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STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER

Defining action research

Principles and characteristics of actionresearch

Participatory action research Action research as critical praxis

Action research and complexity theory

Procedures for action research Reporting action research

Reflexivity in action research

Some practical and theoretical matters


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ACTION RESEARCH

Action research is a small-scale interventionin the functioning of the real world to addresspractitioners own issues, and a closeexamination of the effects of such an

intervention. Kemmis and McTaggart (1992: 10): to do

action research is to plan, act, observe andreflect more carefully, more systematically,and more rigorously than one usually does ineveryday life.

Action research combines diagnosis, actionand reflection.


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ACTION RESEARCH COMBINES

SIX NOTIONS1. A straightforward cycle of: identifying a

problem, planning an intervention,implementing the intervention, evaluatingthe outcome;

2. Reflective practice;

3. Political emancipation;

4. Critical theory;5. Professional development; and

6. Participatory practitioner research.


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ELEMENTS OF ACTION RESEARCH

It works on participants own problems;

It seeks to improve practice;

It is collaborative and participatory;

It is problem-solving;

It is undertaken in situ;

It is an ongoing cycle of diagnosis, planning,

implementation and evaluation; It is methodologically eclectic;

It requires reflection;

It builds on professional development.


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ACTION RESEARCH IS . . .

Critical(and self-critical) collaborative inquiry by

Reflectivepractitioners being

Accountableand making results of their enquiry

public Self-evaluatingtheir practice and engaged in

Participatoryproblem-solving and continuingprofessional development.


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PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH

It commences with explicit social and politicalintentions that articulate with the dominated and poorclasses and groups in society;

It involves popular participation in the researchprocess;

It regards knowledge as an agent of socialtransformation as a whole, constituting a critique ofthose views of knowledge (theory) as separate frompractice;

Its epistemological base is rooted in critical theory andits critique of the subject/object relations in research;

It engages issues of power;

It raises the consciousness of individuals and groups;

It is a democratic activity.


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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL

PRAXIS

The emancipatory interest of Habermas: tounderstand and change the world

Ideology critique and action

People taking control of their own lives A challenge to the illegitimate operation of power

A concern for equality and social justice

Empowerment of individuals and groups


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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL

PRAXIS

Constructing a system of meaning;

Understanding dominant research methods andtheir effects;

Selecting what to study;

Acquiring a variety of research strategies;

Making sense of information collected;

Gaining awareness of the tacit theories andassumptions which guide practice;

Viewing teaching as an emancipatory, praxis-based act.

Praxis: action informed through reflection, withemancipation as its goal.


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CRITICISMS OF ACTION RESEARCH

AS CRITICAL PRAXIS

It is utopian and unrealizable; It is too controlling and prescriptive;

It adopts a narrow and particularistic view ofemancipation and action research;

It undermines the significance of the individualteacher-as-researcher in favour of self-criticalcommunities.

It assumes that rational consensus is achievable,that rational debate will empower all participants(i.e. it understates the issue of power);

It overstates the desirability of consensus-oriented research;

Power cannot be dispersed or rearranged simply

by rationality;


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CRITICISMS OF ACTION RESEARCH

AS CRITICAL PRAXIS

It is uncritical and self-contradicting; It will promote conformity through slavish

adherence to its orthodoxies;

It is nave in its understanding of groups and

celebrates groups over individuals; It privileges its own view of science (rejecting

objectivity) and lacks modesty;

It privileges the authority of critical theory;

It is elitist whilst purporting to serve egalitarianism; It assumes an undifferentiated view of action

research;

It attempts to colonize and redirect action

research.


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ACTION RESEARCH AND

COMPLEXITY THEORY

Both accept that systems are unpredictable, openand non-linear;

Both concern issues of adaptation to environment;

Action research can lead to bifurcation (i.e. when asystem moves from one point of stability toanother);

Both celebrate the interaction of participants;

Both require feedback and feed forward;

Both are reflective;

Both show an interest in exceptions or outliers(which can lead to major change);

Both are less concerned with controlling variables;

Both accept that the systems in which action takes

place are complex and dynamic.


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IDENTIFY

PROBLEM

PLAN ACTION

ACT

EVALUATE

PROCEDURES FOR ACTION

RESEARCH


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STEPS IN ACTION RESEARCH

(McNiff, 2002)1. Review your current practice;

2. Identify an aspect that you wish to improve;

3. Imagine a way forward in this;

4. Try it out;

5. Monitor and reflect on what happens;

6. Modify the plan in the light of what has beenfound, what has happened, and continue;

7. Evaluate the modified action;

8. Continue until you are satisfied with thataspect of your work (e.g. repeat the cycle).


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AN EIGHT-STAGE MODEL OF

ACTION RESEARCHStage One:Decide and agree one commonproblem that you are experiencing or need thatmust be addressed.

Stage Two: Identify some causes of the problem(need).

Stage Three: Brainstorm a range of possiblepractical solutions to the problem, to address thereal problem and the real cause(s).

Stage Fou r: From the range of possible practicalsolutions decide oneof the solutions to theproblems, perhaps what you consider to be themost suitable or best solution to the problem. Planhow to put the solution into practice.


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AN EIGHT-STAGE MODEL OF

ACTION RESEARCHStage Five:Identify success criteria by which youwill be able to judge whether the solution hasworked to solve the problem,

Stage Six: Put the plan into action; monitor, adjustand evaluate what is taking place;

Stage Seven: Evaluate the outcome to see howwell it has addressed and solved the problem orneed, using the success criteria identified in Stage

Five.Stage Eigh t:Review and plan what needs to bedone in light of theevaluation.


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THE ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE

(Tripp, 2003)

Reconnaissance(First Cy cle)

FirstPlan

Action

ThenPlanResearch

FirstProduce

Data

ThenAnalyse

Data

and

ImplementAction

MonitorAction

and

(separately

and together)

(together)

Reflect(on Action)

Review(Research)

Process

Planaction

Researchaction

Evaluateaction

Actthoughtfully


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STEPS IN EMANCIPATORY

ACTION RESEARCH1. Strategic planning

2. Implementing the plan (action)

3. Observation, evaluation and self-evaluation4. Critical and self-critical reflection on the

results of (1)(3) and making decisions for

the next cycle of research.


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IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

CAUSES NOT SYMPTOMS

Diagnosis:

What actually is the realproblem?

What are the causes?


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PLAN INTERVENTIONS

Divergent Phase: What actions are possible?

What alternatives are there?

Evaluate alternatives.

Convergent Phase:

Which intervention will be adopted?

Decide from amongst the alternatives.

Planning:

How will the intervention be implemented?


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IMPLEMENTATION

Putting the plan into action

Initiation

Development

Sustenance

Follow-up


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EVALUATION

How successfully has the intervention

addressed the issue?

What are the success criteria?

How will you know if the intervention has been

successful?

What are the outcomes of the intervention?

What ongoing monitoring will there be?

What will you do if the intervention is not

working?


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INITIAL PROBLEM

PROPOSED

INTERVENTION

IMPLEMENTATION

OUTCOME

E

V

A

L

U

A

T

IO

N


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IDENTIFY

PROBLEM

PLAN ACTION

ACT

EVALUATE


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ADVICE FOR NOVICE ACTION

RESEARCHERS

Stay small, stay focused; Identify a clear research question;

Be realistic about what you can do;

Plan carefully;

Set a realistic time scale; Involve others (as participants, observers, validators

including critical friendspotential researchers);

Ensure ethical practice;

Concentrate on learning, not on the outcomes of action;

The focus of the research is you, in company withothers;

Beware of happy endings;

Be aware of political issues.


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REPORTING ACTION RESEARCHReport:

The research issue and how it came tobecome a research issue in the improvementof practice;

The methodology of, and justification for, theintervention, and how it was selected fromamongst other possible interventions;

How the intervention derived from an

understanding of the situation; What data were collected, when, and from

whom;

How data were collected, processed and

analyzed;


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REPORTING ACTION RESEARCHReport:

How the ongoing intervention was monitoredand reviewed;

How reflexivity was addressed;

What were the standard and criteria forsuccess, and how these criteria were derived;

How conclusions were reached and howthese were validated;

What and how the researcher learnt as aconsequence of the action research;

How practice was changed as aconsequence of the findings.


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REFLEXIVITY IN ACTION RESEARCH A self-conscious awareness of the effects that

the participants-as-practitioners-and-

researchers are having on the research

process, how their values, attitudes,perceptions, opinions, actions, feelings etc.

are influencing the situation being studied.

How the researcher/practitioner may bebiasing the research.


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MAKING ACTION RESEARCH WORK

Collegiality must be present, e.g.: Participatory approaches to decision-making;

Democratic and consensual decision-making;

Shared values, beliefs and goals;

Equal rights of participation in discussion;

Equal rights to determine policy; Equal voting rights on decisions;

The deployment of sub-groups who are accountableto the whole group;

Shared responsibility and open accountability; An extended view of expertise;

Judgements and decisions based on the power of theargument rather than the positional power of theadvocates;

Shared ownership of decisions and practices

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