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AS Unit F332: Chemistry of Natural Resources

Unit 1: Elements from the sea

A study of the extraction of halogens from minerals in the sea together with a study of the properties and uses of Group 7 elements and their compounds. The chemical ideas in this teaching module are:• Halogen chemistry;• Redox chemistry;• Periodic Table – electron configurations and periodicity of ionisation enthalpy.• Intermolecular dipole bonds.• Halogenoalkane chemistry.• Industrial chemistry.

Topic F331 code Number Assessable learning outcomes

(Roughly) Number of

exam questions

CGP-ASRevision guide(Page number)

Chemical storylines

(Page number)

Chemical ideas(Page number)

Formulae, equations andamount of substance

ES1iUse the concept of amount of substance to perform calculations involving molecular formulae.

5 52-53 1-4

ES1ii Use the concept of amount of substance to perform calculations involving percentage yield. 2 53 357-358

ES1iii Use the concept of amount of substance to perform calculations involving masses of reagents. 2 52 1-4

DF1i ES1iv Use the concept of amount of substance to perform calculations involving volumes of gases. 1 52 10-11

ES1v Use the concept of amount of substance to perform calculations involving concentrations of solutions.

5 53 12-14

Dr A. Johnston, Southampton, 2014

EL3 ES1vi Write and interpret any balanced chemical equations. 10 52 7

ES1vii Write and interpret any balanced ionic equations. 7 52 85, 250

ESviii Use the concept of amount of substance to perform calculations involving available atoms.

ES2Recall and explain the procedure for carrying out an acid– alkali titration and be able to work out the results.

4 54-55 371, 12-14

Atomic structure ES3

Use conventions for representing the distribution of electrons in atomic orbitals (no treatment of the shapes of atomic orbitals is expected).

1 56-57 24-26

ES4

Work out the electronic configuration of atoms from hydrogen to krypton, and the outer sub-shell structures of other main group elements, in terms of main energy levels and s-, p- and d atomic orbitals and the elements’ positions in the Periodic Table.

5 56-57 26-30

ES5iDraw and interpret simple electron ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams to show how atoms bond through ionic, covalent and dative covalent bonds.

6 18, 20 36-39

EL13iii ES5ii Describe a simple model of metallic bonding. 23 41EL15 ES5iii Use the electron pair repulsion principle to

predict and explain the shapes of simple molecules (such as CH4, NH3, H2O and SF6) and ions (such as NH4

+) with up to six outer pairs of electrons (any combination of bonding pairs and lone pairs) (no treatment of hybridisation or molecular orbitals is expected)

2 24-25 44-47


EL14 ES5iv

Recall the typical physical properties (melting point, solubility in water, ability to conduct electricity) characteristic of giant lattice (metallic, ionic, covalent network) and simple molecular structure types.

1 22, 78-79 117

ES6 Explain the term electronegativity. 3 62 40

ES7i

Explain, give examples of, and recognise in given examples the following types of intermolecular bonds: instantaneous dipole induced dipole bonds (including dependence on branching and chain length of organic molecules).

5 63-65 92-98

ES7ii

Explain, give examples of, and recognise in given examples the following types of intermolecular bonds: permanent dipole- permanent dipole bonds.

5 63-65 92-98

ES8i Describe the structure of an ionic lattice. 1 77-78

ES8ii Be able to draw the structure of compounds that have the sodium chloride lattice. 1 77-78

Redox ES9i Calculate the oxidation state of specified atoms in formulae (including ions). 8 60 194-197

ES9ii Explain which species have been oxidised and which reduced in a redox reaction. 8 59 198-199

ES9iii Use systematic nomenclature to name inorganic compounds. 60 42-43

ES10

Describe redox reactions of s- and p-block elements and their compounds in terms of electron transfer, using half equations to represent the oxidation and reduction reactions.

61 193-197

ES11 Define oxidation and reduction as loss and gain of electrons. 3 59 193


Inorganic chemistry and thePeriodic Table

EL16i ES11i

Recall that the Periodic Table lists elements in order of atomic (proton) number and groups elements together according to their common properties.

ES11ii Recall the classification of elements into s-, p- and d-blocks. 32

ES11iiiRecall and explain the relationship between the position of an element in the Periodic Table and the charge on its ion.

2 36

ES11iv Recall the names and formulae of NO3–, SO42–,

CO32–, OH–, NH4+, HCO3–. 3 42

ES11vWrite formulae for compounds formed between NO3–, SO4

2–, CO32–, OH–, NH4+, HCO3– and other

given anions and cations.2 42-43

ES12i Recall the meaning of the term ionisation enthalpy. 1 66 33-35

ES12ii Write equations for the successive ionisations of an element. 66 33-35

ES12iiiExplain periodic and group trends in the properties of elements in terms of ionisation enthalpy.

1 67 33-35, 25-26

ES13iRecall the following physical property of the halogens: appearance and physical state at room temperature.

2 68 56-58 248

ES13ii Recall the following physical property of the halogens: volatility. 1 68 248

ES13iii Recall the following physical property of the halogens: solubility in water and organic solvents. 68 248

ES13ii Explain physical state and volatility of the halogens in terms of intermolecular bonds.

1 68 248


ES14i

Use given information to compare different methods of manufacturing chemicals industrially, in terms of atom economy. Calculate atom economy.

3 72

ES14iiUse given information to compare different methods of manufacturing chemicals industrially, in terms of percentage yield.

73

ES14iiiUse given information to compare different methods of manufacturing chemicals industrially, in terms of batch versus continuous process.

72

ES14ivUse given information to compare different methods of manufacturing chemicals industrially, in terms of siting the plant.

72

ES14vUse given information to compare different methods of manufacturing chemicals industrially, in terms of cost of process and raw materials.

1 73

ES14viUse given information to compare different methods of manufacturing chemicals industrially, in terms of waste disposal & safety.

72

ES15i Explain and compare the relative reactivity of the halogens in terms of their oxidising ability. 1 69 250

ES15iiDescribe and write half-equations for the redox changes which take place when chlorine, bromine and iodine react with other halide ions.

1 69 249-250

ES15iiiDescribe and write half-equations for the redox changes which take place at the electrodes on electrolysis of aqueous halide solutions.

70 54-55

ES16 Recall the reactions between halide ions (X–) and silver ions (Ag+) and write ionic equations to represent these precipitation reactions.

4 70 250


ES17 Explain the risks associated with the storage and transport of the halogens (fluorine to iodine). 3 71 58

ES18i

Recall and describe some uses of halogen compounds which must be weighed against these risks, including: fluorine – making PTFE, HCFCs, in toothpaste.

71 57

ES18iiRecall and describe some uses of halogen compounds which must be weighed against these risks, including: chlorine – making PVC, bleach.

4 71 55-56, 62

ES18iii

Recall and describe some uses of halogen compounds which must be weighed against these risks, including: bromine – medicines, flame retardants.

1 71 57-58

Organic functional groups

ES19i Recognise and write formulae for examples of members of the halogenoalkanes. 1 74 288

DF15i-DF15vi ES19ii Recognise and write formulae for examples of

homologous series met in unit F331. 8

ES20i Use systematic nomenclature to name and interpret the names of halogenoalkanes. 3 74 288

DF15i-DF15vi ES20ii

Use systematic nomenclature to name and interpret the names of compounds for which naming was required in unit F331.

Organic reactions ES21 Describe in outline the preparation of a

chloroalkane from an alcohol using HCl. 4 75 61 292-293

ES22i Describe and explain the principal stages in the purification of an organic liquid product. 75 367

ES22ii Shaking with sodium hydrogencarbonate solution to remove acidic impurities. 1 75 367

ES22iii Separating from other immiscible liquids using a separating funnel.

1 75 367


ES22iv Drying with anhydrous sodium sulphate. 2 75 367

ES22v Simple distillation to allow collection of the pure product. 1 75 368

ES23iDescribe and explain the characteristic properties of halogenoalkanes, comparing fluoro-, chloro-, bromo- and iodo- compounds.

74 56-58 288-289

ES23ii Explain why the boiling points of halogenoalkanes depend on intermolecular bonds. 6 74 288-289

ES23iii

Explain how halogeoalkanes can undergo nucleophilic substitution with water and hydroxide ions to form alcohols, and with ammonia to form amines.

76 292-293

Reaction mechanisms

ES24i Explain and use the term hydrolysis. 76 292ES24ii Explain and use the term substitution. 1 76 290-293ES24iii Explain and use the terms nucleophile. 4 76 290-293

ES25

Use the SN2 mechanism as a model to explain nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes using ‘curly arrows’. (knowledge of the SN1 mechanism or of the SN1 or SN2 nomenclature is not required).

1 76 292-293

ES26iExplain how either bond enthalpy or bond polarity might affect the relative reactivities of the halogenoalkanes.

2 77 290

ES26ii Explain how experimental evidence determines that the bond enthalpy is more important. 2 77 290

ES26iii Calculate bond enthalpy. 4 32 63-64Isomerism DF19 ES27i Draw and interpret skeletal, structural and full

structural formulae.5 42 267-269


DF20 ES27ii

Use the concept of repulsion of areas of electron density to deduce the bond angles in organic molecules (including double bonds) (no treatment of small deviation of angle due to lone pair repulsion required).

2 44-45 44-46

DF21 ES27iiiRelate molecular shape to structural formulae and use wedges and dotted lines to represent 3D shape.

3 25 44-46

DF23 ES27iv Draw structural isomers 1 47-50


Unit 2: The Atmosphere (AT)

A study of important chemical processes occurring in the atmosphere – the ozone layer and the greenhouse effect.The chemical ideas in this module are:• Giant covalent structures.• Rates of reaction.• Chemical equilibrium.• Radical reactions.• The electromagnetic spectrum and the interaction of radiation with matter.

Topic F331 code

Number Assessable learning outcomes

(Roughly) Number of

exam questions


Chemical storylines

(Page number)


Bonding and structure AT1 Describe examples of giant covalent (network)

structures, such as diamond and silicon(IV) oxide. 2 78-79 87-91

AT2 Explain differences in the physical properties of CO2 and SiO2 in terms of their different structures. 3 78-79 87-91

Kinetics AT3i Recall (and explain in terms of collision theory) the way that concentration affects the rate of a reaction. 1 82 210-211

AT3ii Recall (and explain in terms of collision theory) the way that pressure affects the rate of a reaction. 3 82 210-211

AT3iii Recall (and explain in terms of collision theory) the way that surface area affects the rate of a reaction. 1 82 210-211

AT3iv Recall (and explain in terms of collision theory) the way that temperature affects the rate of a reaction. 2 82 210-211

AT4i Explain and use the term enthalpy profile. 1 80 210-211AT4ii Explain and use the term activation enthalpy. 3 80 210-215


AT5Use the concept of activation enthalpy to explain the qualitative effect of temperature changes on rate of reaction.

1 81 210-215

DF9i AT6 Explain the role of catalysts in providing alternative routes of lower activation enthalpy. 4 82-83 234, 257

AT7iExplain that a homogenous catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants and is regenerated at the end of the reaction.

2 82-83 257

AT7ii Explain homogeneous catalysis in terms of the formation of intermediates. 1 82-83 257

Equilibria

AT8

Explain and use the term: dynamic equilibrium (rates of forward and back reaction equal; constant concentrations of reactants and products; takes place in a closed system).

6 84 163-168

AT9i

Use le Chatelier’s principle to describe and predict, in a homogeneous reaction, the qualitative effects on the position of equilibrium of changes in the following condition: concentration,

4 85 166

AT9ii

Use le Chatelier’s principle to describe and predict, in a homogeneous reaction, the qualitative effects on the position of equilibrium of changes in the following condition: temperature.

3 85 167

AT9iii

Use le Chatelier’s principle to describe and predict, in a homogeneous reaction, the qualitative effects on the position of equilibrium of changes in the following conditions: pressure.

3 85 167

AT10i Recall the gases present in the atmosphere: nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide – and their percentages. 1 86

DF13i – DF 13vii AT10ii Recall the polluting gases and their sources. 7


Inorganic chemistry and thePeriodic Table

AT11Calculate, from given data, values for composition by volume measured in percentage concentration and in parts per million (ppm).

4 86

Organic reactions

AT12i Explain the chemical basis of the depletion of ozone in the stratosphere due to halogenoalkanes, in simple terms involving the formation of halogen atoms and the catalytic role of these atoms (and other radicals such as nitrogen oxide) in ozone destruction.

5 93

AT12iiExplain the ease of photodissociation of the halogenoalkanes (fluoroalkanes to iodoalkanes) in terms of bond enthalpy.

3 90

AT13iDiscuss and evaluate the evidence that was gathered to support understanding of how ozone depletion in the stratosphere due to halogenoalkanes occurs.

1 92

AT13iiDiscuss and evaluate how the scientific community validated the results of this and other experiments (given information).

92

Reaction mechanisms AT14 Describe the difference between homolytic and

heterolytic bond fission and recognise examples. 6 90 128

AT15i Recall the formation, nature and reactivity of radicals. 7 90 125-126

AT15ii Explain the mechanism of a radical chain reaction involving initiation, propagation and termination. 7 90 129-131

AT16

Use a radical mechanism as a model to explain the reaction of alkanes with halogens (a radical chain reaction in the presence of UV radiation to form halogenoalkanes).

4 90 129-131

Applications of organic

AT17i Explain why some properties of CFCs made them such useful compounds.

2 91


chemistry

AT17ii

Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of replacement compounds for CFCs: hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrocarbons.

2 91

Modern analytical techniques

AT18i Recall the way ozone is formed and destroyed in the Stratosphere. 7 92

AT18iiRecall ozone’s action as a sunscreen in the stratosphere by absorbing high-energy UV (and the effects of such UV, including on human skin).

5 92

AT18iiiRecall the polluting effects of ozone in the troposphere, causing problems including photochemical smog.

4 93

AT19Recall and discuss aspects of the research leading to the discovery of the ‘hole’ in the ozone layer and how the evidence was at first overlooked.

3 92

AT20iRecall the following regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of increasing frequency: infrared, visible (red–blue), ultraviolet.

86

AT20ii Recall the principal radiations of the Earth and the Sun. 86

AT21iRecall that molecules change in vibrational energy states (bonds vibrate more) when they absorb IR radiation.

1 87 124-125

AT21iiRecall that UV and visible radiation promote electrons to higher energy levels, sometimes causing bond breaking.

2 87 124-126

AT21iii Recall that vibrational and electronic energies of molecules are quantised. 87

AT22 Calculate values for frequency and energy of electromagnetic radiation using the equation ΔE = hν.

6 87 120


AT23i Explain the ‘greenhouse effect’ in terms of: solar energy reaches Earth mainly as visible and UVs. 4 88

AT23ii Explain the ‘greenhouse effect’ in terms of: Earth absorbs some of this energy, heats up and radiates IR. 5 88

AT23iii

Explain the ‘greenhouse effect’ in terms of: greenhouse gases (eg carbon dioxide and methane) in the troposphere absorb some of this IR, in the ‘IR window’.

3 88

AT23iv

Explain the ‘greenhouse effect’ in terms of: absorption of IR by greenhouse gas molecules increases the vibrational energy of their bonds, the energy is transferred to other molecules by collisions, thus increasing their kinetic energy and raising the temperature.

5 88

AT23v

Explain the ‘greenhouse effect’ in terms of: greenhouse gas molecules also re-emit some of the absorbed IR in all directions, some of which heats up the Earth.

3 88

AT23viExplain the ‘greenhouse effect’ in terms of: increased concentrations of greenhouse gases lead to an enhanced greenhouse effect.

1 89

AT24 Discuss the evidence for the relationship between the increased concentration of gases and global warming. 2 89

AT25iRecall and discuss different approaches to the control of carbon dioxide emissions: burning fewer fossil fuels (alternative fuels and economy of use).

2 89

AT25ii Recall and discuss different approaches to the control of carbon dioxide emissions: increasing photosynthesis.

1 89


AT25iiiRecall and discuss different approaches to the control of carbon dioxide emissions: burying or reacting carbon dioxide.

5 89


Unit 3: The Polymer revolution (PR)

A study of the development of addition polymers.The chemical ideas in this module are:• Hydrogen bonding.• Alkene reactions.• Addition polymerisation.• E/Z isomerism (related to cis-trans).• Alcohol reactions.• Infrared spectra.

Topic F331 code Number Assessable learning outcomes

(Roughly) Number of

exam questions


Chemical storylines

(Page number)


Bonding and structure

PR1i Explain how hydrogen bonds form. 4 100 99-102

PR1ii Describe and give examples of hydrogen bonding, including in water and ice. 1 100 104-106

PR2 Explain the relative boiling points of substances in terms of intermolecular bonds. 1 100 102-105

PR3

Describe and explain the solubility of a dissolving polymer based on poly(ethanol) (or other polymers, given information) in terms of its molecular structure: insoluble when very many or very few internal hydrogen bonds, soluble when an intermediate number of hydrogen bonds.

2 101 101-102 101

Organic functional groups

PR4 Recognise and write formulae for alkenes and use systematic nomenclature to name and interpret the names of alkenes.

3 94 272-273


PR5i Recognise and draw members of the following homologous series: aldehydes. 4 97 316

PR5ii Recognise members of the following homologous series: ketones. 3 97 316-317

PR5iii Recognise members of the following homologous series: carboxylic acids. 2 97 300-301

PR6Recall the difference between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols from their structures and identify examples of them.

3 97 296-297

Organic reactions PR7 Describe and explain the technique of heating under

reflux for reactions involving volatile liquids. 1 99 367

PR8 Explain and use the term elimination reaction. 3 98 298

PR9Explain and use the term addition polymerisation and predict the structural formula of the addition polymer formed from given monomer(s), and vice versa.

8 102 107

PR10iRecall the addition reactions of alkenes with bromine to give a dibromo compound (and the use of this as a test for unsaturation).

8 94-95 273-275

PR10ii

Recall the addition reactions of alkenes with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to give an alkane (Ni with heat and pressure or Pt at room temperature and pressure).

3 94, 96 276

PR10iii Recall the addition reactions of alkenes with water in the presence of a catalyst to give an alcohol (conc. H2SO4, then add water or steam/H3PO4/ heat and pressure).

5 96 275-276


PR11i

Describe and explain the oxidation of alcohols to carbonyl compounds (aldehydes and ketones) and carboxylic acids with acidified dichromate(VI) solution, including the importance of the condition (reflux or distillation) under which it is done.

7 98-99 297

PR11iiDescribe and explain the dehydration of alcohols to form alkenes using heated Al2O3 or refluxing with conc. H2SO4.

1 98 298

Reaction mechanisms

PR12i Explain and use the term addition. 8 94-95 107PR12ii Explain and use the term electrophile. 6 95 273-275PR12iii Explain and use the term carbocation. 1 95 274

PR12ivUse the mechanism of electrophilic addition as a model to explain the reaction between bromine and alkenes using ‘curly arrows’.

1 95 273-275

PR12v Explain how the products obtained when other anions are present confirm the model of electrophilic addition. 3 95 273-275

IsomerismPR13i

Recognise where E/Z isomerism occurs, explaining it in terms of lack of free rotation about C=C bonds when there are two different groups on each carbon.

3 104-105 50-52

PR13ii

Draw and interpret diagrams to represent E/Z isomers for alkenes which have the same groups on both sides of the double bond (E – opposite sides of bond; Z – same side of bond); in such molecules, describe ‘E’ as ‘trans’ and ‘Z’ as ‘cis’ and extend this cis-trans nomenclature to other, more complicated, alkenes (knowledge of Cahn–Ingold– Prelog priority rules will not be required).

2 104-105 50-52

PR13iii Draw structural isomers. 3


Applications of organicchemistry

PR14Understand how the uses of a polymer are related to its properties, explaining given examples and suggest uses for polymers based on their given properties.

6 103 103-105 107-108

PR15i Explain and use the term thermoplastic. 3 102 108PR15ii Explain and use the term thermoset. 102 96 108-109PR15iii Explain and use the term co-polymer. 1 102 112-113

Modern analytical techniques PR16

Use relevant given data to interpret (and make predictions of) infrared spectra for organic compounds containing a limited range of functional groups (hydroxyl, carbonyl and carboxylic acid groups).

4 106-107 134-138

PR17 Understand that every compound has a distinctive ‘fingerprint’ in its infrared spectrum. 1 106-107 136


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