also required to adopt a uniform (non-discriminatory)approach to the treatment of refugees regardless of their country of origin.

The Refugee Convention is overseen and administered by theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),which is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The UNHCR, anintergovernmental agency (IGO), was established by the UnitedNations General Assembly in 1950 to protect the rights and well-being of refugees on a global scale. The agency provides support forindividuals and groups who have been granted protection onhumanitarian grounds but have not yet been classified as refugees.The UNHCR also plays an important role in the reintegration ofrefugees into their country of nationality once it is safe for them toreturn. Over the past half a century the UNHCR has assisted morethan 50 million refugees and asylum seekers to restart their lives.

A treaty is an internationalagreement concludedbetween states in a writtenform and governed byinternational law. The term convention is usedto describe an agreement that has a largenumber of countries as signatories.

The Convention Relating to the Status ofRefugees states that a refugee is someone who‘owing to a well-founded fear of beingpersecuted for reasons of race, religion,nationality, membership of a particular socialgroup, or political opinion, is outside the countryof his nationality, and is unable to or, owing tosuch fear, is unwilling to avail himself of theprotection of that country...’

Source: UNHCR website, Convention Relating to theStatus of Refugees (1951)

The Refugee Convention

Access the website of theUNHCR and complete the following tasks:1 Why was the Refugee Convention established

and what are its main aims?2 Is the Refugee Convention still relevant today?

Explain your response.3 List the responsibilities of signatory countries

under this treaty.4 What, if any, power does the UNHCR have to

enforce the terms of this treaty?5 Is the treaty designed to regulate the

movements of people within and betweencountries? Explain your answer

6 Access the Australian Parliamentary Librarywebsite and locate the research paper ‘Theproblem with the 1951 Refugee Convention’.Then answer the following questions:a What are the Australian Government’s

obligations under the Refugee Convention?b What weaknesses does the Australian

Government identify in this convention?

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Cultural and economic advantages anddisadvantages of migration for AustraliaCultural and linguistic diversity has, for a long time, been asignificant strength of the nation and continues to be a valuableresource for the country as a whole. Over 200 languages are spokenacross the country, with the most common being English, Italian,Greek, Cantonese, Arabic, Vietnamese and Mandarin. The rich mixof traditions, cultures, languages and beliefs is a definingcharacteristic of Australia’s national identity. Despite theseadvantages, some groups in Australian society see Australia’sdiversity as a threat rather than an asset. These groups claim thatimmigration is a threat to Australia’s unique national identity andculture and would like to see a return to a dominantly Anglo-Australian population base.

The economic benefits and costs of migration have also been anongoing source of debate in Australia. Some groups argue thatimmigration is a drain on the Australian economy, that new settlers ‘take jobs from Australians’ and that immigration createsunemployment and harms our balance of payments. In contrast to this viewpoint, studies conducted by the Bureau of Immigration,Multicultural and Population Research indicate that increasedmigration has a positive impact on the Australian economy.Research findings suggest that migration increases average incomesand generates both wealth and employment for the Australianeconomy as a whole. Migrants are a significant source of investmentfunds and they help to address skilled labour shortages in theeconomy. In addition, many migrants are entrepreneurial andcontribute to our understanding of international markets andcultures. The key economic benefits of migration for Australia aresummarised in the box ‘The economic benefits of migration’.

Geopolitical advantages anddisadvantagesAustralia’s migration policies have important geopolitical impacts.Australia’s migration policies have an important impact upon ourrelationships with our immediate neighbours as well as other nationsacross the globe. Migration policy is a politically sensitive topic andgovernments need to consider a range of factors when making policydecisions in this area. Many of these factors, including our treatyobligations and relationships with other nations, are geopolitical innature. The section below discusses some of the geopoliticalconsequences of Australia’s migration policies.

Shifting bilateral and multilateralrelations in the Asia–Pacific regionAustralia’s abandonment of the White Australia Policy in the late1960s and the development of a non-discriminatory migration policyhave enabled Australia to build its bilateral and multilateral links inthe Asia–Pacific region. As a result, a number of areas havebenefited. These include trade (see Unit 9.5), defence (see Unit9.6), tourism (see Unit 9.4) and the sharing of cultures (see Unit9.2). Australia’s more open approach to migration may also help thegovernment to achieve its other key geopolitical goal of becoming amember of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)trade forum. These changes in regional relations have the potentialto create significant political and economic benefits for Australia.

The economic benefits ofmigration• Migrants generate wealth and employment for

all Australians• Federal and state governments gain extra tax

revenue from the income migrants generate.This is particularly the case for skilledmigrants.

• Twenty-nine per cent of small businesses inAustralia are owned and/or operated bypeople born overseas.

• Australia’s diverse population and workforceprovide businesses with important languageskills and a better understanding of othercultures.

• New settlers create economic growth byinvesting in the Australian economy.

• As Australia’s population ages, migration willhave a more significant impact on the size ofour total population. Migration could be usedin the future to counter the potential economicimpacts of changes in Australia’s age profile.

• As a migrant’s length of time in Australiaincreases, the person’s dependence onservices decreases and average incomeincreases. This has a positive impact oneconomic growth.

The balance of paymentsis a record of Australia’strade dealings with the restof the world. Geopolitics is the study of the power relationsbetween countries and the strategies thatnations use to maintain or expand their powerbase.

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Another important geopolitical development in the Asia–Pacificregion has been the use of small Pacific island states as part ofAustralia’s ‘Pacific solution’ for the processing of asylum seekers.Certain Pacific island states, including Nauru, have agreed tobecome ‘declared countries’ for the processing of asylum seekers inexchange for economic aid from the Australian Government (see p. 282).

Relationships with IGOs and theinternational communityAnother important geopolitical development has been our changingrelationship with IGOs, such as the United Nations, and thechanging perception of Australia within parts of the internationalcommunity. The Australian Government’s policies for the processingand detention of asylum seekers and the ‘excising,’ or removing, ofislands from the nation’s migration zone, have attracted criticismfrom the United Nations and members of the internationalcommunity. These changes in Australia’s international relationscould potentially affect future economic and political links with thenations who are critical of our policies.

Social justice and equity issuesThe term social justice means protecting human rights and ensuringthat international law is adhered to. Social justice is also aboutensuring fairness and rectifying social wrongs. One of the key socialjustice issues facing Australia in recent decades has been thetreatment of refugees and asylum seekers. A number of NGOs andIGOs (including the United Nations) have criticised the AustralianGovernment for its policies and practices regarding asylum seekers.This section looks at the Australian Government’s policiesconcerning asylum seekers and the impact that these policies haveon social justice and equity.

The Australian Government’s policy for processingasylum seekersThe Australian Government treats each asylum seeker differentlydepending on their travel documents when they reach Australia.People entering the country ‘legally’ (with appropriate visas) can apply for a permanent protection visa. Bridging visas are granted tothese individuals while their refugee applications are being considered and after background character and health checks havebeen conducted. Those arriving without a relevant visa are determined to be ‘unauthorised arrivals’ and are detained until theyprove their claim to be refugees or are removed from the country. Figure 9.8h shows the number of ‘unauthorised’ boat and air arrivalsbetween 1998 and 2002. If determined to be refugees, these individualsare granted a temporary protection visa, which is valid for three years.They don’t have the right to apply for permanent residence and theirfamilies are not able to join them in Australia. An exception is madefor those who hold a temporary protection visa, have worked inregional Australia for twelve months or more, and whose skills arerequired by an employer. Refugees in this situation may be able to apply for a visa under the skilled migration scheme.

To be considered for permanent settlement in Australia under thehumanitarian program, individuals must apply for asylum fromoutside the country. The aim of this approach, according to theAustralian Government’s Immigration Fact Sheet, is to ensure ‘the


1 How is ‘refugee’ defined under

the Convention Relating to the Status

of Refugees?

2 Describe the role and responsibilities of

the United Nations High Commissioner

for Refugees.

3 Explain how immigration benefits

Australia culturally.

4 Describe the main economic benefits

and costs of immigration for Australia.

5 Outline the geopolitical advantages and

disadvantages of Australia’s migration

links.

UTT worksheet 9.8

Internet research Access theAustralian Treaties Library at theAustraliasian Legal Information Institutewebsite. Use this website to identify oneother treaty relevant to Australia’s migrationlinks. Answer the following questions aboutthe treaty you identified:

a When was this treaty signed and who arethe signatory countries?

b What are the main aims of this treaty?

c Is the treaty bilateral or multilateral?

d Who administers this treaty?

Structure your response in the form of atable. Use Table 9.8b (p. 278) as a model.

Group work: Internet research Ingroups of two or three, use the Internet toresearch the economic and culturaladvantages and disadvantages of migrationfor Australia. List the advantages anddisadvantages you find. Present yourfindings in the form of a mindmap or posterdisplay.

3 Using the media: Collage Construct acollage of newspaper and magazine articlessummarising the geopolitical advantagesand disadvantages of migration forAustralia.

1

2

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integrity of Australia’s borders’ and the ‘effective control andmanagement of the movement of people to and from Australia’.

Many NGOs are concerned about the government’s approach to thetreatment of asylum seekers. These groups point out Australia’sobligations under the Refugee Convention (1951). According to thisdocument, any person arriving in Australia, regardless of their mode oftransport or lack of documentation, has a right to seek protection frompersecution. The convention also states that a refugee seeking protectionfrom persecution should not be penalised for entering a country withoutvalid documentation. Many NGOs accuse the government ofdiscriminating between different groups of asylum seekers and of failingto protect the most vulnerable members of the international community(see the article ‘Dual refugee system shames us’).

The Tampa crisisThe plight of asylum seekers in Australia was brought to theattention of the world in August 2001 when the Norwegian freighterMV Tampa (see Figure 9.8j, p. 282) rescued 433 asylum seekers(mostly Afghan and Iraqi) trying to reach the Australian mainlandin a sinking ship. The Australian Government refused the Tampa’srequest to enter Australian waters and unload the asylum seekers onChristmas Island (within Australia’s migration zone). When thecaptain of the Tampa decided to enter Australian waters againstthese instructions, the navy and SAS intercepted the freighter andtook over the management of the asylum seekers on the ship.

In order to avoid processing the asylum seekers in Australia, thegovernment made arrangements with Papua New Guinea and thePacific island nation of Nauru to accommodate the asylum seekerswhile their claims were being determined (see Figure 9.8k, p. 292). In return, Australia provided Nauru with $20 million in economicaid. Australia later accepted twenty-seven of the refugees from theTampa and 131 were settled in New Zealand. The offshoreprocessing of asylum seekers has become a key element of thegovernment’s ‘Pacific solution’, a strategy designed to discouragepeople smuggling operations in the Asia–Pacific region. Byprocessing the Tampa’s human cargo offshore, the governmentdenied the refugees access to the Australian legal system.

Figure 9.8h Unauthorised boat and air arrivals in Australia,1998–2002. (Of the 3648 boat arrivals in 2001–02, 1212people reached Australia and the remaining 2436 peoplearrived at Australia’s external territories.) Source: HREOC.

Year

Boat

Air

Num

ber o

f una

utho

rised

arr

ival

s

1998–99 1999–2000 2000–01 2001–020

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

Dual refugee system shames usBy Malcolm Fraser

…The Refugee Council advises me that about8000 asylum seekers arrive in Australia eachyear and live in the community. They are notput into detention. These people mostly arriveby air; they could have any form of visa, butgenerally a student or visitor’s visa; theywould have been cleared by immigration, andthen they apply for refugee status.

Most of them would have had the intention[of applying for refugee status] before theyarrived in Australia. They would have papersbut, at the same time, they have deceived theauthorities. I make this point only to draw acomparison with boat people. Those who canget access to a passport and to travel documentsand to a visa are, indeed, the lucky ones.

I am advised that the group who arrive byair, with appropriate papers and who are

Immigration cleared, form 66 per cent of totalapplicants for refugee status. However, theyform only 20 per cent of the total accepted asrefugees. These figures show that theirapplication for refugee status is far less likelyto be granted than for boat people.

A third of all the applicants for refugeestatus have been arriving by boat, and thisone-third makes up 80 per cent of those granted refugee status.They are far more likely to be genuinerefugees than the ones not in detention in thecommunity.

This means that the Government is quitehappily leaving out in the community verylarge numbers of asylum seekers, most ofwhom arrive by air and most of whom, onpast experience, will not get refugee status.

How does the Government run two quite

separate and contrary policies? Is it justifiedbecause one group is morally or ethicallysuperior to the other? Those who arrive withpapers and are cleared by immigration haveindeed deceived the authorities because theyhave applied for a visa which had hiddentheir real intention.

These people, who make up two-thirds ofasylum seekers, are in the community, butthere is little public realisation of this. Thereis no real evidence that they cause trouble ordifficulty. Why is the one-third, who havesuffered most, who are far more likely to begenuine refugees, who have risked greatdanger, penalised so harshly and placed indetention centres? …

(Malcolm Fraser is a former Liberal primeminister.)

Sydney Morning Herald, 4 October 2002

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The Pacific solutionIn response to the Tampa crisis in 2001, the Australian Governmentdeveloped a strategy to prevent ‘unauthorised boats’ from reachingthe Australian mainland. The first part of the strategy, implementedin September 2001, involved changes to the Migration Act to‘excise’, or remove, a number of islands off Australia’s northernmainland from the nation’s migration zone. The new ‘exclusionzone’ included virtually the entire Northern Australian coastline,including Ashmore and Cartier Islands as well as the Christmas andCocos (Keeling) Islands. The alterations to Australia’s ‘migrationzone’ meant that people arriving on these excised islands could notautomatically apply for Australian visas or gain access to theAustralian legal system (unless permission was granted by theMinister for Immigration). Boat people would now have to reach themainland before they had the right to plead for asylum.

Figure 9.8j The Norwegian cargo ship Tampa with its cargo of 433 asylumseekers.

Figure 9.8i The location of Australia’s immigrationdetention centres. Source: HREOC.

Christmas IslandCocos Island

CurtinPort Hedland

PerthBaxter

Maribyrnong

Villawood

Papua New GuineaNauru

Woomera

N

0 500km

Figure 9.8k Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australia.www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

Australia’s use of detentioncentres

1 Access the website of the Human Rightsand Equal Opportunity Commission andanswer the following questions:a What is immigration detention?b Who is detained and for how long?c How many children are held in mainland

detention centres?d What impact does the detaining of children

have on the children’s basic human rights?e How much does detention cost?

2 Undertake Internet research to summarise theviews of each of the following NGOs concerningmandatory detention: Amnesty Internationaland Oxfam Community Aid Abroad.

3 Locate the websites of the Department ofForeign Affairs and Trade and the Departmentof Immigration and Multicultural andIndigenous Affairs. How does the AustralianGovernment justify its policies regarding thedetention of asylum seekers?

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The changes to the Migration Act also meant that the AustralianGovernment could intercept asylum seekers on their way toAustralia and transport them to ‘declared countries’, such as Nauruand Manus Islands (Papua New Guinea). Once the asylum seekershave been delivered to these countries, they could have their claimsfor asylum assessed by the Australian Government and the UNHCR.

1 Group work In smallgroups, discuss the meaningof the term ‘social justice’.Undertake library research tofind examples of socialjustice issues from aroundthe world.

2 Interpreting graphs Withthe aid of Figure 9.8h (p. 281), write a paragraphdescribing the trend inunauthorised boat and airarrivals between 1998 and2002. As a class, discuss theeconomic, social and politicalcauses of refugeemovements.

3 Class debate Conduct aclass debate investigating theadvantages anddisadvantages of thegovernment’s migrationpolicy. Topic: The Pacificsolution is no solution.

4 Research Undertake libraryor Internet research to findout more about one of thefollowing issues:

a the Tampa crisis and theimpact of this event onAustralia’s migration policy

b the Pacific solution—itsaims and strategies

c the forces promotingrefugee movements in theAsia–Pacific region

d the strategies of activecitizenship used byindividuals and NGOs toinfluence governmentdecisions regardingmigration policy.

Present your findings as amultimedia presentation(see Unit 2.8).

Using the media: Internetresearch Read the extract‘Dual refugee system shamesus’ (p. 281) and complete thefollowing tasks:

a What is the view ofMalcolm Fraserconcerning Australia’srefugee system?

b Explain what Frasermeans by a ‘dual refugeesystem’.

c Make a list of thearguments that Fraserputs forward to supporthis view. Include statisticsin your response.

d Refer to the DIMIAwebsite. How does thegovernment respond tothese criticisms?

e What is your view on thisissue? Explain yourresponse.

6 Interpreting cartoons:Group work Working ingroups, discuss the issuesraised in Figure 9.8k. Sharethe main points raised in yourgroup’s discussion with therest of the class. To whatextent do you think thiscartoon reflects the currentstate of Australia’s mandatorydetention policy?

Internet research:Group work Access theABC’s website and conduct asearch for all articles relevantto asylum seekers. Formgroups of three or four. Eachgroup member should selectone of the followingstakeholders: the UN (andother international agencies),the Australian Government,NGOs, the Australian FederalCourt (representing Australianlaw). Summarise the point ofview of one of thesestakeholders and presentyour findings to the group.Write a short reportdescribing the variousperspectives (points of view)that exist on this issue.

5

7

�

1 Explain what is meant by the

term ‘social justice’.

2 What is the Australian Government’s

definition of ‘asylum seeker’?

3 Explain the difference between an

‘authorised’ and ‘unauthorised’ arrival.

4 Outline how unauthorised arrivals are

treated differently from other arrivals in

Australia.

5 Outline the conditions under which an

asylum seeker can obtain permanent

residence in Australia.

6 What are the rights of asylum seekers

according to the Refugee Convention

(1951)?

7 How do many NGOs view the Australian

Government’s treatment of asylum

seekers?

8 What was the Tampa crisis and what

issues of social justice (fairness) did it

raise?

9 What is the Pacific solution and what

does it aim to achieve? Describe the

types of strategies used as part of the

government’s Pacific solution.

UTT worksheet 9.8

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In this chapter we have investigated our cultural, economic and political links with the region and wider globalcommunity. These links include communication, culture, sport, tourism, trade, defence, aid and migration and areshaped by various levels of government as well as intergovernmental and non-government organisations. Bilateraland multilateral treaties can have a range of cultural, economic or geopolitical consequences for the nationsinvolved. Some of these impacts are positive, such as increased economic growth and improved regional relations.Other impacts, such as increased regional tension and reduced cultural diversity, can cause problems for membernations. It is important for governments to question whether all people are treated fairly and equally as a result ofour economic, cultural and political links with other countries. The fairness with which individuals and groups aretreated is known as social justice.

Chapter summary

9.9 Review and reflect

Research: Australia’s interactionswith other nationsUse Internet and/or library research to investigate Australia’s interactionswith other nations in terms of one of the following:

• aid

• communication

• culture

• defence

• migration

• tourism

• trade

• sport.

Produce a web page or multimedia presentation providing a summaryof the key points in the topic you chose. As part of your research,assemble a media file of articles relevant to your topic.

Present your finished product to the class. You have ten minutesto give your presentation. Use the guidelines in Unit 2.8 to assist you with this task.

�

Exam-style questionsIn your answers you will be assessed on yourability to:

• organise and communicate your knowledgeand understanding effectively

• support your ideas with relevant examples

• use geographical terms appropriately.

Answer at least one of the following questions:

1 a Identify three countries that are closeneighbours with Australia.

b Describe Australia’s location in the worldand its position relative to the threecountries mentioned above. (Hint: Use yourskills of direction, distance and scale).

2 Explain the nature of Australia’s regional and/orglobal role in relation to one of the following:

a communication

b culture

c defence

d tourism

e sport.

3 In your study of the focus area ‘Australia in itsregional and global contexts’ you haveinvestigated one regional and global link fromaid, defence, migration or trade. Select one ofthese links and answer the following:

a Describe the nature of this link.

b Explain the roles and actions of differentlevels of government in relation to this link.

c Discuss the importance of one relevant non-government organisation in relation to thislink.

d Identify one treaty or agreement relevant tothis link and describe its purpose.

e Outline the cultural, economic andgeopolitical advantages and disadvantagesof this link for Australia.

f Describe the implications of this link forsocial justice and equity.

Internet research: Global freetradeAccess the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade website and findout about the advantages and disadvantages of global free trade. Usingthis information, write an exposition. Topic: Global free trade is essentialfor the development of a better Australian future.

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Interpreting cartoons: Australia’s links with the region and the worldStudy Figures 9.9a to 9.9c, then complete the following tasks foreach cartoon:

1 Identify the issue or regional/global link addressed in thecartoon.

2 Who do the characters in the cartoon represent?

3 What perspective or opinion is the cartoonist expressing?

4 Use the information in this chapter as well as your ownresearch to put together a fact file of evidence both for andagainst the cartoonist’s view.

5 Do you agree or disagree with the perspective of thecartoonist? Put forward evidence to justify your point of view.

Figure 9.9a Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian.www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

Figure 9.9c Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian.www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

Figure 9.9b Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian.www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

GeoMatch GeoQuizGeoWords Chapter test Refer to the Reflection box on page 25.


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09. australia's regional and global links.pdf

Documents

forced migration migration

thefree movement of

movement of goods andservices

australias neighbours

longterm movement of

movement of individuals

international trade

foreign country