Innovations in schooling (and other educational institutions)

in developing countries

First used in February 2014in an MA course

Dr Palitha EdirisinghaInstitute of Learning InnovationUniversity of Leicester105, Princess Road EastLeicester LE1 7LG- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Tel: +44 (0)116 252 3753Mobile: +44 (0)7525 246592Email: pe27@le.ac.uk

Introduction to the sessionThe session will focus on the approaches to education that sit outside the formal structures and curricular to cater to those who are excluded from mainstream provisions.

We begin by critically looking at the variety of challenges that the developing countries are facing in meeting the demand for education in the 21st century.

Introduction to the session

We will consider a number of alternative schooling and other educational initiatives including open schooling movement, the early experiments of interactive radio instructions, open and distance learning initiatives – all aiming to cater to either learners who have missed opportunities to attend formal schools and / or learners who do not have relevant resources (and qualified teachers) to achieve their learning goals.

Introduction to the session

We will contextualise these approaches within the current and historical development initiatives such as Basic Education for All targets and Millennium Development Goals.

We will also look at the role played by key national and international organisations in developing and promoting these forms of schooling and other educational initiatives.

Learning outcomes

1. Develop a critical understanding of the efforts made in developing countries to provide opportunities for learning beyond the formal schools and other educational institutions.

2. Critical reflection upon the challenges faced by educators, policy makers and governments in seeking to create alternative learning opportunities.

3. Creative exploration of the outcomes of innovative forms of education for target audiences and communities.

Why alternative forms of schools (educational institutions)?

Schooling, learners and parents in developing countries – the challenges? who is left out of education?

Reading material: Graham-Brown (1991, pp. 1-2; 50) – 5 minutes

Responses from the class

• “Trickle down is” not happening. People at the grassroots level – remain where they are

• In rural communities parents send children to work

• Boys get preference (schooling)• Disparity of quality of education –

developed vs developing regions in the same country

• Quality of education, buildings, facilities inferior to those in the capital / cities

• Boys go to work, girls do household work

• Although 9 year compulsory education schooling depends on family income, rural urban divide

• Education not compulsory in some countries

• Not implementing compulsory education policy

• Those who get better education opportunities are from wealthy families – same in many countries

• Political situation – war-torn countries. Syria, Afghanistan. Children not able to attend schools

• Education might be against governments’ interest. Deliberate non-education. Uneducated can be controlled.

• Misinterpretation (deliberate) of religion. Exploitation of religion.

• other?

Why alternative forms of education?

A distance learner

Image: Openclips at pixabay.com/

“After we had been sent to Robben Island, there was concern among our supporters that we would not be permitted to study. Within a few months of our arrival, the authorities announced that those who wanted to study could apply for permission. Most of the men did so … . The state, after the Rivonia Trial, was feeling confident and thought giving us study privileges would be harmless. Later, they came to regret it. … .

“Within months, virtually all of us were studying for one degree or another. At night, our cell block seemed more like a study hall than a prison. But the privilege of studying came with a host of conditions. Certain subjects, such as politics and military history, were prohibited. … . Nor were we permitted to lend books to other prisoners, which would have enabled our poorer colleagues to study.”

“As freedom fighters and political prisoners, we had an obligation to improve and strengthen ourselves, and study was one of the few opportunities to do so.”

(http://www.educationstate.org/2013/12/06/nelson-mandela-education-robben-island-distance-learning/)

The backgroundtargets and promises

The Jomtien conference (World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand). 1990.

– 105 million 6-11 year olds (majority of them girls) were not in school in 1985.

– For a broader vision of basic education– “to meet basic learning needs of all, equip people with

knowledge, skills, values and attitudes they need to live in dignity, to continue learning and to contribute to the development of their communities and nations” (World Bank, 2000, p.3)

– 6 targets to be reached by 2000.

(Daniel, 2010)

Guess what happened to these targets!

The Dakar Forum (World Forum on Education for All in Dakar, Senegal). 2000.

– 6 targets to be reached by 2015– The targets are: ….. (see Daniel, 2010, p. 11 or

Unesco documents)

(Daniel, 2010)

And next!

The Millennium Declaration (2000).

– World’s heads of government at UN approved the Millennium Declaration

– 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Included 2 of Dakar EFA goals

– The targets are: ….. (see Daniel, 2010, p. 11 or Unesco documents)

(Daniel, 2010)

And next! Read Unesco (2014)

Challenges facing educationCan conventional methods cope?

• The number of children out of school was 57 million in 2011, half of whom lived in conflict-affected countries.

• In 2011, there were 774 million illiterate adults . Almost two-thirds of illiterate adults are women. The poorest young women in developing countries may not achieve universal literacy until 2072.

• Around 250 million children are not learning basic skills, even though half of them have spent at least four years in school.

• In around a third of countries, less than 75% of primary school teachers are trained according to national standards. And in a third of countries, the challenge of training existing teachers is worse than that of recruiting and training new teachers.

(Unesco, 2014, p. 5)

Challenges facing educationCan conventional methods cope?

• After primary education goals, achieving goals of secondary education

• Drop out from lower to upper secondary level• 400 million children aged between 12 – 17 not attending

secondary school• World-wide shortage of at least 10 million teachers over next

5 years• Secondary education – costs more …• Scaling up secondary schooling – challenging• Scaling up teacher training - challenging

(Daniel, 2010)

Limitations of conventional educational institutions / approaches

Challenges faced by

developing countries

Approaches to education outside

the formal structures

Curricula and teaching/learning

methods relevant to those excluded from

mainstream provision

Bradley , J. (2003) The Open Classroom: Distance Learning in Schools.

Daniel, J. (2010) Mega-Schools, Technology and Teachers: Achieving Education for All.

Edirisingha, P. (2008) Open Basic Education: Organisational Structures, Costs, and Benefits

Perraton, H. (2006) Open and Distance Learning in the Developing World.

Reading material…

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Audience

Children

Adults

Mixed (Edirisingha, 2008, pp. 213 – 214)

Four examples:Botswana, India, Thailand, South Africa, Canary Islands

(Image of the world map from Nemo on Pixabay http://pixabay.com/en/dvd-map-world-regions-law-28890/)

Interactive Radio Instructions (IRI), South Africa

Botswana College of Open and Distance Learning (BOCODOL)

National Institute of Open Schooling (formerly National Open School), India

Department of Non-Formal Education (DNFE) - Thailand

……………………………………………..

Radio ECCA, Canary Islands

Interactive Radio Instructions (IRI), South Africa

Interactive Radio Instructions (IRI), South Africa

Feature DetailsLocation In-school

Curriculum School; formal, primary, English as a second language

Audience Primary school childrenTeaching methods Daily half-hour radio,

classroom activities with the teacher, print material, posters

Country South AfricaDate started 1992

Status and governance Non governmental organisation

(Edirisingha, 2008)

Botswana College of Open and Distance Learning (BOCODOL)

Botswana College of Open and Distance Learning (BOCODOL)

Feature DetailsLocation Out-of-school

Curriculum School; formal, Junior Secondary, Senior Secondary

Audience Primary school leaversTeaching methods Print material, face-to-face

studyCountry Botswana

Date started 1999 (previously under other structures in 1978 and 1973)

Status and governance Parastatal within MoE

(Edirisingha, 2008)

National Institute of Open Schooling (formerly National Open School)

Feature DetailsLocation Out-of-school

Curriculum Alternative curriculum equivalent to primary, secondary, and non-formal, vocational and life related.

Audience 14+ year oldsTeaching methods Print material, face-to-face study

(weekly tutorials)Country India

Date started 1989, following a ten-year pilotStatus and governance Autonomous within the Ministry of

Human Resource Development

(Edirisingha, 2008)

Department of Non-Formal Education (DNFE) - Thailand

Feature DetailsLocation Out-of-school

Curriculum Alternative curriculum equivalent to primary, secondary, and non-formal, vocational and life related

Audience 14+ year oldsTeaching methods Print material, radio and television

programmes, weekly tutorials Country Thailand

Date started 1979, following non-formal education programmes since 1938

Status and governance Independent department with the Ministry of Education.

(Edirisingha, 2008)

Canary Islands – Radio ECCACanary Islands – Radio ECCA

Canary Islands – Radio ECCA

Canary Islands – Radio ECCA

Providing education at an affordable cost?

Enrolling those who are hard to reach?

What are the alternatives?

Private sector involvement in primary

and secondary education[reading activity - 20 minutes]

Reading material: Tooley, J. (2009). The Beautiful Tree: A personal journey into how the world’s poorest are educating themselves.

Private sector involvement in primary and secondary education

[two groups, 20 minutes]

Group 1 – arguments for private sector involvement

Group 2 - arguments against private sector involvement

Relevant reading material

Tooley (2009) and Daniel (2010)

The debate is available as a downloadable MP3 file (about 15 minutes)

“The beautiful tree”“I say without fear of my figure being challenged successful, that today India is more illiterate than it was fifty or a hundred years ago, and so it Burma, because British administrators, when they came to India, instead of taking hold of things as they were, began to root them out. They searched the soil and began to look at the root, and left the root like that, and the beautiful tree perished.”

(Mahatma Gandhi, at Chatham House, London, Oct 20, 1931. Quoted in Tooley (2009, p. 212). The original source: Dharampal, The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century (Coimbatore: Keerthi Publishing House, 1995, p. 355)

Image from WikiImages, pixabay.com/

Non-conventional approaches to improve access to education

Open schools and ‘mega schools’

FranceIndiaMexicoIndonesiaBotswanaNamibiaPapua New GuineaCanadaOther?

Expanding teacher supply through distance learning

FranceCanadaNigeriaPakistanUKMalaysiaUSAOther?

(Daniel, 2010)

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

alison.comOther?

Open Educational Resources(OERs)

OER AfricaOther?

Internet-based technologies, digital devices, resource-based learning

Private / non-government sector involvement

IndiaNigeriaGhanaChinaKenyaOther?

(Tooley, 2009)

International organisations

• Unesco• World Bank• Commonwealth of Learning

Reports from Unesco

Education For All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report 2013/14 (http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/efareport/reports/2013)Previous EFA Global Monitoring Reports• 2012. Youth and skills: Putting education to work• 2011. The hidden crisis: Armed conflict and education• 2010. Reaching the marginalized• 2009. Overcoming inequality: Why governance matters• 2008. Education for All by 2015: Will we make it?• 2007. Strong foundations: Early childhood care and education• 2006. Literacy for life• 2005. Education for All: The quality imperative• 2003/4. Gender and Education for All: The leap to equality• 2002. Education for All: Is the world on track?

Relevant websites

• http://www.educationstate.org/2013/12/06/nelson-mandela-education-robben-island-distance-learning/

• https://blogs.worldbank.org/edutech/big-educational-laptop-and-tablet-projects-ten-countries

ReferencesAldrich, R. (2004) (ed). Public or Private Education? Lessons from History. London: Woburn Press.

Bradley , J. (2003) The Open Classroom: Distance Learning in Schools. London: Routledge.

Daniel, J. (2010) Mega-Schools, Technology and Teachers: Achieving Education for All. London: Routledge.

Edirisingha, P. (2008) Open Basic Education: Organisational Structures, Costs, and Benefits. In Bramble, W.J. and Panda, S. (eds.) Economics of Distance and Online Learning: Theory, Practice and Research. London: Routledge.

Graham-Brown, S. (1991). Education in the developing world: Conflict and Crisis. London: Longman.

Hulme, D. (2009) The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): A Short History of the World’s Biggest Promise. The University of Manchester: The Brooks World Poverty Institute. http://www.bwpi.manchester.ac.uk/resources/Working-Papers/bwpi-wp-10009.pdf [Accessed on 06.12.2013].

Perraton, H. (2006) Open and Distance Learning in the Developing World. London: Routledge.

Tooley, J. (2009). The Beautiful Tree: A personal journey into how the world’s poorest are educating themselves. Washington D.C.: Cato Institute.

Tooley, J. (2006) Educating Amaretch: How private schools for the poor are making educational poverty history . https://www.montpelerin.org/montpelerin/members/papers/guatemala/tooley.pdf [accessed on 28.01.2014]

Unesco (2014) Teaching and Learning: Achieving quality for all. EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013/14. UNESCO Publishing. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/efareport/reports/2013. [Accessed on 29.01.2014].

Thank you!

hope you have enjoyed the class

If you have any questions or suggestions to improve /

contribute to this session / presentation, please contact me

at:

pe27@le.ac.uk

@palithaed

+44 (0)116 252 3753

+44 (0)7525 246 592