Aug. 22, 2011

Zoology

greek word "zoon"= animal & "logos"= study of scientific study of animals

Science is guided by natural laws

it is explanatory by reference to Natural Laws science is both testable and based on observations it is neutral relative to religion its conclusions are not absolute new discoveries can revise previous conclussions it is falsifiable

Scientific Method

observation hypothesis test hypothesis ( experiment and further observations) conclussion

Major Scientific Theory

Germ theory

germs cause infectious disease

Atom Theory

matter is made of atoms

Gene Theory

genes on chromosomes determine heredity

Cell Theory

all living things are made of cells

Theory of Evolution

populations change overtime change results in new species with common ancestors

Aug. 24, 2011

Hierarchy of Taxonomic Levels:

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Domain

Bacteria

cyanobacteria, heterotrophic bacteria

Archaea

halophiles, thermophiles

Eukaryota

animals, fungi, plants, chromists, alveolates

Kingdoms

Monera= Prokaryotes

Protista= Eukaryotes

Fungi= obtain food by absorption

Plantae= Plants that are multi-cellular (true plants)

Animalia= both vertebrates and invertebrates which are heterotrophic

Age of earth and origin of life

Earth is ~4.5 billion yrs. old 3.5 billion yrs. ago bacteria (chemoautotrophs) originated these chemoautotrophs use inorganic substances as sources of energy 2.5 billion yrs. ago photosynthesis started to occur 2.2 billion yrs. ago oxygen came into place 1.0 billion yrs. ago Metazoa and Protozoa originated

Evolution is considered scientific fact

scientific fact may be defined as a theory that has been repeatedly confirmed and never refuted evolution fits this description, but that doesn't mean new evidence could not change it

Pre-Darwin

Greekso Aristotle suggests a transition between living and non-living, and theorizes that in all

things there is constant desire to move from lower to the higher, finally becoming the divine

Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1787 Lamarck 1744-1829

o first hypothesis for evolutiono saw species as not being fixed and immutable, but rather in a constant changing state

Inheritance of acquired characteristics Charles Lyell

o In Principles of Geology (1830-1833) documented the fact that earth must be very old and it has been subject to the same sort of natural processes over time.

Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallaceo independently developed the idea of the mechanism of natural selectiono populations of organisms change over timeo changes result in new species that share a common ancestor

Evolution is both fact and theory

Facto evolution is documented in the fossil record and has been observed in our lifetime

theoryo how evolution happens

scientists no longer ask if evolution occurs, they study how it occurs evolution is the major theory that guides research in zoology

Organisms share a common genetic history

termed the evolution of species evolution is the unifying theory of biology evidence for evolution

o diversity of living and extinct specieso fossil recordo comparative embryologyo study of DNA and its relatedness between species

Aug. 26, 2011 - Dr. Juliana Notarnicola

Animal Ecology

behavior, physiology, genetics and evolution of the animals

habitat= physical space organism lives in

organisms are influenced by the environment: sunlight, heat, water, other organisms, competitors. Abiotic/biotic factors

Niche= the role that the organism plays within its environment, the parameters they live within

Populations

Propertieso birth rateso mortalityo sex ratioo growth rates

characteristicso age structure o survivorshipo population growth

Parasites

Infrapopulationo population of parasites within an individual host

Component populationo population of parasites within all hosts

Suprapopulationo all life cycle stages of a single species of parasites within a given ecosystem

Communitieso populations of different species co-occurring in the same area and interacting in

complex associationso Properties

species richness = # of species diversity = # and proportion of species living in a community

Infracommunityo multiple species of parasites living within a single host

Component communityo all species of parasites within all hosts

Intensityo # of parasites of a single species in a host

Animal Architecture

Hierarchical organization of animal complexity

Bacteria Archaea Eukaryota

Eukaryota

levels of complexity1. Protoplasmatic level

o all life functions are confined within the boundaries of a single cell2. Cellular level

o aggregation of cells that are functionally different. a division of labor is evident3. Cell-Tissue level

o group of cells organized to perform a common function4. Tissue Organ level

o aggregation of tissue into organs. animals at this level have well defined organs such as eye spots, a digestive tract and reproductive organs

5. Organ system levelo organs work together to perform a function

Embryonic development

Segmentationo zygote cleavage to blastula

blastula = ball of cells with a cavity inside Gastrulation

o Blastula to Gastrula forms a second layer of cells to form a gut

Embryonic Layerso Ectoderm = epidermis, nervous systemo Endoderm = Gastrodermis, digestive systemo Mesoderm = muscles, glands

origin of mesoderm: the cell 4d of the embryo or derived from pouches of the gut

Egg Cleavageo Spiral = blastomeres divide obliqueo Radial = blastomeres divide perpendicular

Origin of Coelomao Schizocoely = originates by splitting the mesoderm bands- uses 4d cello Enterocoely = originates from dorsal pouches of the gut

Origin of moutho Protostomes = blastopore originates the mouth

o Deuterostomes = blastopore originates the anus Acoelomates = no body cavity Coelomates = have a body cavity

Animal Symmetry Concept

Radial symmetry = can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes passing through the longitudinal plane

Bilateral symmetry = only one plane (sagittal plane) divides equally

Lophotochozoa

trocophora larvae lophophoro

o have tentacles in mouth to move water through mouth to gather food

Edysozoa

Ecdysis = molt/shed their skin during development

Aug. 31, 2011

Aristotle first thought of binomial naming system

Scale Naturae Organized organisms based on complexity

1) vegetative (plants)2) Sensitive (animals)3) Rational (humans)

Birth of Museums 1700's

"a freak show" collection of interesting specimens to show off

Carolus Linnaeus

organized organisms based on morphology 1732 published "Systems Naturae" before him there was no standard scientific names names should be standardized

o binomial nomenclatureo Genus species

zoologists and botanists don't agreeo ICZN = International Code for Zoological Nomenclatureo ICBN = International Code for Botanical Nomenclature

ICZNo Priority in Nomenclature goes to who ever published first gets to name the species

Evolution

mutationo change overtimeo Lamarckism

competitiono carrying capacitieso struggle for survival

natural selection gene flow (migration) variation within a population

Darwinism

he only recognized change over time, natural selection, competition

Mendel

offspring inherit traits from parents 1900 evolutionary synthesis

o scientists tried to explain origin of species

Sept. 1, 2011

Taxonomy

naming classification alpha taxonomy = description of new species

Systematics

describe preserve evolutionary history study adaptations ecology

Phylogeny

the evolutionary development and history of a species or higher taxonomic grouping of organisms

Binomial Nomenclature

species name takes its form depending on if genus is "male" "female" or "neutral" how do you define these taxonomical orders

o a group develops a new niche then it deserves a higher classification

Typological Species Concept

type species holotype = one single reference syntype = other samples from collection Allotype = other sex of reference

Evolutionary Species concept

a single lineage of ancestor descendent populations that maintains its identity

Morphological Species concept

comparing morphology of organisms

Phylogenetic Species concept

comparing evolutionary histories

Cladistics

branch of phylogeny method of classifying species into groups of clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and

all its descendents

Apomorphic characteristic

derived characteristic

Plesiomorphic

ancestral trait

Sister Taxa

taxa on clade that are the closest related

Root or Outgroup

ancestral state

Sept. 7, 2011 - Dr. Gardner returns

Experimental Science

makes hypothesis then tests it

Comparative Science

in the field: compare organisms from around the planet hypothesis tested with observations

1. Description new species (hypothesis) defining new taxa

2. Historical Reconstruction

description of history of species under study

Cladistics

reconstructing history of life with phylogenetic trees behavioral, morphological, or genetic traits can be used to build phylogenetic trees phylogenetic systematics

3. Distributional History

zoogeography = how organisms got to where they are found nowo continental drifto Wegener 1900'so Von Linstowo Von Ihering

same species of organisms found on multiple continents

Sept. 12, 2011

Reference: Daniel Brooks The Nature of Diversity: An Evolutionary Voyage of Discovery

Monophyletic

all species and ancestors in a group (natural group)

Paraphyletic

a mistake in classification

Species stays the same overtime, but accumulates some genetic change Change through time without speciation

Protista:

single celled animals function as "proto-animals"

o motileo eat or produce foodo reproduce

size range: 25-500μm 50-60k have been described

Amoebas

Entamoeba gingivaliso feeds on bacteria in your moutho as you age you have more in your mouth

Phylum Dinoflagellida

Red tides in oceans toxin can collect in filter feeders Planktonic

o move through the ocean on tides and currents

Sept 14, 2011

Autapomorphy

unique trait for a certain taxa

Symplesiomorphy

shared, primitive character from ancestor

Synapomorphy

derived trait shared by more than one taxa

Poikilothermy

heterotherm, they cannot regulate their own internal temp.

Punnett square for recessive mutation

Rr x Rr = 3/4 R_ and 1/4 rr RR and Rr both express dominant phenotype RR has no resistance to Plasmodium falciparum rr expresses recessive phenotype (sickle cell), death from sickle cell Rr = resistance to Plasmodium, their traits are passed more successfully because they are more

resistant to the deadly Plasmodium.o they have sickle cell

Sept. 21, 2011

We still have Malaria in N. America because people travel to other countries and become infected, then they return to America where Anapheles feeds on them and becomes an intermediate host. It infects other people when it feeds on them.

Coccidian

Eimeria = occurs in almost all mammalso have a direct life cycle

cryptosporidium = occurs in calves and people who have compromised immune systems

Levels of organization

cellular tissues organs organ systems

Sponges

Phylum Porifera most basic body plan of metazoa can re-organize themselves after tissues have been separated due to basic tissue level 3 classes of sponges

o Calcarea = Spicules of CaCO3, shallow Marine habitato Hexactinellida = Spicules of SiO3 (glass), Deep Marine habitato Demospongae = (bath sponges) Protein structure No hard spicules, Shallow Marine

being over-harvested, in decline Choanocytes

o flagellated cells of sponge o moves water through spongeo water moves through ostia and out of osculum

Phylum Cnidaria

mostly Marine cnidocytes = defense and feeding cells Class Hydrozoa

o polyp is dominanto sessile = anchored to the bottom o Physalia Man-O-War

Pelagic= animal that lives in the open ocean Has CO2 filled sail to capture wind and move on ocean surface it is a colonial Hydroid has Zooids for feeding, defense, and reproduction

o Obelia 2 forms Sessile and Pelagic sessile form is asexual strobilization = forms a series of medusoid forms

Class Scyphozoao all medusoid (medusa only)