00 - wmo no. 8 (2008) wmo guide to meteorological instruments and methods of observation

8/18/2019 00 - Wmo No. 8 (2008) Wmo Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation

1/358


2/358

Guide to

Meteorological Instruments

and

Methods of Observation

WMO-No. 8

2008 edition

Updated in 2010

2012

WMO-No. 8

© World Meteorological Organization, 2008

The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Shortextracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, provided that the complete sourceis clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, reproduce or translate this publication inpart or in whole should be addressed to:

Chairperson, Publications Board World Meteorological Organization (WMO)7 bis , avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03

P.O. Box No. 2300 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 80 40CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland E-mail: [email protected]

ISBN 978-92-63-10008-5

NOTE

The designations employed in WMO publications and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the

expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of WMO concerning the legal status of any country,

territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Opinions expressed in WMO publications are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of WMO. The

mention of specific companies or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WMO in preference

to others of a similar nature which are not mentioned or advertised.


3/358

PUBLICATION REVISION TRACK RECORD

Date Part/chapter/section Purpose ofamendment

Proposed by:(body andsession)

Approval Resolution

2010 Part I: Chapters 1, 3, 5,6, 7, 14 and 15; Part II:Chapters 2, 4 and 9; andPart III: Chapters 1, 4and 5

Consolidation of amendmentsapproved by the Commission for Instruments and Methodsof Observation at its fifteenthsession in September 2010, theExecutive Council and SixteenthCongress

CIMO-XV Resolution 10 (EC-LIX),Resolution 7 (Cg-XVI)


4/358


5/358


6/358

PART I

MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES


7/358


8/358


9/358


10/358


11/358


12/358


13/358


14/358


15/358


16/358


17/358


18/358


19/358


20/358


21/358


22/358

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL I.1–27

Class 5 (additional estimated uncertainty cannot be defined)

Site not meeting the requirements of class 4.

GLOBAL AND DIFFUSE RADIATION

Close obstacles have to be avoided. Shading due to the natural relief is not taken into account for the clas-

sification. Non-reflecting obstacles below the visible horizon can be neglected.

An obstacle is considered as reflecting if its albedo is greater than 0.5.

The reference position for elevation angles is the sensitive element of the instrument.

Class 1

(a) No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 5°. For regions with

latitude 60°, this limit is decreased to 3°;

(b) No non-shading reflecting obstacles with an angular height above 5° and a total angular width above10°.

Class 2

(a) No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 7°. For regions with

latitude 60°, this limit is decreased to 5°;(b) No non-shading reflecting obstacles with an angular height above 7° and a total angular width above

20°.

Class 3

(a) No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 10°. For regions withlatitude 60°, this limit is decreased to 7°;

(b) No non-shading reflecting obstacles with an angular height above 15° and a total angular width above

45°.

PART I. MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLESI.1–28

Class 4

No shade projected during more than 30 per cent of the daytime, for any day of the year.

Class 5

Shade projected during more than 30 per cent of the daytime, for at least one day of the year.

DIRECT RADIATION AND SUNSHINE DURATION

Close obstacles have to be avoided. Shading due to the natural relief is not taken into account for the clas-

sification. Obstacles below the visible horizon can be neglected.

The reference position for angles is the sensitive element of the instrument.

Class 1

No shade projected onto the sensor when the sun is at an angular height of over 3°.

Class 2


Class 3



23/358


24/358

C H A P T E R 1 . GE NE R A L

I .1 – 3 1

N

1 : 6

0

2 0 0 m

1 : 1 0

1 : 2 0

E

S

W

N

x x x

( 1 2 )

+ 3

N

S t a t i on

S ur f a c e c ov e r un d e r s c r e e n

G a u g e r i mh e i g

h t

A n e n om o t e r h e i g

h t

S oi l un d e r s c r e e n

S e n s or h e i gh t

A r t i f i c i a l v e n t i l a t i on ?

R a d i a t i onh or i z on

P r e c i pi t a t i on :

Wi n d :

R em ar k s :

T em p er a t ur e an d h umi d i t y :

E l e v a t i on

E n c l o s ur e

B ui l d i n g

R o a d

T r e e s , b u s h e s

H e i gh t ( m )

of o b s t a c l e

E l e v a t i on

c on t o ur

U p d a t e

L a t i t u d

e

L on gi t u d e

y e s / n o

y e s / n o

F r e e - s t a n d i n g ?

( i f “ n o” a b ov e : b ui l d i n gh e i gh t

T e r r a i nr o u gh n e s s c l a s s : t oN

, t oE

, t o S ,

t oW

.

,wi d t h

,l e n g t h

. 8 ° 4 ° 0 °

G en er al t em pl a t ef o

r s t a t i on e x p o s ur em e t a d a t a

P A R T I .ME A S U R E ME

I .1 – 3 2

ANNEX 1.D

OPERATIONAL MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY REQUIREMENTS AND INSTRUMENT PERFORMANCE(See explanatory notes at the end of the table; numbers in the top row indicate column numbers.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Variable Range Reportedresolution

Mode ofmeasurement/

observation

Requiredmeasurement

uncertainty

Sensor timeconstant

Outputaveraging time

Achievablemeasurementuncertainty

Remarks

1. Temperature

1.1 Air temperature –80 – +60°C 0.1 K I 0.3 K for –40ºC0.1 K for > –40ºC

and +40ºC0 3 K for > +40ºC

20 s 1 min 0.2 K Achievable uncertainty andeffective time-constant maybe affected by the designof the thermometer solar


25/358

C H A P T

E R 1 . GE NE R A L

I .1 – 3 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


Mode ofmeasurement/

observation

Requiredmeasurement

uncertainty

Sensor timeconstant



Remarks

Wet-bulb temperature (psychrometer)

2.2 Re lative humidity 0 – 100% 1% I 1% 20 s 1 min 0.2 K If measured directly and incombination with airtemperature (dry bulb)Large errors are possible dueto aspiration and cleanlinessproblems (see also note 11)Threshold of 0°C to benoticed for wet bulb

Solid state and others

40 s 1 min 3% Time constant andachievable uncertainty ofsolid-state sensors may show

significant temperature andhumidity dependence

3. Atmosphericpressure

3.1 Pressure 500 – 1 080 hPa 0.1 hPa I 0.1 hPa 2 s 1 min 0.15 hPa Both station pressure andMSL pressureMeasurement uncertainty isseriously affected by dynamicpressure due to wind if noprecautions are takenInadequate temperaturecompensation of thetransducer may affect themeasurement uncertaintysignificantlyMSL pressure is affected bythe uncertainty in altitudeof the barometer formeasurements onboard ships

3.2 Tendency Not specified 0.1 hPa I 0.2 hPa 0.2 hPa Difference betweeninstantaneous values


I .1 – 3 4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


Mode ofmeasurement/

observation

Requiredmeasurement

uncertainty

Sensor timeconstant



Remarks

4. Clouds

4.1 Cloud amount 0/8 – 8/8 1/8 I 1/8 n/a 2/8 Period clustering algorithms

may be used to estimate lowcloud amount automatically

4.2 Height of cloud

base

0 m – 30 km 10 m I 10 m for 100 m10% for > 100 m

n/a ~10 m Achievable measurementuncertainty can bedetermined with a hardtarget. No clear definitionexists for instrumentallymeasured cloud-base height(e.g. based on penetrationdepth or significantdiscontinuity in the extinction

fil )


26/358

C H A P T

E R 1 . GE NE R A L

I .1 – 3 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


Mode ofmeasurement/

observation

Requiredmeasurement

uncertainty

Sensor timeconstant



Remarks

5.3 Gusts 0.1 – 150 m s–1 0.1 m s–1 A 10% 3 s 0.5 m s–1 for 5 m s–1

10% for> 5 m s–1

Highest 3 s average shouldbe recorded

6. Precipitation

6.1 Amount (daily) 0 – 500 mm 0.1 mm T 0.1 mm for 5 mm2% for > 5 mm

n/a n/a The largerof 5% or0.1 mm

Quantity based on dailyamountsMeasurement uncertaintydepends on aerodynamiccollection efficiency ofgauges and evaporationlosses in heated gauges

6.2 Depth of snow 0 – 25 m 1 cm I 1 cm for 20 cm5% for > 20 cm

< 10 s 1 min 1 cm Average depth over anarea representative of the

observing site

6.3 Thickness of ice

accretion on

ships

Not specified 1 cm I 1 cm for 10 cm10% for > 10 cm

6.4 Precipitation

intensity

0.02 mm h–1 –2 000 mm h–1

0.1 mm h–1 I (trace): n/a for0.02 – 0.2 mm h–1

0.1 mm h–1 for 0.2 – 2 mm h–1

5% for > 2 mm h–1

< 30 s 1 min Underconstant flowconditions inlaboratory,5% above 2mm/h,2% above10 mm/hIn field,

5 mm/h and5% above100 mm/h

Uncertainty values for liquidprecipitation onlyUncertainty is seriouslyaffected by windSensors may show significantnon-linear behaviour For < 0.2 mm h–1:detection only (yes/no)sensor time constant is

significantly affected duringsolid precipitation usingcatchment type of gauges

6.5 Precipitation

duration (daily)

0 – 24 h 60 s T n/a 60 s Threshold value of0.02 mm/h


I .1 – 3 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


Mode ofmeasurement/

observation

Requiredmeasurement

uncertainty

Sensor timeconstant



Remarks

7. Radiation

7.1 Sunshine

duration (daily)

0 – 24 h 60 s T 0.1 h 20 s n/a The larger of0.1 h or 2%

7.2 Net radiation,

radiant exposure

(daily)

Not specified 1 J m–2 T 0.4 MJ m–2

for 8 MJ m–2

5% for > 8 MJ m–2

20 s n/a 0.4 MJ m–2

for 8 MJ m–2

5% for> 8 MJ m–2

Radiant exposure expressedas daily sums (amount) of(net) radiation

8. Visibility

8.1 Meteorologicaloptical range(MOR)

10 m – 100 km 1 m I 50 m for 600 m10% for > 600 m –

1 500 m20% for > 1500 m

< 30 s 1 and 10 min The larger of20 m or 20%

Achievable measurementuncertainty may depend onthe cause of obscuration


27/358


28/358

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL I.1–39

World Meteorological Organization, 2010b: Guide

to the Global Observing System. WMO-No. 488,

Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2010c : Manual

on the Global Data-processing and Forecasting

System. Volume I – Global Aspects,Appendix II-2, WMO-No. 485, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2010d : Manual

on the Global Observing System. Volume I –

Global Aspects, WMO-No. 544, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2010e: Weather

Reporting. Volume A – Observing stations,

WMO-No. 9, Geneva.

Data and Monitoring Programme (WCDMP)

Series Report No. 53, WMO/TD-No. 1186,

Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2008: Guide

to Hydrological Practices. WMO-No. 168,

Geneva.World Meteorological Organization, 2009: Joint

WMO/IOC Technical Commission for

Oceanography and Marine Meteorology , WMO-

No. 1049, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2010a: Guide to

Agricultu ral Meteorological Practices . WMO-No.

134, Geneva.


29/358


30/358


31/358


32/358


33/358


34/358


35/358


36/358


37/358


38/358

CHAPTER 2. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE I.2–21


39/358

CHAPTER 2. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE I.2 21

Pape rs Pres ented at the WMO Tech nica lConference on Meteorological and Environmental

Instruments and Methods of Obser vation (TECO-2002), Instruments and Observing MethodsReport No. 75, WMO/TD-No. 1123, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2002c :Results of an intercomparison of wooden and

plastic thermometer screens (D.B. Hatton).

Pape rs Pres ented at the WMO Tech nica lConference on Meteorological and Environmental

Instruments and Methods of Observation (TECO-2002), Instruments and Observing MethodsReport No. 75, WMO/TD-No. 1123, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2002d :Temperature and humidity measurements

during icing conditions (M. Leroy,

B. Tammelin, R. Hyvönen, J. Rast and

M. Musa). Paper s Pre sente d at the WMOTechnical Conference on Meteorological and

Env ironme nta l Ins tr ume nts and Method s ofObservation (TECO-2002), Instruments andObserving Methods Report No. 75, WMO/

TD-No. 1123, Geneva.

Zanghi, F., 1987: Comparaison des Abris Mé téo rol ogi ques . Technical MemorandumNo. 11, Météo-France/SETIM, Trappes.


40/358


41/358


42/358


43/358


44/358


45/358


46/358


47/358


48/358


49/358


50/358


51/358


52/358


53/358


54/358


55/358


56/358


57/358


58/358


59/358


60/358


61/358


62/358


63/358


64/358


65/358


66/358


67/358


68/358


69/358


70/358


71/358


72/358


73/358


74/358


75/358


76/358


77/358


78/358


79/358


80/358


81/358


82/358


83/358


84/358


85/358


86/358


87/358


88/358


89/358


90/358


91/358


92/358


93/358


94/358


95/358


96/358


97/358


98/358


99/358


100/358


101/358


102/358

CHAPTER 7. MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION I.7–31

ANNEX 7.A

NOMENCLATURE OF RADIOMETRIC AND PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES

(1) Radiometric quantities

Name Symbol Unit Relation Remarks


(3) Optical characteristics

Characteristic Symbol Definition Remarks

Emissivity ε ε

ε

=

=

M

M 1

= 1 for a black body

Absorptance α =

Φ

Φ

a

ia and i are the absorbed and incident


103/358

Radiant energy Q, (W ) J=W s – –

Radiant flux , (P ) W Φ =dQ

dt Power

Radiant flux density (M ), (E ) W m–2 d

dA

d Q

dA dt

Φ=

⋅

2 Radiant flux of any origin crossing anarea element

Radiant exitance M W m–2 M d

dA=

Φ Radiant flux of any origin emerging from an area element

Irradiance E W m–2 E d

dA=

Φ Radiant flux of any origin incidentonto an area element

Radiance L W m–2 sr –1 L d

d dA=

⋅ ⋅

2Φ

cosθ Ω

The radiance is a conservativequantity in an optical system

Radiant exposure H J m–2 H dQ

dAE dt

t

t

= =

1

2

∫ May be used for daily sums of globalradiation, etc.

Radiant intensity I W sr –1 I d

d =

Φ May be used only for radiationoutgoing from “point sources”

(2) Photometric quantities

Name Symbol Unit

Quantity of light Qv lm·s

Luminous flux v lm

Luminous exitance M v lm m–2

Illuminance E v lm m–2

= lxLight exposure H v lm m

–2 s = lx·s

Luminous intensity I v lm sr –1 = cd

Luminance Lv lm m–2 s r –1 = cdm–2

Luminous flux density (M v ; E v ) lm m–2

Absorptance Φi a i radiant flux, respectively

Reflectance ! ρ =

Φ

Φ

r

i r is the reflected radiant flux

Transmittance τ =Φ

Φ

t

i

t is the radiant flux transmitted through alayer or a surface

Optical depth τ

δ =

−

e

In the atmosphere, is defined in thevertical. Optical thickness equals /cos ,where is the apparent zenith angle

CHAPTER 7. MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION I.7–33

ANNEX 7.B

METEOROLOGICAL RADIATION QUANTITIES, SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS

Quantity Symbol Relation Definitions and remarks Units

Downward radiation a

Q

= g +l

Q = Qg + Ql

Downward radiant flux

“ radiant energy

W

J (W s)


Quantity Symbol Relation Definitions and remarks Units

Direct solar radiation E = 0

v cos ⋅

= atmospheric transmittance

= optical depth (vertical) W m–2

Solar constant E0Solar irradiance, normalized tomean sun-Earth distance

W m–2

a The symbols – or + could be used instead of or (e.g. + ).b Exitance is radiant flux emerging from the unit area; irradiance is radiant flux received per unit area. For flux density in general, the

symbol M or E can be used. Although not specifically recommended, the symbol F , defined as /area, may also be introduced.c In the case of inclined surfaces,

⋅

is the angle between the normal to the surface and the direction to the sun.


104/358

M

E

L

H

gM = M g +M l

E = E g + E l

L = Lg + Ll

H = g + H l

(g = global)

(l = long wave)

gy

“ radiant exitanceb

“ irradiance

“ radiance

“ radiant exposure for a

specified time interval

W m–2

W m–2

W m–2 sr –1

J m–2 per

time interval

Upward radiation a

Q

M

E L

H

= r +l

Q = Qr + Ql

M = M r + M l

E = E r + E l L = Lr + Ll

H = H r + H l

Upward radiant flux

“ radiant energy

“ radiant exitance

“ irradiance“ radiance

“ radiant energy per unit area

for a specified time interval

W

J (W s)

W m–2

W m–2

W m–2 sr –1

J m–2 per

time interval

Global radiation E g E g =

Ecos ⋅

+ E d

Hemispherical irradiance on a

horizontal surface ( ⋅

= apparent

solar zenith angle)c

W m–2

Sky radiation:

downward diffuse

solar radiation

d

Qd

M d

E d

Ld

H d

Subscript d = diffuse As for

downward

radiation

Upward/downward

long-wave radiation

l , l

Ql , Ql

M l , M l

E l , E l

H l , H l

Subscript l = long wave. If only

atmospheric radiation is

considered, the subscript a may be

added, e.g. l,a

As for

downward

radiation

Reflected solar

radiation

r

Qr

Mr

Er

Lr

Hr

Subscript r = reflected

(the subscript s (specular) and d

(diffuse) may be used, if a distinction

is to be made between these two

components)

As fordownwardradiation

Net radiation *

Q*

M *

E *

L*

H *

* = –

Q* = Q – Q

M = M –M

E = E – E

L = L – L

H = H – H

The subscript g or l is to be

added to each of the symbols if

only short-wave or long-wave net

radiation quantities are considered

As fordownwardradiation


105/358


106/358


107/358


108/358


109/358


110/358


111/358


112/358


113/358


114/358


115/358


116/358


117/358


118/358


119/358


120/358


121/358

CHAPTER 9. MEASUREMENT OF VISIBILITY I.9–15

World Meteorological Organization, 1990b: The Fi rs t WMO Inter compa rison of Vis ib il ity Measur ements: Fin al Repor t (D.J. Griggs,

D.W. Jones, M. Ouldridge and W.R. Sparks).Instruments and Observing Methods Report

No. 41, WMO/TD-No. 401, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 1992a: International Meteorological Vocabulary . WMO-No. 182, Geneva.

W ld M t l i l O i ti 1992b Vi ibilit

International Electrotechnical Commission, 1987:

In te rnat ional El ect ro te chn ical Vocabula ry .Chapter 845: Lighting, IEC 50.

Middleton, W.E.K., 1952: Vision Through the Atmosphere. University of Toronto Press,Toronto.

Sheppard, B.E., 1983: Adaptation to MOR. Preprintsof the Fifth Symposium on MeteorologicalObservations and Instrumentation (Toronto,11 15 A il 1983) 226 269

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING


122/358

World Meteorological Organization, 1992b: Visibilitymeasuring instruments: Differences between scat-

terometers and transmissometers (J.P. van der

Meulen). Papers Presented at the WMO TechnicalConference on Instruments and Methods of Observation(TECO-92) (Vienna, Austria, 11–15 May 1992),Instruments and Observing Methods Report

No. 49, WMO/TD-No. 462, Geneva.World Meteorological Organization, 2003: Manual

on the Global Observing System. WMO-No. 544,Geneva.

11–15 April 1983), pp. 226–269.

Klett, J.D., 1985:

Lidar inversion with variable

backscatter/extinction ratios. Applied Optics, 24,pp. 1638–1643.

World Meteorological Organization, 1989: Guide onthe Global Observing System. WMO-No. 488,Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 1990a: Guideon Meteorological Observation and Information

Dist ribu tion Sys tems at Aerodrom es. WMO-No. 731, Geneva.


123/358


124/358


125/358


126/358


127/358


128/358


129/358


130/358


131/358


132/358

CHAPTER 11. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE I.11–11

content: Measurement in coaxial transmission

lines. Water Resources Research, 16, pp. 574-582.Van de Griend, A.A., P.J. Camillo and R.J. Gurney,

1985: Discrimination of soil physical parame-

ters, thermal inertia and soil moisture from

diurnal surface temperature fluctuations. Water Resources Research, 21, pp. 997–1009.

Visvalingam, M. and J.D. Tandy, 1972: The neutron

method for measuring soil moisture content: A

review. European Journal of Soil Science, 23,pp. 499–511.

Wellings, S.R., J.P. Bell and R.J. Raynor, 1985: TheUse of Gypsum Resistance Blocks for Measuring SoilWater Potential in the Field. Report No. 92,

Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, United

Kingdom.

World Meteorological Organization, 1968:

Practi cal Soil Moisture Problems in Agricu lture . Technical Note No. 97, WMO-No. 235.TP.128,

Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 1989: Land Management in Arid and Semi-a rid Areas. Technical Note No. 186, WMO-No. 662,

Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2001: LectureNotes for Training Agricultural MeteorologicalPersonnel (J. Wieringa and J. Lomas). Second

edition, WMO-No. 551, Geneva.


133/358


134/358


135/358


136/358


137/358


138/358


139/358


140/358


141/358


142/358


143/358


144/358


145/358


146/358


147/358


148/358


149/358

CHAPTER 12. MEASUREMENT OF UPPER-AIR PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY I.12–33

adequate archive of the original raw radiosonde

observations, if required by national practice.

Errors from infrared heat exchange pose a partic-

ular problem for correction, since these errors are

not independent of atmospheric temperature.

Solar heating errors for metallic (for example,

aluminized) sensors and white-painted sensors

are similar (see Table 12.7). Thus, it is preferable

to eliminate as soon as possible the use of whitepaint with high emissivity in the infrared as a

sensor coating, rather than to develop very

complex correction schemes for infrared heat

exchange errors.

Similarly, it is unwise to attempt to correct abnor-

mally high solar radiation heating errors using

software, rather than to eliminate the additional

sources of heating by positioning the sensor

correctly with respect to its supports, connecting

leads and radiosonde body.

Considering the importance of the ways in which

corrections are applied, the Commission for Instru-

ments and Methods of Observation6 urges Members to:

(a) To correct and make available the corrected

upper air data from the various Global Observ-

ing System upper-air stations;

(b) To make users of the data aware of changes inthe methodology used to correct reports, so

that they may be adjusted, if desired;

(c) To archive both the corrected and uncorrected

upper-air observations and produce records

for climatological applications of the correc-

tion applied. The method used should be

determined nationally;

(d) To inform WMO of the method of correction

applied.


ANNEX 12.A

ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS (STANDARD ERROR) FOR UPPER-AIRMEASUREMENTS FOR SYNOPTIC METEOROLOGY, INTERPRETED FOR

CONVENTIONAL UPPER-AIR AND WIND MEASUREMENTS

Variable Range Accuracy requirement

Pressure From surface to 100 hPa100 to 10 hPa

1 hPa to 2 hPa near 100 hPa2 per cent

Temperature From surface to 100 hPa100 to 10 hPa

0.5 K1 K

Relative humidity Troposphere 5 per cent (RH)

Wind direction From surface to 100 hPa 5˚, for less than 15 m s–1 2 5˚ at higher speeds


150/358

6 As recommended by the Commission for Instruments and

Methods of Observation at its eleventh session, held in 1994,

through Recommendation 8 (CIMO-XI).

2.5 at higher speeds

From 100 to 10 hPa 5˚

Wind speed From surface to 100 hPa 1 m s–1

From 100 to 10 hPa 2 m s–1

Geopotential height ofsignificant level

From surface to 100 hPa 1 per cent near the sur face decreasing to 0.5per cent at 100 hPa


151/358


152/358


153/358


154/358


155/358


156/358


157/358


158/358


159/358


160/358


161/358


162/358


163/358


164/358


165/358


166/358


167/358


168/358


169/358


170/358


171/358


172/358

CHAPTER 14. OBSERVATION OF PRESENT AND PAST WEATHER; STATE OF THE GROUND I.14–11

stations (M. Mezösi, A. Simon, P. Hanák and

O. Szenn.). Papers Presented at the Thi rd WMO

Technical Conference on Instruments and Methods

of Observation (TECIMO-III) (Ottawa,

8–12 July 1985), Instruments and Observing

Methods Report No. 22, WMO/TD-No. 50,

Geneva, pp. 255–259.


In te rn at io na l Me te or ol og ic al Vocab ul ar y ,

WMO-No. 182, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 1998: WMO Inte rcompari son of Pres ent Weather Sensors/

Systems: Final Report (Canada and France, 1993–

1995) (M. Leroy, C. Bellevaux and J.P. Jacob).

Instruments and Observing Methods Report


World Meteorological Organization, 2006: WMO

Laboratory Intercompar ison of Rainfall Intensity

Gauges (France, Italy, The Netherlands, 2004–

2005) (L. Lanza, M. Leroy, C. Alexandropoulos,

L. Stagi and W. Wauben). Instruments and

Observing Methods Report No. 84, WMO/


World Meteorological Organization, 2009: WMO

Field Intercomparison of Rainfall Intensity Gauges

(Italy, 2007–2009) (E. Veurich, C. Monesi,

L.G. Lanza, L. Stagi and E. Lanzinger).Instruments and Observing Methods Report


World Meteorological Organization, 2010: Manual

on Codes. Volumes I.1 and I.2, WMO-No. 306,

Geneva.


173/358


174/358


175/358


176/358


177/358


178/358


179/358


180/358


181/358


182/358


183/358


184/358


185/358


186/358


187/358


188/358


189/358


190/358


191/358

CHAPTER 16. MEASUREMENT OF OZONE I.16–25

19 November–12 December 1999; Part III: Pretoria,South Africa, 18 March-10 April 2000 (R. D.Evans). Global Atmosphere Watch Report


World Meteorological Organization, 2001b:WMO/CEOS Report on a Strategy for IntegratingSatellite and Ground-based Observations ofOzone. Global Atmosphere Watch ReportNo. 140, WMO/TD-No. 1046, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2002: WMOGAW International Comparisons of DobsonSpectrophotometers at the MeteorologicalObservatory Hohenpeissenberg, Germany:21 May–10 June 2000 and 23 July–5 August 2000;10–23 June 2001 and 8–21 July 2001 (U. Köhler).Global Atmosphere Watch Report No. 145,

WMO/TD-No. 1114, Geneva.


Comparison of Total Ozone Measurements of Dobs on and Brewer Spectrophotometer s and

Recommended Transfer Functions (J. Staehelin, J.Kerr, R. Evans and K. Vanicek). Global

Atmosphere Watch Report No. 149, WMO/


World Meteorological Organization, 2004a: JOSIE-1998: Performance of ECC Ozone Sondes ofSPC-6A and ENSCI-Z Type (H.G.J. Smit andW. Straeter). Global Atmosphere Watch Report


World Meteorological Organization, 2004b: TheChanging Atmosphere: An Integrated Global

Atmospheric Chemistry Observation Theme for the IGOS Partnersh ip. Global Atmosphere WatchReport No. 159, WMO/TD-No. 1235, Geneva.

Zommerfelds, W.C. K.F. Kunzi, M.E. Summers,

R.M. Bevilacqua and D.F. Strobel, 1989:

Diurnal variations of mesospheric ozone

obtained by ground-based microwave radi-

ometry. Journal of Geophysical Research, 94,pp. 12819–12832.


192/358


193/358


194/358


195/358


196/358


197/358


198/358


199/358

PART II

OBSERVING SYSTEMS


200/358


201/358


202/358


203/358


204/358


205/358


206/358


207/358


208/358


209/358


210/358


211/358


212/358


213/358


214/358


215/358


216/358


217/358


218/358


219/358


220/358


221/358


222/358


223/358


224/358


225/358


226/358


227/358


228/358


229/358


230/358


231/358


232/358


233/358


234/358


235/358


236/358


237/358


238/358


239/358


240/358


241/358


242/358


243/358


244/358


245/358


246/358


247/358


248/358


249/358


250/358


251/358


252/358


253/358


254/358


255/358


256/358


257/358


258/358


259/358


260/358


261/358


262/358


263/358


264/358


265/358


266/358


267/358


268/358


269/358


270/358


271/358


272/358


273/358


274/358


275/358

CHAPTER 8. SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS II.8–33

collected from any point on Earth via the onesatellite.

The transmissions from DCSs are received by the

satellite at some point in its overpass. The means of

transferring the received data to the user has to be

different from that adopted for METEOSAT. They

follow two routes.

In the first route, the received data are immediately

retransmitted, in real time, in the ultra high

frequency range, and can be received by a user’s

receiver on an omnidirectional antenna. To ensure

communication, both receiver and outstation mustbe within a range of not more than about 2 000 km

of each other, since both must be able to see the

satellite at the same time.

In the second route, the received data are recorded

on a magnetic tape logger on board the spacecraft

and retransmitted to ground stations as the satellite

passes over. These stations are located in the UnitedStates and France (Argos system). From here, the

data are put onto the GTS or sent as a printout by

post if there is less urgency.

The cost of using the polar satellites is not small,

and, while they have some unique advantages over

geostationary systems, they are of less general

purpose use as telemetry satellites. Their greatest

value is that they can collect data from high lati-

tudes, beyond the reach of geostationary satellites.

They can also be of value in those areas of the

world not currently covered by geostationary satel-lites. For example, the Japanese GMS satellite does

not currently provide a retransmission facility, and

users can receive data only via the GTS. Until such

a time as all of the Earth’s surface is covered by

geostationary satellites with retransmission facili-

ties, polar orbiting satellites will usefully fill the

gap.

PART II. OBSERVING SYSTEMSII.8–34

ANNEX 8.A

ADVANCED VERY HIGH RESOLUTION RADIOMETER CHANNELSNadir resolution 1.1 km: swath width > 2 600 km

Channel Wavelengthµm

Primary uses

1 0.58–0.68 Daytime cloud surface mapping

2 0.725–1.10 Surface water, ice, snowmelt

3 3.55–3.93 Sea-surface temperature, night-time cloud mapping

4 10.30–11.30 Sea-surface temperature, day and night c loud mapping

5 11.50–12.50 Sea-surface temperature, day and night c loud mapping


276/358


277/358


278/358


279/358


280/358


281/358


282/358


283/358


284/358


285/358


286/358


287/358


288/358


289/358


290/358


291/358


292/358


293/358

CHAPTER 9. RADAR MEASUREMENTS II.9–33

Conference on Radar Meteorology (Vail, Colorado),

American Meteorological Society, Boston,pp. 725–728.

Zrnic, D.S. and S. Hamidi, 1981: Considerations forthe Design of Ground Clutter Cancelers for Weather

Radar . Report DOT/FAA/RD-81/72, NTIS,pp. 77.

Zrnic, D.S. and A.V. Ryzhkov, 1995: Advantages ofrain measurements using specific differentialphase. Preprints of the Twenty-seventh Conferenceon Radar Meteorology (Vail, Colorado), AmericanMeteorological Society, pp. 35–37.

boundary-layer convergence lines. Monthly

Weather Review , Volume 114, pp. 2516–2536.Wood, V.T. and R.A. Brown, 1986: Single Doppler

velocity signature interpretation of nondiver-gent environmental winds. Journal of Atmosphericand Oceanic Technology , Volume 3, pp. 114–128.

World Meteorological Organization, 1985: Use of Radar in Meteorology (G.A. Clift). Technical NoteNo. 181, WMO-No. 625, Geneva.

Wurman, J., M. Randall and C. Burghart, 1995:Real-time vector winds from a bistatic Dopplerradar network. Preprints of the Twenty -seventh


294/358


295/358


296/358


297/358


298/358


299/358


300/358


301/358


302/358


303/358


304/358


305/358


306/358


307/358


308/358


309/358


310/358


311/358


312/358


313/358


314/358


315/358


316/358

CHAPTER 12. ROAD METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS II.12–9

12.11 TRAINING

To manage, operate and maintain a network of

road meteorological stations in order to obtain a

continuous flow of reliable data and to interpret

that data to give fully meaningful information

requires personnel with specific training in the

necessary disciplines. Some of these areas of

expertise are: the roadway environment and

operational decision-making for the safe and

efficient movement of traffic; remote data

acquisition, telecommunications and computing;

the selection, application and maintenance of

meteorological sensors and their signal processing;

and the interpretation of meteorological and

other data for the operational context. The

administration responsible for the road network

should collaborate with other agencies as

necessary in order to ensure that the optimum

mix of knowledge and training is maintained to

ensure the successful operation of the road

meteorological measurement network.

PART II. OBSERVING SYSTEMSII.12–10

World Road Association (PIARC), 2002: Proceedingsof the Eleventh PIARC International Winter RoadCongress (Sapporo, Japan).

World Meteorological Organization, 1988: Technical Regulations. WMO-No. 49, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 1995: Manualon Codes. Volumes I.1 and I.2. WMO-No. 306,Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 1997: Road Meteorological Observations (R.E.W. Pettifer and

J. Terpstra). Instruments and Observing Methods

Report No. 61, WMO/TD-No. 842, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2003a: Road Managers and Meteorologists over Road MeteorologicalObservations: The Result of Questionnaires (J.M. Terpstraand T. Ledent). Instruments and Observing Methods

Report No. 77, WMO/TD-No. 1159, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2003b: Manual onthe Global Observing System. WMO-No. 544,Geneva.

II.12–10



317/358

PART III

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND MANAGEMENT

OF OBSERVING SYSTEMS


318/358


319/358


320/358


321/358


322/358


323/358


324/358


325/358


326/358


327/358


328/358


329/358


330/358


331/358


332/358


333/358


334/358


335/358


336/358


337/358


338/358


339/358


340/358


341/358


342/358


343/358


344/358


345/358


346/358


347/358


348/358


349/358


350/358


351/358


352/358


353/358


354/358


355/358

CHAPTER 5. TRAINING OF INSTRUMENT SPECIALISTS III.5–17

Craig, R.L. (ed.), 1987: Training and Development

Han dbook: A Gui de to Hum an Re sou rce

Development. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Imai, M., 1986: Kaizen: The Key to Japan’s Competitive

Success. Random House, New York.

International Organization for Standardization,

1994a: Quality Management and Quality

Assurance Standards – Part 1: Guidel ines for

Selection and Use. ISO 9000–1; 1994, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization,

1994b: Quality Management and Quality System

Elements – Part 1: Guidelines. ISO 9004-1; 1994,Geneva

Moss, G., 1987: The Trainer’s Handbook. Ministry of

Agriculture and Fisheries, New Zealand.

Walton, M., 1986: The Deming Management Method .

Putnam Publishing, New York.

World Meteorological Organization, 1983: Catalogue

of Meteorological Training Publications and

Audiovisual Aids. Third edition, Education and

Training Programme Report No. 4, WMO/

TD-No. 124, Geneva.



Compendium of Lecture Notes on Meteorological

Instruments for Training Class II I and Class IV

Meteorol ogical Personne l (D.A. Simidchiev).

WMO-No. 622, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 1990: Guidance

for the Education and Training of Instrument

Specialists (R.A. Pannett). Education and

Training Programme Report No. 8, WMO/

TD-No. 413, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2002a:

Guidelines for the Education and Training of Per son nel in Met eor olo gy and Ope rat ional

Hydro logy . Volume I: Meteorology. Fourth

edition, WMO-No. 258, Geneva.

World Meteorological Organization, 2002b: Initial

Formation and Specialisat ion of Meteoro logical

Personne l: Detailed Syllabus Examples. WMO/


World Meteorological Organization, 2010: Guide to

the Global Observing System. WMO-No. 488,

Geneva.


356/358

APPENDIX

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE GUIDE

Artz, R. (United States)

Ball, G. (Australia)

Behrens, K. (Germany)

Bonnin, G.M. (United States)

Bower, C.A. (United States)

Canterford, R. (Australia)

Childs, B. (United States)

Claude, H. (Germany)

Crum, T. (United States)

Dombrowsky, R. (United States)

Edwards, M. (South Africa)

Evans, R.D. (United States)

Feister, E. (Germany)

Forgan, B.W. (Australia)

Hilger, D. (United States)

Holleman, I. (Netherlands)

Hoogendijk, K. (Netherlands)

Johnson, M. (United States)

Klapheck, K.-H. (Germany)

Klausen, J. (Switzerland)

Koehler, U. (Germany)

Ledent, T. (Belgium)

Luke, R. (United States)

Nash, J. (United Kingdom)

Oke, T. (Canada)

Painting, D.J. (United Kingdom)

Pannett, R.A. (New Zealand)

Qiu Qixian (China)

Rudel, E. (Austria)

Saffle, R. (United States)

Schmidlin, F.J. (United States)

Sevruk, B. (Switzerland)

Srivastava, S.K. (India)

Steinbrecht, W. (Germany)

Stickland, J. (Australia)

Stringer, R. (Australia)

Sturgeon, M.C. (United States)

Thomas, R.D. (United States)

Van der Meulen, J.P. (Netherlands)

Vanicek, K. (Czech Republic)

Wieringa, J. (Netherlands)

Winkler, P. (Germany)

Zahumensky, I. (Slovakia)

Zhou Weixin (China)


357/358

P - O B S_

1 1 1 3 5 0


358/358

www.wmo.int

00 - wmo no. 8 (2008) wmo guide to meteorological instruments and methods of observation

Documents